RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Module Guide

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MANCOSA
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 This module guide,
Research Methodology(NQF Level 8)
will be used across the following programmes:

Bachelor of Commerce Honours in Human

Resource Management

Bachelor of Commerce Honours in Marketing

Management

Bachelor of Commerce Honours in Supply Chain

Management

Bachelor of Public Administration Honours

 Research Methodology

Table of Contents
Preface 2
Unit 1: Introduction to Business Research 13
Unit 2: Literature Review 34
Unit 3: Research Design 51
Unit 4: Sampling and Representativeness 74
Unit 5: Data Collection 93
Unit 6: Data Analysis 122
Unit 7: Putting It Together 140
Appendix 1: An Example of a Proposal 187
References 205
Bibliography 206

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 Research Methodology

Preface
A. Welcome
Dear Student

Welcome to the Research Methodology (RESM8) module. You are encouraged to read this
overview and module guide carefully, as it will aid you through your study journey. This module guide
intends to develop your knowledge and proficiency.

The field of Research Methodology is dynamic and innovative. The learning content and special
features contained in this module guide will provide you with opportunities to explore current industry
developments and theories.

As this is a distance-learning module, self-discipline and time management would need to be applied
effectively. You will have the opportunity to engage with interactive digital tools via MANCOSA
Connect to enhance your learning journey.

Through the inclusion of relevant content and industry aligned practices within the learning content,
you will develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, empowering you as change agents for a
more sustainable world.

Please note that some special features may not have answers available, where answers are
not available this can be further discussed with your lecturer during the webinar session.

We hope you enjoy the module.

-------
MANCOSA does not own or purport to own, unless explicitly stated otherwise, any intellectual property
rights in or to multimedia used or provided in the Research Methodology module guide. Such multimedia
is copyrighted by the respective creators thereto and used by MANCOSA for educational purposes only.
Should you wish to use copyrighted material from this guide for purposes of your own that extend beyond
fair dealing/use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.

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 Research Methodology

B. Module Overview

The module is a 15 credit module at NQF level 8

The purpose of the Research Methodology module is to equip students with comprehensive
knowledge and understanding of the principles and practices pertaining to ethical and high-
quality research. This module aims to empower students by providing them with the necessary
tools and skills to engage in successful research endeavours, from the initial proposal stages to
the development and formulation of their research projects. By encompassing the entire research
process, this module strives to prepare students for effectively executing each step, enabling
them to construct a solid foundation for their research and facilitate a thorough and cohesive
write-up. Through this module, students will acquire the essential competencies and resources
essential for conducting research with integrity and excellence

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C. Learning Outcomes and Associated Assessment Criteria of the Module

Module Outcomes Associated Assessment Criteria

Ability to demonstrate knowledge and

understanding of different approaches
and perspectives in business research
design are assessed through
quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-
methods research approaches

Appropriateness and effectiveness of

research designs in addressing specific
research questions or problems in a
business context are evaluated to
assess the alignment between
research objectives, research
Describe the various methods and
questions, and chosen research design
viewpoints used in business research
including evaluating the validity,
design by completing the assessment
reliability, and generalisability of
research findings

Research design principles are applied

to develop a well-designed research
proposal or study in a business context
including demonstrating the ability to
formulate clear research objectives and
research questions, select appropriate
research methods and data collection
techniques, and design a research plan
that addresses ethical considerations
and potential limitations

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Ability to demonstrate proficiency in

locating, evaluating, and selecting
relevant sources of information for a
literature review are analysed and
includes effectively using databases,
search engines, and other research
tools to identify scholarly articles,
books, and other relevant sources

Capacity to analyse and evaluate the

quality, relevance, and credibility of
sources in a literature review are
examined by assessing the strengths
and weaknesses of individual sources,
Analyse multiple sources of information identifying gaps or inconsistencies in
to compile a comprehensive literature the existing literature, and synthesizing
review information from multiple sources to
develop a comprehensive and well-
supported argument

Capability to synthesize information

from multiple sources and effectively
organise it in a literature review are
explored to demonstrate the ability to
identify common themes, trends, or
patterns across different sources, and
presenting the information in a logical
and coherent manner, which involves
properly citing and referencing sources
according to the Harvard referencing
style

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 Research Methodology

Ability to demonstrate proficiency in

analysing research data using
appropriate statistical or qualitative
analysis techniques are explored to
accurately interpret and summarise
research findings, identify patterns or
trends in the data, and draw
meaningful conclusions based on the
results

Capacity to evaluate the results of

Examine research results, findings and
research studies in a systematic and
recommendations in a suitable manner
objective manner are analysed to
assess the validity and reliability of the
research findings

Capability to effectively communicate

research results, findings, and
recommendations in a clear and
concise manner are examined to
present research findings using
appropriate visual aids or data
visualisation techniques

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 Research Methodology

Ability to demonstrate knowledge and

understanding of various data
collection methods commonly used in
research are examined to include
familiarity with quantitative methods
consisting of surveys, experiments, and
statistical analysis, and qualitative
methods consisting of interviews,
observations, and content analysis

Capacity to evaluate the

appropriateness and effectiveness of
different data collection methods in
relation to specific research objectives
and research questions are assessed
through the strengths and limitations
of each method, considering factors
Illustrate the rationale behind selecting
consisting of data validity, reliability,
suitable techniques for gathering data
and ethical considerations, to justify the
selection of the most appropriate
method(s) for a given research study

Capability to apply data collection

methods effectively in a research
context are examined to demonstrate
the ability to design and implement
data collection procedures, ensuring
data quality and integrity, and adapting
data collection methods to specific
research settings or populations and
involves considering practical
constraints and logistical
considerations in the selection and
implementation of data collection
methods

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 Research Methodology

Research is analysed to understand

and become familiar with qualitative
and quantitative research approaches,
data collection techniques, and ethical
considerations

Fundamental concepts are explained to

support the improvement of social and
organisational effectiveness

Research findings are analysed to

evaluate its relevance and applicability
Evaluate current literature and existing to personal and organisational
gaps in knowledge to identify areas for effectiveness by assessing the
future research to enhance personal strengths and limitations of research
and organisational effectiveness studies, identifying biases or limitations
in research design, and interpreting
research results accurately

Ability to apply research findings are

examined to enhance personal and
organisational effectiveness by
translating research findings into
practical strategies, interventions, or
recommendations that can be
implemented to improve individual and
organisational performance

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Various data analysis techniques used

in research including descriptive
statistics, inferential statistics,
qualitative data analysis methods, and
advanced statistical techniques are
examined to demonstrate knowledge
and understanding within a research
context

Quantitative and Qualitative data

Compare data analysis techniques
analysis techniques are compared to
understand the type of research
conducted

Capability to apply data analysis

techniques to analyse and interpret
research data effectively are examined
to demonstrate proficiency in using
statistical software or qualitative
analysis tools

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D.Acronym

E. How to Use this Module

This module guide was compiled to assist you with your study journey. The purpose of the module
guide is to allow you the opportunity to integrate the theoretical concepts discussed within the
content of the module guide. We suggest that you read through the entire module guide to get an
overview of its contents. At the beginning of each Unit, you will find a list of Learning Outcomes. This
outlines the main points that you should understand when you have completed the Unit/s.

This module guide should be studied in conjunction with the prescribed, recommended
textbooks/readings and other relevant study material. It is important that you make your own notes
as you work through the prescribed, recommended textbooks/readings, other relevant study
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material, and the module guide. You may obtain additional reading material by utilising publications
referenced at the end module guide under the reference list and bibliography.

F. Study Material
The study material for this module includes the programme handbook, this Module Guide, and a list
of prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings which may be supplemented by additional
readings.

G. Prescribed Textbook
The prescribed and recommended readings/textbooks presents a tremendous amount of material in
a simple, easy-to-learn format. You should read ahead during your course. Make a point of it to re-
read the learning content in your module textbook. This will increase your retention of important
concepts and skills. You may wish to read more widely than just the Module Guide and the
prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings, the Bibliography and Reference list provides you
with additional reading.
The prescribed and recommended textbooks/readings for this module are:
Prescribed Reading(s)/Textbook(s)

Saunders, M.N.K, Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Methods for Business Students.
Sixth Edition. Harlow, England: Financial Times/Prentice Hall.

Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)

Bell, E., Bryman, A., Harley, P. and Hirschsohn, P. (2021). Research Methodology: Business and
Management Contexts. Second Edition. South Africa: Oxford University Press.
du Plessis, C. and Satar, A.A. (2021). Introduction to Social Media Research Theory and
Application. First Edition. South Africa: Juta.
du Plooy-Cilliers, F., Davis, C. and Bezuidenhout, R.M. (2021). Research Matters. Second
Edition. South Africa: Juta.
Howard, R.M. (2022). Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and Research. Fourth Edition. New
York: McGraw Hill LLC.

H. Special Features
In the Module Guide, you will find the following icons together with a description. These are designed to
help you study. It is imperative that you work through them as they also provide guidelines for
examination purposes.

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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Special Feature Icon Description

A Think Point allows you to apply your analytical skills to reflect

THINK POINT on the topic. You may be asked to apply a concept to your own
experience or to think of an example.

An Activity tests your knowledge on content that is highlighted

ACTIVITY within specific content areas. The purpose of an activity is to
give you an opportunity to apply what you have learned.

The readings provided should be read in order to develop your

knowledge of the content areas. If you are unable to acquire the
READINGS
suggested readings, then you may consult with any current
sources that deal with the subject.

PRACTICAL A Practical Application or an Example provides insight and

APPLICATION enhances your learning of the topic, allowing you to apply the
OR EXAMPLES theory learnt through real-life scenarios within this module.

Knowledge Check Questions (KCQ) appear in the form of

KNOWLEDGE
True/False or Multiple Choice Questions throughout the Module
CHECK
Guide. KCQs will test your knowledge of the content areas
QUESTIONS
covered.

REVISION Revision Questions will test your understanding of module and

QUESTIONS unit outcomes.

A Case Study provides different scenarios to illustrate how

CASE STUDY
theory is practiced.

VIDEO A Video Activity with links are included in your Module Guide
ACTIVITY along with instructions to attempt after watching the video.

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Unit
1: Introduction to Business Research

Unit 1: Introduction to Business Research

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Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

Introduces the topic areas covered for

1.1 Introduction the unit

1.2 Characteristics of Non-Scientific Appraise the purpose of research

Analysis application in the research process

1.3 What is Scientific Research? Explain scientific research

Distinguish characteristic of scientific

1.4 Characteristics of Scientific Research research

Explain the field of business

1.5 Business Management Research management research

Differentiate between applied and basic

1.6 Basic and Applied Research research

1.7 Scientific Method Illustrate the steps of scientific method

Explain the steps in the research

1.8 Steps in the Research Method method

Explain qualitative and quantitative

1.9 Conceptual Issues paradigm

1.10 Important Research Terms Explain research terminology

Explain the principles for the business

1.11 Tenets for the Business Scientist scientist

Summarises the topic areas covered

1.12 Summary for the unit

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 Research Methodology

Prescribed and Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)

Prescribed Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Saunders, M.N.K, Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Methods
for Business Students. Sixth Edition. Harlow, England: Financial
Times/Prentice Hall.

Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Bell, E., Bryman, A., Harley, P. and Hirschsohn, P. (2021). Research
Methodology: Business and Management Contexts. Second Edition.
South Africa: Oxford University Press.

du Plessis, C. and Satar, A.A. (2021). Introduction to Social Media

Research Theory and Application. First Edition. South Africa: Juta.

du Plooy-Cilliers, F., Davis, C. and Bezuidenhout, R.M. (2021).

Research Matters. Second Edition. South Africa: Juta.

Howard, R.M. (2022). Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and

Research. Fourth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill LLC.

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 Research Methodology

1.1 Introduction
All human beings are regularly engaged in some form of research. As people interact in and with the
world around them, they define specific problems, collect information (data), analyse data and make
decisions based on that data. Normally this process occurs informally and, at times, unconsciously.
Obviously it is not scientific and tends to be error-prone – hence the concept of learning by trial and
error. The basic difference is that scientifically structured research has clearly defined components
that must be consciously and objectively pursued. Additionally, non-scientific analysis is prone to a
variety of distorting factors.

1.2 Characteristics of Non-Scientific Analysis

Non-scientific analysis is essentially the day-to-day personal human inquiry that all individuals
engage in time to time. Below are briefly described some of the essential features of non-scientific
analysis of reality.

Ego Involvement

Ego involvement occurs when humans allow personal preconceptions and beliefs to bias their
perception of social and behavioural phenomena. Sometimes an individual may let his/ her pride get
in the way of rational understanding of the phenomena. At other times there may be a tendency to
organise the information to reach conclusions that protect their ego. In short, people often tend to
believe things that support their values and make them feel good regardless of the actual meaning
implicit in the data.

Overgeneralisation

Overgeneralisation occurs when people draw broadly applicable conclusions from a very limited
number of observations. Essentially the point here is that ‘one swallow does not make the summer.’
Often overgeneralisation occurs when an individual draws conclusions based only on his/her own
limited experiences. Students must therefore accept that their personal experiences often do not
provide the depth of data needed to make adequate generalisations.

Selective Observation

Selective observation refers to the all-too-human tendency of individuals to acknowledge

observations that support their preconceptions and to magnify their significance in giving validity to
their conclusions. Simultaneously, the process of selective observation involves a tendency to ignore
observations that refute or cast doubt upon the validity of their conclusions and preconceptions.

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Premature Closure of Inquiry

Premature closure of inquiry occurs when an individual terminates his/her research before having
examined all the available data. This often occurs when people terminate their inquiry as soon as
their preconceptions are supported. The problem often flows from a general tendency to reject the
possibility that further inquiry may produce data that may support a different conclusion and cast
serious doubt on the initial point of view.

Made-up Information

This occurs when people create information and produce false data to support their preoccupations.
Often pride may lead people to present information that supports their beliefs and conclusions rather
than acknowledge the possibility of error. This also arises when students seek to fast track the
research process because of submission deadlines, consciously resorting to unethical practice.

Illogical Reasoning

Illogical reasoning generally involves an inability or unwillingness to accurately perceive or

recognise patterns in a set of observations or data. The result is that fundamental inaccuracies and
inconsistencies surface when the conclusions are subjected to independent appraisal.

1.3 What is Scientific Research?

Scientifically-orientated research is based on rules of logic, established methodological techniques
and statistical theory. It is a process through which new knowledge is discovered through scientific
methods and processes. As research steadily produces discrete bits of knowledge, a perceptive
researcher may draw relevant bits of this knowledge together and try to organise them into some
coherent pattern to explain or predict some facet of reality.

From this brief description one may infer the following about scientifically-orientated research:

It is directed at discovering new knowledge about some facet of reality

It is a structured, logical and objective pursuit of knowledge that devotes considerable attention to
details of methodology so that other researchers can replicate the process and verify the
accuracy of the knowledge
It often involves discovering new knowledge and integrating it with discrete bits of current
knowledge to discover new patterns and new explanations for the inner dynamics of some facet
of reality
The whole activity is linked to some theoretical framework in the field or contributes to the process
of theory-building in the field
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Activity 1.1

1. A sales engineer meets two computer software engineers who talk about all
the late hours they are forced to work. She then concludes that all software
engineers work late hours. Explain the error in the sales engineer's
understanding.
2. Explain the value for business managers to develop research skills.

1.4 Characteristics of Scientic Research

Below are some distinguishing characteristics of scientific research:

It is often theory-based in that some theory is either tested or developed

It is activity that has a minimal ego involvement in that the true researcher is often humble and
willing to admit he/she is wrong
Objectivity is maximised
Accepted rules for data collection are strictly followed
Standard rules relating to data analysis are applied
Conclusions are based on data, not on preconceptions, beliefs, values or biases
The whole activity places emphasis on uncovering regularities and patterns of social and
behavioural phenomena
Research places emphasis on the study of aggregates rather than individual cases
Researchers welcome the idea of replication, i.e. for their study to be replicated by other
researchers in order to retest their findings

Activity 1.2

1. Outline what you would consider to be critical barriers to successful social

scientific research in general, and business research in particular.
2. Why is replication important in scientific research?

1.5 Business Management Research

As noted above, the general aim of research is to discover new facts and to contribute to the general
body of knowledge in the field. Consequently, business research also has as its general aim the
pursuit of new facts about business management and practice and the contribution of new
knowledge and theory to the broad field of business management and practice. In addition, however,
as Saunders et al. (2003:2-3) note, business research ‘needs to address business issues and to

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provide a process for solving managerial problems’.

1.6 Basic and Applied Research

The broad aims of business research draw attention to two distinct forms of research – basic
fundamental research and applied research. At the basic end of the spectrum research is
undertaken with the sole objective of understanding business and management and contributing to
the development of business and management theories. At the applied end of the spectrum research
processes find solutions to current real-life business and management problems. Figure 1.1 below
illustrates the difference(s) between Basic and Applied Research.

Figure 1.1: Source: Easterby-Smith et al. (2008); Hedrick et al. (1993)

Activity 1.3

1. Outline what makes research in business and management distinctive from

research in other disciplines.
2. Analyse the figure above and explain the two processes depicted.

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1.7 Scientific Method

All disciplined and objective inquiry is characterised by a set of procedures which are collectively
referred to as the scientific method. Figure 1.2 below shows a set of steps that, in one form or
another, characterise the scientific method.

Figure 1.2: The steps in the research process, where each step sets the stage for the next.
Source: Salkind, 2000:6

Scientific method is based on the principle of cause and effect: you get a fever because you are sick;
the sky looks blue because of the interaction of light and matter in the atmosphere. Not all of these
common phenomena are completely understood, and still others cannot be explained at all.

The cause of AIDS was at one time a complete mystery. Nevertheless, scientists firmly believed that
a cause must exist. And once they discovered the cause – in this case a virus – they could search for
a remedy. This belief in cause and effect is what drives all research: if everyone believed that a
disease could occur without a rational cause, no rational attempt would be made to control it!

So what does a scientist do when he or she uses the scientific method in the exploration of the
unknown? First of all, the scientist asks questions about some problem and tries to learn as much
about a subject as time allows. This requires a thorough study of the available literature, gathering
information and data from a variety of sources, discussions with colleagues and a lot of thinking and
examination of the data collected.

After data has been collected and analysed, the scientist formulates a hypothesis. It may be a short
leap of logic, or an intuitive leap of faith. The researcher then collects relevant information or designs
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experiments to provide evidence in support of the hypothesis. The experiment may involve creating a
theoretical model, which may be tested on a computer. Whatever forms the experiment or data
gathering process takes, the scientist must gather substantial amounts of data. Analysis of the data
will either suggest the validity of the hypothesis or encourage revision and reconsidering the theory
and asking new questions.

Once revised and re-tested, the hypothesis must withstand the scrutiny of other scientists as well.
They may repeat the experiment to retest the validity of the hypothesis, along with the validity of the
methods used to test the hypothesis. An idea, model, or explanation that has been rigorously tested,
analysed, and accepted by the scientific community is referred to as a theory – a term used, perhaps,
because most scientists believe nothing can ever be proved absolutely true. At best, they will say a
theory hasn’t been proved false. The theory will continue to be an accepted explanation unless new
information is uncovered – information that the scientific community agrees disproves the previous
explanation. This continuous scrutiny is essential to the credibility and progress of scientific research.

1.8 Steps in the Research Method

Step 1 - Identifying the Research Problem

The first step in the scientific method is usually characterised by realising that some problem exists.
This is often manifested in the form of a question that troubles the mind. For example, a person may
want to identify how cultural factors influence response to television advertisements. The triggering
questions in the researcher’s mind may be:

Do Black people in South Africa in general respond to television advertisements in the same way as
White people? If not, what is the cause of differences in response? How should advertisements be
designed to elicit the most desired response from Township Black people? Such questions often
become the subject of discussion and the search for information through a close review of relevant
literature.

Step 2 – Clarifying and Contextualising the Problem

Through discussion and the survey of current literature and existing research, the problem is clarified
and the nature and specifics of the problem clearly identified. In the example cited above, attention
may be directed at defining the general lifestyles and life experiences of township Black people and
urban White people. Specific attention may fall on issues such as the impact of education,
occupation level and professional status. As the problem is clarified the initial question leads to more
questions and the progressive clarification of factors that may impact on any investigation of the
initial problem

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Step 3 – Developing a Research Design

The third step broadly includes all the actions the researcher engages in formulating a plan for the
research. A set of research questions may be defined or a hypothesis may be formulated as an
educated guess about the possible answer to the problem. At this point in the research design the
researcher has two contrasting approaches that offer him/her alternative routes in the development
of the plan. He/she may choose the interpretive-inductive approach where the researcher begins
by making observations before arriving at possible explanations or opt for the hypothetico-
deductive approach where the starting point is a theory or a hypothesis. While hypotheses can be
part of a sound conceptual argument they do not contain logical arguments about why empirical
relationships are expected to occur.
Table 1.1: Induction and Deduction

Table 1.1 briefly summarises and illustrates the concepts of induction and deduction.
Source: Saunders et al. (2019)

Thus, the researcher may decide to form a hypothesis as an educated guess about the possible
answer to the initial question. For example, the problem noted above may lead to the following
hypothesis:

Black people who view a television advertisement with Black actors and in an African language are
likely to respond more positively to the message than Black people who view the same
advertisement with white actors and in English.

Clear formulation of the research questions or the hypothesis leads to further design decisions about
data collection and data analysis strategies that are best suited to the needs of the problem.

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Step 4 – Examining the Data Collected for Underlying Patterns

Once the research design has been implemented and data has been collected, the researcher has
to examine the data for underlying patterns that suggest answers to the research questions or test
the adequacy of the hypothesis through the use of appropriate statistical tools. Concurrently the
researcher has to see how the findings of the study contribute to relevant theory in the field. In the
example above, the researcher may explore the connectedness of the findings to theory relating to
information processing, socio-cultural forces and social mobility.

Step 5 – Interpreting the Findings

The final step involves the interpretation of the findings and generalisation of the conclusions to the
larger body of knowledge about the phenomenon. One of the aims in this stage of the research is to
contribute, in some small way, to the substantiation, modification or elaboration of existing research
and theory in the field. This process, in turn, may suggest new problems and new questions for
future research. The study may also suggest courses of action for the application of the findings in
the immediate context of the problem.

1.9 Conceptual Issues

Masters level students also need to understand the philosophical assumptions that underpin all
social and business research. A clear grasp of the basic concepts will greatly contribute to students’
success as researchers and facilitate their critical evaluation of current research and literature in the
field.

Research Paradigm
The word paradigm is generally used in the academic world to convey three distinct sets of ideas.

1. The researcher’s basic beliefs about the world and the nature of reality.
2. The broad conceptual framework the researcher uses to carry out his scientific inquiry.
3. The specific methods and techniques which an academic maintains should be adopted when
conducting research.

Thus, researchers’ basic beliefs about the world and the pursuit of knowledge will be reflected in the
way they design their research, the way in which they collect and analyse data and even in the way
they report their findings or write their dissertations.

Broadly there are two widely recognised research paradigms – the quantitative (positivist) and
qualitative (phenomenological). These two paradigms are actually two ends of a continuum with a
combination of the two models occurring in varying shades of emphasis along the continuum.

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Table 1.2 Summary of key differences between the two paradigms.

QUANTITATIVE PARADIGM QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
The World
The world is external and objective World is socially constructed and
subjective

The Observer
Observer in independent Observer is part of what is
observed

Science
Science is value-free Science is driven by human
interests

Interpretation
Look for causality and fundamental Focus on meanings
facts

Reasoning
Deductive Inductive

Approach
Operationalise concepts to Try to understand what is
encourage objectively happening

Method
Quantitative. Use of statistics to Quantitative. Multiple methods to
establish an objective view establish pattern in different
subjective views

Methodology and Methods

Hussey and Hussey (1997:54) point out that methodology refers to the overall approach evident in
the research process from the theoretical foundation to the strategies that are used in the collection
and analysis of the data. Methods, in contrast, refer to the specific means by which data are collected
and analysed.

The paradigm a researcher adopts has a direct relationship with the research methodology available
to him/her. Table 1.3 summarises the main features of the two paradigms as they relate to research
methodology, again as pure forms at the two ends on a continuum.

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Table 1.3 Features of the two main paradigms

QUANTITATIVE PARADIGM QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
Tends to produce quantitative data Tends to produce qualitative data

Uses large samples Uses small samples

Concerned with hypothesis testing Concerned with generating theories

Data is highly specific and precise Data is rich and subjective

The location is artificial The location is natural

Reliability is high Reliability is low

Validity is low Validity is high

Generalises from sample to population Generalises from one setting to another

Table 1.4 below summarises key differences between the two paradigms as they relate to the
concepts, reliability and generalisability.

Table 1.4: Differences between the two paradigms as they relate to three key concepts in
research methodology

QUANTITATIVE PARADIGM QUALITATIVE PARADIGM

Validity
Does the research instrument Has the researcher gained full
measure what it is supposed to access to the knowledge and
measure? subjective meanings of
informants?

Reliability
Will the measure yield the same Will similar observations be made
results on different occasions? by different researchers on
different occasions?

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Generalisability
What is the probability that How likely is it that ideas and
patterns observed in a sample theories generated in one setting
will also be present in the wider will also apply in other settings?
population from which the sample
is drawn?

1.10 Important Research Terms

Below is a brief list of research terminology with which every student should be familiar. Some of
these have already been introduced in the discussion above.

Theory

A theory is a set of related concepts that combine to explain some phenomena or set of phenomena.
Theories use propositions (statements about concepts or variables) as building blocks and are
intended to explain (as opposed to rationalise, criticise or ridicule) the patterned phenomena of the
real world. For example, social learning theory claims that human behaviour is learned as humans
observe others and the rewards/punishments encountered by others. The key concepts or building
blocks in this theory are: behaviour, learned/learning processes, observation, rewards, and
punishment. What makes a good theory? First, it draws together diverse phenomena in a unified,
systematic account. Second, it shows us where and why our understanding of the limits of existing
knowledge of the target phenomena and their relationships must be redefined. Finally, its scope of
explanatory power and relevance is shown to be greater than that of competing theories in the field.

Variable

In any study where propositions are converted to hypotheses and testing occurs, the researcher is
likely to be dealing with variables. In practice, the term variable is used as a synonym for the
individual components of the phenomena being studied. Researchers are interested in the
relationships among variables.

For example, does a television advertisement which is culturally correct (independent variable)
influence receptivity and positive response to the message among Black viewers (dependent
variables) Table 1.5 lists some variables that have become synonyms for independent variable (IV)
and dependent variable (DV).

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Table 1.5 Defining independent and dependent variable

Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Presumed cause Presumed effect

Stimulus Response

Predicted from… Predicted to…

Antecedent Consequence

Manipulated Measured outcome

Source: Cooper and Schindler, 2000: 41

A moderating variable (MV) is a second independent variable that is included because the
researcher believes that it may have a significant moderating effect on the relationship between the
primary independent variable-dependent variable links.

For example:

The use of culturally correct television advertisement (IV) will lead to higher receptivity and more
positive response among Black viewers (DV), especially among those who are older and those who
are located in rural regions (MV).

Another important category of variables are referred to as intervening variables (IV). The
intervening variable (IV) may be defined as a factor that affects the observed relationship between
the IV and the DV but itself is not visible or open to manipulation.

The example presented above may be expanded to include an IVV as follows:

The use of culturally correct television advertisements (IV) will lead to higher receptivity and more
positive response among Black viewers (DV), especially those who are older and those who are
located in rural regions (MV). The result will come from stimulating the viewers’ sense of pride in their
cultural heritage (IVV).

Hypothesis

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 Research Methodology

A hypothesis is a tentative, testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
Below are some simple examples of hypotheses:

The participative leadership style typical of some managers (IV) influences productivity (DV) by
increasing job satisfaction (IVV)
The social class of worker combined with peer group socialisation in the work place (IV)
influences worker participation in unions and active involvement in union activities (DV)
Changing to quality control procedures that place responsibility for quality on the individual
worker (IV) will increase the overall quality of service and products (DV) when the individual staff
member can be identified (MV) by cultivating a sense of accountability for the quality of one’s
work (IVV)

Research Objectives/Questions

Some research does not have precisely stated hypotheses. These studies are attempting to answer
research questions. Below are some examples:

Do heads of department in secondary schools execute their staff development responsibilities? If

yes, how is this activity conducted, and what is the level of teacher involvement and teacher
growth? If no, what factors contribute to this situation?
How are banks responding to mugging attacks on their clients at auto-teller machines?

Some studies seek to achieve research objectives. Below are some examples:

This study seeks to achieve an understanding of recreational activities among computer

department staff in large companies
This study seeks to investigate the effect of the Employment Equity Act on engineering
companies which require staff with high technical skills

Activity 1.4

In your company, senior management seem to view theory as impractical and

inapplicable to reality. The younger managers in the company see theory as a
valuable starting point in resolving problems. Explain the position that you
would take and the reason for it.

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1.11 Tenets for the Business Scientist

The injunctions below are offered for fun and thought. They are neither exhaustive nor original but
can be useful in orienting students to the task of business research.

1. Be an empiricist.
Look, see, define, model and explain. The world is all that is the case.

2. Investigate and query “cause-and-effect”

What reactions are determined by actions? Do the events/actions really “determine”? What
processes are random or chaotic?

3. Appreciate probability
Correlation does not prove cause-and-effect.

4. Have empathy for people as people

We can review our past, plan our future and “imagine” things. If we ignore empathy and value for
human life, our “scientific” findings are exceedingly doubtful.

5. Respect numbers and measurement

Seek to define patterns in terms of “amounts” and quantified relationships – determinate, probabilistic
and chaotic.

6. Believe that business problems have solutions

Do they? Always? Maybe the solutions are not easy ones – but what solutions are possible?

7. Value parsimony
Look for simple explanation vs. the complex and indeterminate.

8. Question, review and confirm

An idea may be simple and observable but confirm it. Explore the possibility that the effects stem
from other factors.

9. Healthy sceptism is fun and healthy

Explore assumptions being made. Are they really true – in whole or in part?

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10. Go for depth and precision

Go beyond the populist and superficial. Be impatient with vague statements. Be exact and “picky”.
Dig deep.

11. The world is not the case, it is a paradigm

Review the paradigm of ideas that underlie views on the working of “something”. Are arguments
weak because the paradigm is flawed or too restrictive?

12. Respect theoretical structures

But check that theory bears a real relation to the world. Is it all right in theory but impracticable? Does
the theory really explain? Does it lend itself to sound predictions?

13. Be willing to change your opinion

If your account of something (theory) does not fit hard evidence – then question your opinion and
argument (the theory).

14. Be loyal to reality

Don’t be a dustbin converting to any new idea. Make sure your models match reality. Don’t just hold
to an opinion just because it is fashionable and
convenient to do so.

15. Be wary of myth, superstition and your own psychic prison

Cultivate a preference for scientific explanation. Question your own frustrations and jaundiced views
of situations and people. We don’t know everything
and we often adopt views without understanding why. Question myths and appreciate the power of
reality-based knowledge.

16. Have a thirst for knowledge

Let your intellect drive you. Be addicted to solving puzzles. Look for bits of the jigsaw that don’t quite
fit. Be willing to live with incompleteness. Inadequate
explanations give indigestion.

17. Beware of premature judgement

Question and think before forming a strong opinion – why – because opinions are like rose-tinted
spectacles. Engage brain before opening mouth and
search for, and then act on the best hypotheses available.
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 Research Methodology

18. Castles made of sand

Define terms. Build firm foundations. Be as logical as you can. Avoid propositions built on shaky
ground and so broad that they apply to anything and
nothing. Be specific about what you “know” and can say with reasonable certainty.

19. Substances vs. dross

Separate sound, principles and concepts from irrelevant and insubstantial dross. Avoid getting
bogged down with more and more marginal data.

Activity 1.5

Explain how each of the tenets noted above is a way of guarding against an
unscientific analysis of reality, noted at the beginning of this section.

1.12 Summary
The dissertation is a major part of the requirements for obtaining an MBA which meets international
benchmark for this degree. The student has to ensure full responsibility for undertaking a research
task on a significant topic. The approach the student chooses in undertaking the research task will
reveal his/her theoretical understanding and analytical skills in relation to the cause and its
construction to practice. Therefore, every MBA student must aspire to becoming a business scientist
with full grasp of business research methods.

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Answers

Activity 1.1
1. A sales engineer meets two computer software engineers who talk about all the late hours
they are forced to work. She then concludes that all software engineers work late hours.
Explain the error in the sales engineer's understanding.
Answer:
The sales woman made an assumption and generalised that software engineers work long hours.

2. Explain the value for business managers to develop research skills.

Answer: The value of business research is based logic and provides scientific evidence.

Activity 1.2
1.Outline what youwould consider to be critical barriers to successful social scientific
research in general, and business research in particular.
Answer:
Barriers to scientific research include ego involvement where researchers have preconceptions and
beliefs biased against the phenomenon under study. Overgeneralisation where researchers assume
that all participants under study are the same. Selective observation leads the researcher ignores
some observation that might add value to the research study. Premature-closure is another barrier
as some researchers terminates the enquiry once their preconceptions are supported.

2. Why is replication important in scientific research?

Answer:
Replication is essential because it verifies the validity and reliability of findings, detects errors, builds
confidence, supports theory confirmation, ensures generalizability, upholds scientific integrity, and
contributes to cumulative knowledge. It helps ensure that research results are robust and consistent
over time.

Activity 1.3
1.Outline what makes research in business and management distinctive from research in
other disciplines.
Answer:
Business management research is distinct from others is that it focuses only on business
management and discovers new facts and contributes to the body of knowledge. It also generates
new facts about business management practices and contributes towards theory to the broader field

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of business management and practice.

2. Analyse the figure above and explain the two processes depicted.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

Activity 1.4
1. In your company, senior management seem to view theory as impractical and inapplicable
to reality. The younger managers in the company see theory as a valuable starting point in
resolving problems. Explain the position that you would take and the reason for it.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

Activity 1.5
1. Explain how each of the tenets noted above is a way of guarding against an unscientific
analysis of reality, noted at the beginning of this section.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

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Unit
2:
Literature Review

Unit 2: Literature Review

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 Research Methodology

Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

Introduces the topic areas covered for

2.1 Introduction the unit

Analyse the importance of a literature

2.2 Functions of the Literature Review review to a field of study

2.3 Starting a Literature Search Explain the steps to a literature search

Appraise the use of technology in this

2.4 Computers as Search Tools area

2.5 Using CD-ROMs Explain how to use CD-ROMs

Explain the advantages of a computer

2.6 Advantages of a Computer Search search

2.7 Literature Sources Analyse different literature sources

2.8 Maintaining efficient Records Examine methods of record keeping

2.9 Writing the Review Analyse the criteria of writing a review

Summarises the topic areas covered

2.10 Summary for the unit

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Prescribed and Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)

Prescribed Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Saunders, M.N.K, Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Methods
for Business Students. Sixth Edition. Harlow, England: Financial
Times/Prentice Hall.

Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Bell, E., Bryman, A., Harley, P. and Hirschsohn, P. (2021). Research
Methodology: Business and Management Contexts. Second Edition.
South Africa: Oxford University Press.

du Plessis, C. and Satar, A.A. (2021). Introduction to Social Media

Research Theory and Application. First Edition. South Africa: Juta.

du Plooy-Cilliers, F., Davis, C. and Bezuidenhout, R.M. (2021).

Research Matters. Second Edition. South Africa: Juta.

Howard, R.M. (2022). Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and

Research. Fourth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill LLC.

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2.1 Introduction
Every research should be based on all of the relevant thinking and research that has preceded it. In
other words, all research is built on the foundation of the hard work, academic dedication and
findings of earlier researchers and earlier writers in the field. Each research that is completed
contributes to the accumulated knowledge in the field and becomes a part of the body of published
knowledge in the field. Each researcher’s work contributes in some small but significant way to
pushing the boundaries of knowledge in the field.

Activity 2.1

1. Select a list of FIVE research topics that you deem to be relevant in your
current management environment.

Each researcher therefore has to be thoroughly familiar both with the major theoretical constructs in
the field and all the research and literature that is available. A logical, systematic and critical review
of this body of knowledge provides the backdrop for the current research. To demonstrate this
through familiarity with earlier work in the field, all researchers are required to include a literature
review in their study.

Activity 2.2

1. For the topic in this list (Activity 2.1) that you consider to be most significant
and relevant, explain why you consider each topic to be important.
Select and write the topic and research purpose in complete detail.

Outline three research questions that come to your mind relating to the
topic. Your questions should be testable questions.

Outline the steps you would take in reviewing the literature relevant to
this topic.

2.2 Functions of the Literature Review

Below is a brief discussion of some of the important functions which the literature review serves in
any study.

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Providing a context for the study

The literature review provides a concise synthesis of existing research and literature on the current
research topic. This creates the context from the past for the new study to be conducted with new
subjects and newly obtained data.

Creating a conceptual frame of reference

The researcher must saturate himself/herself with the basic writings and theoretical constructs in the
problem area until such time that there is full familiarity with all the ramification of all the points of
view in the current literature. The researcher must critically evaluate the key components in this body
of literature and identify areas that are still conceptually and methodologically under-developed and
point to ‘gaps’ in our knowledge in the field. All points of view relevant to the research problem
should be presented concisely and critically with the researcher contrasting and comparing the
findings of earlier research, presenting his/her own reaction and critique.

Reporting the status of current research

The aim here is to present a concise account of previous research, identifying areas of general
consensus among researchers in the field on theoretical and conceptual issues, noting the areas of
major debate and discussion, identifying the leading researchers and writers in the field and the
specific schools of thought emerging from their work, and the major approaches to research in the
field. In the process, the literature review provides an objective perspective on what has been done
and how the current research will address specific issues or perceived ‘gaps’ in the field.

Identifying appropriate methodology, instrumentation and data analysis procedures

The literature review assists the researcher in identifying what has or has not been tried in regard to
research approaches and research methods and what already exists in terms of data gathering
instruments. Specifically, review of earlier research provides insights into the variety of research
methods used and enables the researcher to select a method, design an appropriate research
instrument and develop a sound data analysis strategy. The literature review also provides clues to
factors that influenced the method and instrumentation of earlier research and why it was done in the
way it was done. It also assists the researcher with conceptual and operational definition of key
terms, assumptions, limitations and the articulation of research questions and hypotheses of the new
research project.

Demonstrating theoretical and conceptual grasp of the field

The literature review must not only improve the researcher’s knowledge of the chosen field but
demonstrate to the reader the depth of this understanding of the field. The reader must understand
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 Research Methodology

how earlier research helps guide and inform the present study.

2.3 Starting a Literature Search

A systematic approach to searching for literature cannot be effected without close familiarity with the
services of an academically-centred library and the subject librarian. A systematic approach
demands a number of information retrieval skills, an awareness of the specific sources that are
available and a working knowledge of the full range of services that are available at a university
library.

As a critical first step in the location of literature on the research topic, the researcher needs to be
familiar with the services of the library and seek the assistance of the subject librarian, if need be,
to acquire full orientation on:

Borrowing privileges
The services available, as a student or as a private member, in areas such as Inter-library Loans,
On-Line and/or CD-ROM literature searches
The use of various reference sources in applied social sciences and business management

The next step, while in the library, requires the researcher to use the resources and dictionaries to
extend the range of subject terms and to develop a list of relevant keywords and concepts
(descriptors) which may be used in the literature search. Table 2.1 lists some of the dictionaries and
encyclopaedias that may be accessed.

Source: Hulley and Hulley, 1997:90

The third step would be for the researcher to use the selected keywords to explore the subject and
title lists of the library catalogue to locate the available material. To locate journal articles the
researcher needs to expand the search to the indexing and abstracting publications.
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 Research Methodology

To accelerate this manual process the researcher may switch to computerised literature searches,
having the references located either printed or downloaded on to a disk. The librarian may also
assist in access to electronic databases, generally for a fee.

The next step would be for the researcher to locate the relevant literature on the library shelves and,
if not available in the library, to seek the assistance of the librarian on the availability of the Inter-
Library Loan services.

In the sections that follow some of the specific processes that have been identified in this synoptic
overview will be discussed in greater depth. But for the moment the process described above may
be diagrammed as indicated in Figure 2.1.

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 Research Methodology

Figure 2.1: Steps in reviewing the literature

Source: Mancosa 2020, Saunders et al, 2019

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2.4 Computers as Search Tools

Researchers in businesses, universities and the government are increasingly turning to the Internet
and online information providers to locate the information they need. They log onto some proprietary
database (where the individual pays) or just browse and search for references by logging on to sites
such as:

http://www.amazon.com (for books)

http://www.pearsoneduc.com (for business and management books)
http://www.sagepub.co.uk (for books, journals, software and CD-ROMS)
http://www.mcb.co.uk (for over 100 professional academic management journals)
Researchers should consult staff at libraries where they have membership rights on procedures and
costs relating to online searches.

2.5 Using CD-ROMs

Vast stores of information are now stored and released on CD-ROMs. At most university libraries,
student members can access centrally stored CD-ROMs that contain abstracts, full-length articles
and references on them.

2.6 Advantages of a Computer Search

A manual search of literature sources as described above is not too difficult if the researcher requires
only a few references to cover a topic of very limited scope. However, for a masters-level study, the
manual search process may prove inadequate, time-consuming and tiresome. Most experienced
researchers, indeed, opt for a computer search because of the critical advantages this method offers.
Briefly these are:

An exhaustive computer search of the relevant computer databases can be effected for a
relatively low cost if one takes note of the time and opportunity costs of a manual search
Speed of output is a tremendous plus-factor in computer searches. A researcher may receive a
comprehensive printout of the information within hours if he/she makes timely arrangements with
library staff
The computer will provide a printout or download on to a disk the full bibliographic description of
each source
Computer searches permit the simultaneous use of descriptors (keywords) in locating sources.
When doing a manual search, the researcher can only use one descriptor at a time to conduct
the preliminary identification of a source. In contrast, the computer can search through databases
for any combination of descriptors

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2.7 Literature Sources

There are three types of sources the researcher will consult in the course of the literature review.
These are primary, secondary and tertiary sources:

Figure 2.2: Depiction of the types of sources Source Saunders et al. (2009:69)

Primary Literature Sources

Primary sources are the first occurrence of a piece of work. Examples are reports, conference
reports, on someone else’s collation and analysis of research in the field; primary sources require the
researcher’s own evaluation and synthesis of the findings and relevant information.

Secondary Literature Sources

Secondary literature sources are those that provide the researcher with scholarly summaries of the
research that has been done in the field of interest. Articles in important academic journals (such as
the Administrative Science Quarterly and the Journal of Management Studies), for example,
generally contain concise literature review of relevant earlier research. Researchers should also
consult subject librarians to access computerised databases and information stored on CD-ROM.

Tertiary Literature Sources

Tertiary literature sources are also known as search tools and are used to locate both primary and
secondary literature or to introduce a topic. They include indexes, abstracts, encyclopaedia and
bibliographies. Table 2.2 illustrates the three types of literature sources.

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Table 2.2: Examples of printed abstracts and indexes

Example Description
Applied Social Science Covers economics, education, employment, health,
penology, politics, psychology, race relations and social
Index and Abstracts (ASSIA) services

Applied Science and Subjects include computer technology, energy resources,

engineering, industry, science and transportation
Technology Index (ASTI)
Business Automation, Covers communications, computers and office systems in
business and commerce; includes banking, financial
Key Issues in markets and retailing

Business Periodicals Index Subjects include business, company information, industry,

management, people and trades
Employee Relations International: Covers all aspects of employee and industrial relations

A Bibliographical and Abstracts Journal

Personnel Management Abstracts All subjects relating to the management of people and
organisational behaviour
Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) Citation index covering over 1000 leading social science
journals and other publications
(adapted from: Hulley & Hulley, 1997:94)

If the keywords have been carefully and fully identified, most abstracts and indexes will present the
reader with a comprehensive list of books and journal articles on the topic.

Activity 2.3

Outline keywords (descriptors) for a research where the key question is:
Explain if managers in companies undergoing change in a larger context of
social transition tend to be more political and less ethical in their actions and
decisions.

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2.8 Maintaining efficient Records

Concurrently with the location of sources, the researcher should adopt a meticulous approach in
keeping full bibliographic details. As Hulley and Hulley (1997:103) point out, whatever method of
record keeping is adopted, the main reasons for maintaining an efficient database are:

You need to be able to identify the full and accurate reference in order to find or order the
material
You can develop links amongst authors, topics, results and periods of time by re-sorting your
database
It prevents duplication of effort
You will need to refer to your sources of information in your proposal and final research report
Others reading your finished work will be able to trace the original sources of information easily

Efficient records are also important as the researcher needs to acknowledge all sources in the text
(citations) and present full details on each source at the end of the dissertation (references). The
preferred citation and referencing style of MANCOSA is the augmented Harvard system. Every
student should make himself/herself familiar with this system. It is imperative that all statements in
the dissertation that are not the researcher’s own original ideas be supported with a reference
citation in the text. In the Harvard system this is done in one of two ways – either in the sentence text
or parenthetically

For example:

Smith (1990:64) reported that companies with higher levels of participative management
generally had higher levels of job satisfaction among their staff
Companies with higher levels of participative management generally had higher levels of job
satisfaction among their staff (Smith, 1990:64)

Students must also ensure that the references listed at the end of the study are inclusive, that is, all
citations in the text of the dissertation must be included among the references and all titles in the
references must be cited in the text. The titles in the reference list must be arranged alphabetically by
first author. See Section 7 for more information on the subject.

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Activity 2.4

Select and read six journal articles on your next assignment topic and write a
one page summary in which you demonstrate a grasp of the academic style
of writing and an understanding of the augmented Harvard System of writing
citations and completing references.

2.9 Writing the Review

As Hulley and Hulley (1997:110) point out, the literature review must display a competent
examination of earlier research and work in the field of the dissertation topic and a comprehensive
review of recent, relevant literature. It must contain a synthesis of relevant literature and must
simultaneously be a critical analysis of earlier work.

It should also:

Demonstrate how the literature is related to the current study

Identify any deficiencies and omissions in earlier research
Include all the major studies and writers in the field

Key elements in the writing style should be:

An academic, scientific, objective style of writing

Use of active (rather than passive) voice
Non-sexist language
‘Politically correct’ language

There is a wealth of sites on the Web that provide assistance to students in using an academically
sound writing style. Below are two examples (each containing links to other pages):
http://www.lemoyne.edu/~hevern/psychref3-1.html
http://www.psychwww.com/resource/apacrit.html

Before writing the review students must read literature reviews in other dissertations and theses and
analyse and evaluate the review approach used in these studies. Table 2.3 lists some important
criteria, adapted from Saunders et al. (2000:47) that the student may use in the literature review.

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Table 2.3: Criteria for evaluating a literature review

Criteria 1:

Does the literature covered clearly relate to the research question and objectives?

Criteria 2:

Have the key themes and prominent writers been included?

Criteria 3:

Is the literature included up to date?

Criteria 4:

Has the researcher been objective in the discussion of other people’s work?

Criteria 5:

Does the review reflect coherence and unity of flow?

Criteria 6:

Does the review narrow down to the present research focus and lead the reader into the
subsequent section?
In the sections below, the criteria noted in Table 2.3 are expanded, drawing on the ideas of Salkind
(2018:80-81) into a set of steps that may be used in writing the literature review.

Step 1: Deciding on the format

Generally the literature review forms a chapter of the dissertation. The literature review may also be
presented as a series of chapters (where the topic is complex) or be located at the points where
specific issues and findings are discussed. Whatever the format, the relevant literature must not be
presented as a stringing together of summaries of books and articles but as an evaluative synthesis
of current information on the subject.

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Step 2: Developing a unified theme

The literature review should provide a concise and coherent account of the existing literature on the
research topic. Therefore, there has to be unity of theme and a logical cohesion of ideas throughout
the review. Important lines of thought must emerge from an introduction which presents a broad entry
to the field to a narrowing of focus to include the pivotal issues in the current research. The objective
is to elicit the reader’s interest and involvement in the current research by providing a critical
overview of previous work in the field and contextualising the present study.

Step 3: Organising the collated material

As noted above, the literature review must not read as a loose stringing together of summaries of
journal articles and books. Instead, the presentation of the material must reveal a clear underlying
design. A common strategy used by many researchers is to organise their material chronologically
under carefully arranged subsections of the topic. For example, if the researcher is examining the
link between benchmarking and TQM (Total Quality Management), he/she may organise all
references by topic area (benchmarking and TQM) and then within each of these topics begin the
review from the earliest dated reference to the most recent. Moreover, within this design, a good
researcher will:

Start at a more general level before narrowing down to the focus of the study
Review some of the key concepts and areas of research attention
Provide a flow of information that synthesises, compares and contrasts the work of key writers in
the field
Highlight most relevant studies in relation to the topic

Step 4: Ensuring a smooth flow

The researcher must ensure that there is a smooth flow from section to section by highlighting the
logical connections between the different components of the review. If, for example, the researcher is
conducting a cross-cultural study of South African audience responses to television advertisements
he/she may not find a great deal of topic-specific information. But there is a vast body of literature on
television advertisements, audience reaction to television advertisements, and the impact of cultural
variables on perception, interpretation of reality and social interactions. The researcher has to read
literature emerging from these separate fields and gather together research and information that
sheds light on his/her specific topic. Part of the challenge in research is to uncover the possible
intersections among seemingly unconnected fields of information.

Step 5: Developing and working from an outline

An important final step before the actual writing process therefore is to develop a detailed plan and
to organise the material in terms of this design. This would enable the development of a schematic

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plan that throws into relief the main lines of thought flowing into the research topic, leads the reader
from the general to the specific, and excites interest in the researcher’s own effort to advance
knowledge in the field.

2.10 Summary
Generally from the time a researcher begins thinking about his/her research problem, he/she will be
reviewing literature about it. This review will, in all likelihood, continue throughout the entire planning
and writing of the dissertation and, ideally, even beyond to the preparation of the research findings
for publication. At a relatively early stage, however, the researcher should develop the review plan
and begin to concentrate on the literature more relevant to the study.

A distinction must be made here between the literature review in the proposal and the chapter(s) in
the dissertation or thesis. In the proposal the student is expected to demonstrate that he/she has
examined a representative sample of the literature relevant to the study and included analysis of
what is appropriate. Obviously the search for more literature and greater depth in review will
continue from the proposal to the formal presentation of the dissertation. In the dissertation therefore
the student is required to present a comprehensive, up-to-date coverage of relevant research and
publications in the field.

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Answers

Activity 2.1
1. Select a list of FIVE research topics that you deem to be relevant in your current
management environment.
Answer: Students are expected to do activities 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 as part of their learning process.

Activity 2.2
For the topic in this list (Activity page 3) that you consider to be most significant and relevant,
explain why you consider each topic to be important.

1. Select and write the topic and research purpose in complete detail.
2. Outline three research questions that come to your mind relating to the topic. Your
questions shouldbe testable questions.
3. Outline the steps you would take in reviewing the literature relevant to this topic.

Answer: Students are expected to do activities 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 as part of their learning process.

Activity 2.3
1. Outline keywords (descriptors) for a research where the key question is:
Explain if managers in companies undergoing change in a larger context of social transition
tend to be more political and less ethical in their actions and decisions.
Answer: Students are expected to do activities 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 as part of their learning process.

Activity 2.4
1. Select and read six journal articles on your next assignment topicand write a one page
summary in which you demonstrate a grasp of the academic style of writing and an
understanding of the augmented Harvard System of writing citations and completing
references.
Answer:

Identify relevant and up-to-date journal papers in the field of business and public administration
Identify the main arguments
Provide the context in which the central argument is developed
Review the strengths and weaknesses of the journal paper
Provide the summary of the paper

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Unit
3:
Research Design

Unit 3: Research Design

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Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

Introduces the topic areas covered for

3.1 Introduction the unit

Explain and evaluate research

3.2 Research Approach approach

3.3 Research Design Analyse the research design

3.4 Research Process Analyse the research process

Analyse to a specified research design

3.5 Developing an appropriate Research and manage the practical aspects
Design relating to data collection

Appraise relevant problems and

3.6 Research Philosophy develop appropriate research

questions to be answered in the study

3.7 Selecting a Research Philosophy Select a research philosophy

Differentiate between qualitative and

3.8 Research Strategies quantitative research strategies

3.9 Research Purpose Examine the purpose of the research

Summarises the topic areas covered

3.10 Summary for the unit

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 Research Methodology

Prescribed and Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)

Prescribed Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Saunders, M.N.K, Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Methods
for Business Students. Sixth Edition. Harlow, England: Financial
Times/Prentice Hall.

Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Bell, E., Bryman, A., Harley, P. and Hirschsohn, P. (2021). Research
Methodology: Business and Management Contexts. Second Edition.
South Africa: Oxford University Press.

du Plessis, C. and Satar, A.A. (2021). Introduction to Social Media

Research Theory and Application. First Edition. South Africa: Juta.

du Plooy-Cilliers, F., Davis, C. and Bezuidenhout, R.M. (2021).

Research Matters. Second Edition. South Africa: Juta.

Howard, R.M. (2022). Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and

Research. Fourth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill LLC.

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 Research Methodology

3.1. Introduction
Research philosophy is defined as “a system of beliefs and assumption about the development of
knowledge and the nature of knowledge” (Saunders, et al., 2019). The meaning might sound rather
profound, however, the author further explained that the basic meaning of the definition is precisely
the exact thing every researcher is doing when he or she is conducting a research and that is the will
to develop knowledge in a particular field (GuhaThakurta, 2015).

Research philosophy is an important part of research methodology which on numerous occasions

has been classified as ontology, epistemology and axiology (Saunders, et al., 2019). These
philosophical approaches enable the researcher to decide which approach should be adopted and
why, which is derived from research questions (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2019).

According to Crossan (2003) on paper about “Research Philosophy: Towards and Understanding,”
(Crossan 2003), there are several reasons on why researchers needs to understand philosophical
issues before embarking themselves in a particular field. Easterby-Smith, et al. (2002), identifies
three reasons on why there is significance on understanding philosophies in reference to research
methodology.

A] The first reason the author added is that by understanding research philosophy the researcher
may refine and clarify the research method to be used in their study and consequently help the
researchers to gather their evidence and to answer their research questions.

B] Secondly, the knowledge of research philosophy will enable to assist the researchers with
different types of methodologies and as such avoiding inappropriate and unrelated works.

C] Lastly, by understanding the basic meaning of research philosophy and understanding its
advantages and benefits, it helps the researcher to be more creative and exploratory in their method
of research.

There are different types of research philosophy, which are described below:
Ontology
Ontology is based on the nature of reality. It is classified on the basis of objectivism and subjectivism.
The first aspect of ontology, objectivism portrays the position that social objects persist in reality
external to social actors. Secondly, subjectivism is concerned on the social phenomena which are
emerged from the perceptions and consequences of those social actors concerned with their
existence. For example, the MACUFE ceremony is the high cultural experience which is organized

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by the Mangaung Government officials, ministers, and high profile local celebrities are invited in this
event. The researcher wants to the map the attitudes and temperament of this crowd which is spread
over five-day festival. The researcher adopts subjectivism philosophy to determine their
temperament and attitude.

Epistemology
Epistemology is understood about the acceptable knowledge of a particular area of study. It can
be divided into two aspects; resources researcher and feeling researcher. The ‘resource researcher’
deals with the data from the perspective of natural scientist. On the other hand, the ‘feeling
researcher’ is concerned about the feelings and attitudes of the workers towards their managers. So
the ‘resource researcher’ is involved in developing positivist philosophy whereas the ‘feeling
researcher’ is focus on interpretivist philosophy. Epistemology is therefore classified as Positivism,
Realism and Interpretivism in the domain of research philosophy (GuhaThakurta, 2015).

Positivism
The philosophical approach of natural scientist is observed in positivism as the work of natural
scientist is based on observable social entity. Research strategy is approached on the basis of data
collection and hypothesis development. These hypotheses will be tested and confirmed which can
be used for further research. Another feature of this philosophy is that the positivist researcher
follows highly structured methodology in order to facilitate the hypothesis. Furthermore, positivism
works on quantifiable observations and accordingly statistical analysis is obtained (GuhaThakurta,
2015).

For example, the resources researcher cannot manipulate during data collection procedure as they
are independent to the subject of the research. For example, a research was conducted on the basis
of flexi working on the female workforce throughout Kwazulu Natal. The researcher would study the
literature which is based on previous studies based on which identify factors; like the importance of
flexi working, types of flexi-working, increased rate of flexi-working and future of flexi-working and
develop hypotheses have been developed like the influence of flexi-working to our socio-economic
life; influence of regular work life to the women’s family life; influence of flexi-working to the economic
life of the flexi-worker. In positivism, these hypotheses are tested and result is confirmed by the
researcher to develop a theory (GuhaThakurta, 2015).

Realism
Realism is another philosophical branch of epistemology which relates to scientific enquiry. The core
feature of realism is pertained to disclose the truth of reality and the existence of the objects are
prevalent independently in the human mind. Realism is classified as direct realism and critical
realism. Direct realism explains what is experienced by our senses and that are attained by the
researcher. On the other hand, the critical realism expresses that what is experienced by our

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sensations those are images of the real world, not the reality. The difference between the two is that
the first is related to the capacity of research what is studied, and the critical realist recognises the
importance of multi-level study in the context of the individual, the group and the organisation
(GuhaThakurta, 2015).

There is a difference between direct realism and critical realism. Critical realism claims that there are
two stages to experience this world. Firstly, sensation is conveyed to experience the object or people
or event and the nest stage is our mental process starts working after the sensations. For example,
in a cricket match, as a critical realist, while providing the umpiring decisions, the umpire says, ‘I give
them as I see them!’ whereas the umpire who is a direct realist would say ‘I give them as they are!’
So according to direct realism the first stage of critical realism is enough to understand the
experience level of us (GuhaThakurta, 2015).

Interpretivism
Interpretivism is a branch epistemology which is focused to the assessment the differences between
humans as social actors. The issue of difference is emphasised on the difference between
conducting research among people rather than objects such as medicines and computer. In this
philosophy, interpretation of social roles has been presented with respect of own set of meaning. In
addition, we interpret the social roles of others in accordance with our own set of meanings
(GuhaThakurta, 2015).

This approach is based on social life world and the difference between the earlier approach and
interpretivist approach is that the natural scientists are intended for reliabilities of the data in order to
infer ‘laws’ whereas the social science deals with the individual’s actions. For example, in the
organisation, all the stakeholders’ approach is different, and they act according to their interpretation.
The interpretation regarding employee turnover of HR manager and trade union leader are
completely different as they both belong to different social roles (GuhaThakurta, 2015).

Axiology
Axiology is a branch of philosophy which is concerned about judgements, aesthetics, and ethics. The
process of social enquiry is involved in this approach. Researchers’ axiological skill is executed in
order to make judgements about the research content and its conduct. For example, Researchers’
philosophical approach is reflected on his or her values as well as in their research work, especially
in the area of data collection or data analysis procedures. However, this method creates impact in
social sciences research (GuhaThakurta, 2015).

For example, a study was conducted among customers of bank to determine their experiences of
using credit card in terms of convenience, security, privacy and phone banking. The results of the
study revealed that there was lack of communication strategies and absence of awareness level
within the consumers, and that most of the consumers are not interested in this product. However,
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the bank authorities did now allow researcher to publish the findings. But the researcher and the
respective organization must consider the ethical perspective of this issue for the welfare of the
consumers (GuhaThakurta, 2015).

Figure 3.1 The Research Onion

(Saunders et al., 2019, p. 124)
Positivism Interpretivism The observer interacts with subject being showed. Problems as a whole
are clearly understood if the totality of the situation is projected.
Table 3.1 Application of Research Philosophy in research
The observer is
independent of The observer becomes
Feature
what is being a part of the system
presented.

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 Research Methodology

This is aimed to
identify causal The aim of the
explanations of researcher is to
social entities understand the social
Causality existing in reality phenomenon from the
with/without being perception of social
concerned of social actors and their
actors associated consequent actions
with the entities.
Problems are better
understood if the
Problems can be
process of social
better understood if
interaction is continued
Reductionism they are reduced
so that the social
into the simplest
phenomenon are in
possible elements.
constant state of
revision.
Research Method Quantitative Qualitative
Research Paradigm Objectivist Subjectivist
So we can say that the qualitative research is based on interpretivism and quantitative research is
based on positivism. Positivists prefer to collect data about an observable reality and search for
regularities and causal relationships in your data to create law-like generalisations whereas
interpretivists intend to grasp the subjective meaning of social action in order to conduct research
methodology (GuhaThakurta, 2015).

3.2 Research Approach

Research approach is a plan and procedure that consists of the steps of broad assumptions to
detailed method of data collection, analysis and interpretation. It is therefore, based on the nature of
the research problem being addressed. Research approach is essentially divided into two
categories:

Approach of data collection and

Approach of data analysis or reasoning

According to Saunders, et al. (2019) research approaches are mainly based on the research
philosophies, whereby the deductive approach is commonly used by researchers with traditional
natural scientific views (positivism), while inductive approach is usually based on phenomenology
(interpretivism).

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3.3 Research Design

From a study of the earlier sections, students will have gained some understanding of what research
is and how it works. Some of the concepts will be revisited to re-define the research process and to
create the context for a discussion of research design and related issues.

Science as a Systematic Process

Science is a systematic process for generating knowledge about the world. Business research thus
has as its primary goal the generation of knowledge about management and the business world in
all its complexity and range. As in all scientific endeavours, the goals are description, identification of
causation and capacity for prediction.

In description, the basic objectives of the research are defining the phenomena or phenomena to
be studied, differentiating between closely related phenomena, recording events that might be useful
or interesting about a phenomenon for later examination by other scientists, and describing
relationships among phenomena.

Causation has as its primary objectives the identification of co-variation of cause and effect in
phenomena, that is, the regular and consistent occurrence of A, leading to B. This involves the
discovery of factors identified as the cause of any phenomena always preceding in time the
occurrence of that phenomenon. For example, does the development of a quality control system that
places responsibility on each staff member/employee also lead to improvement in quality of service
and reduction in the number of faulty items in the production system? The identification of causation
also requires the elimination of any other plausible explanation for the effect.

Prediction has as its goal the capacity to forecast future events and the formulation of research
hypotheses for further research. Some research in investments and portfolio management, for
example, is directed at developing approaches to enhance the capacity to predict market trends.

Key Values of Science

Empiricism, scepticism, and openness are key values of science. Empiricism relates to the fact that
scientific progress and research must be based on objective evidence rather than ideology,
preconceptions and personal preferences and value systems. Scepticism reflects an attitude that
sees all knowledge as tentative. New discoveries and theories arising from the work of later scientists
may produce refutation of current knowledge in the field or suggest amendments to currently
accepted knowledge. Finally, science has to exist in the public domain to permit peer review and the

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examination by other researchers of the evidence relating to currently accepted knowledge.

Basic and Applied Research

As noted earlier, research may be broadly categorised as basic in applied research. Basic research
focuses on theory testing, uses experimental research strategy and is typically conducted in
laboratory or controlled settings. Applied research, in contrast, is less frequently based on theory,
uses action research, correlational and case study research strategies and is invariably conducted in
natural settings. However, it needs to be noted again that these are two ends of the spectrum. Basic
research can have applied implications and applied research can be based on theory. Moreover,
basic research often uses the correlational strategy and may also be carried out in natural settings.

3.4 Research Process

The research process has clearly defined elements that reflect an application of the research
methodology described in Section 1. Below is a brief description of those elements.

1. Management problem
The researcher begins the study by focusing on a problem or an idea that he/she believes needs to
be explored.

2. Reflecting on the problem

The researcher has to reflect on the significance the problem and its relevance as a management
issue. Greater clarity about the nature and complexity of the problem can be achieved by discussion
with colleagues and undertaking an initial review of literature on the topic. The title of the study, the
definition of the research problem and its significance should be submitted in writing to the College
Research Committee for preliminary approval and appointment of a supervisor.

3. Defining the problem as a specific research problem

This initial review of the literature enables the student to begin developing a frame of reference for
the research, formulating conceptual and operational definitions of key concepts, identifying the
significance of the research problem and crystallising in specific terms the research topic and the
research problem.

4. Undertaking an intensive literature review

The student must now launch into a more intensive literature review. The aim is to achieve a deeper
grasp of the problem and its context, to develop a concise, critical and evaluative summary of
previous research and literature on the research topic and to gather ideas for the literature design

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and data collection and data analysis instruments and techniques.

5. Selecting the research methodology

Selecting the research methodology involves decisions about the research paradigm, research
approach and research method. The researcher has to begin formulating hypotheses, research
questions and research objectives, deciding on the type of data needed, and selecting the data
collection and data analysis strategies.

6. Preparing the research proposal

Before proceeding any further, the student has to prepare a sound research proposal. The aim here
is to convince the College Research Committee of the weightiness of the problem and the adequacy
of the researcher’s knowledge and his/her plan for the study. He/she should not proceed with the
study until approval has been granted by the College Research Committee on the advice of the
supervisor.

7. Identifying the population and the sample

The student has to define the population, identify the sample selection method, decide on the sample
size and identify those who will be invited to participate in the study.

8. Developing a data collection design

The researcher has to develop the research instrument(s) that will fully address the needs of the
topic. The student must take note here of costs in terms of time and money and achieve a balance
between the adequacy of the data collection design and the availability of material and human
resources.

9. Selecting an appropriate data analysis strategy

The student must be fully informed about the statistical tools that may be needed to analyse the data
and decide on the tables and diagrams that may be appropriate for examining the patterns and
regularities in the data.

10. Conducting a pilot study

It is important to conduct a pilot study to identify areas that may require revision and correction, to
refine both the instruments and data analysis procedures to better achieve the research objectives,
and to review the choice of statistical tools and computer programmes and sub-programmes.

11. Revising and fine-tuning the research techniques

On the basis of the findings of the pilot study the necessary changes could be effected to the

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research instruments and the data collection and data analysis strategies.

12. Implementing the final data collection design

The researcher should implement the data collection design. In this process also the student should
not lose sight of the ethical issues of participants in the study. Every effort must be made to ensure
that the study conforms to broad ethical guidelines.

13. Analysing the data

In analysing the data the researcher must be guided by the needs of the research objectives. The
student should ensure that his/her preferences and preconceptions are not imposed on the data.

14. Writing the dissertation

Before writing the dissertation the points in Section 2 about the procedure to be adopted in writing
the literature review must be carefully noted.

Figure 3.2 on the following page presents a diagram of the processes outlined above and the
interaction among the various component elements.

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Figure 3.2: The Research Process

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3.5 Developing an appropriate Research Design

The research process outlined above spells out the actual process. A concurrent process, however,
the development of a research design appropriate for the needs of the research topic, requires of the
student that he/ she engage in a series of choices and decisions. The choices, as indicated in Figure
3.3 below, move from broad philosophical issues to practical decisions about data collection methods
and data analysis techniques.

Figure 3.3: Choices and decisions in developing the research design

3.6. Research Philosophy

As earlier indicated Research paradigms incorporate the fundamental philosophical concepts and
values about the nature of reality and the scientific pursuit of knowledge. Essentially there are
schools of thought about science and knowledge - positivism and phenomenology. They hold
diametrically different views about the research process and research design. While these have
been discussed in earlier sections, a concise summary of the key points is presented below.

Quantitative (Positivist Research)

Positivist research is generally quantitative and involves the use of numerical measurement and
statistical analyses of measurements to examine social phenomena. It views reality as consisting
phenomena that can be observed and measured. The advantages of this quantitative approach are

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that it places great premium on objectivity and reliability of findings and encourages replication.
Applied to social sciences and business research, positivism may not always be appropriate, as all
social phenomena cannot be accurately and reliably measured, thus reducing the validity of the
findings.

Qualitative (Phenomenological) Research

Phenomenological researchers, in contrast, argue that the world is socially constructed, and that
science is driven by human interests and that the researcher, as a subjective entity, is part of the
world he/she is observing. Objectivity, in short, is an impossible aim. The advantages of this
qualitative, interpretive orientation in research are that the findings often have greater validity and
less artificiality as the process of observing phenomena in natural, real-life settings often allows
researchers to develop a more accurate understanding of those phenomena. Good qualitative
research often reveals depth of understanding and richness of detail. However, research driven by
phenomenological philosophy is sometimes undermined by the subjectivity of the researcher and the
poor reliability of the findings in that, two researchers may arrive at different conclusions based on
their observations of the same phenomena at the same time.

Combined Research Approach (Mixed Methods)

Noting the strengths and weaknesses that flow from purely positivistic and phenomenological bias in
research, researchers sometimes adopt a mixed approach that draws on both positivism and
phenomenology. Many studies thus reveal a combination of quantitative and qualitative research
methods. The use of multiple research methods enables the researcher to increase the reliability and
validity of the findings. The weaknesses of one method are balanced by the strengths of other
methods incorporated in the same study.

Activity 3.1

You are interested in identifying effective practices that successful companies

use in preparing for annual salary increase negotiations with labour unions.
You are particularly interested in the approach (es) adopted by large
multinational companies.
Explain how you will proceed with the study and be as specific and
comprehensive as possible.

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3.7. Selecting a Research Philosophy

Research process within a quantitative paradigm.

The research process within a positivist paradigm generally has the following sequence of stages.

A theory is advanced
Concepts and variables are derived from the theory
Hypotheses or research questions are developed from the theory
Concepts and variables are operationalised into visible, definable indicators so that they can be
measured (e.g. the variable kindness can be operationalised into indicators such as giving
money to charity, paying the hospital costs of employees, and assisting elderly people)
A research instrument is used to measure the variables and operationalised indicators to test the
hypothesis

Research process within a qualitative paradigm.

In phenomenological, interpretive research the sequence of stages is broadly as follows:

A broad area of focus is defined, sometimes with a broadly-based research question

The researcher asks open-ended questions and records observations about the phenomena in a
real life context
The researcher searches for categories and groupings in the data
The researcher looks for patterns and recurrences in the data
The researcher interprets these patterns into a reasoned explanation of the phenomena
Using an inductive approach, the researcher develops a tentative theory or compares his
explanation with other theories

Research process within a combined quantitative-qualitative paradigm.

As Hussey and Hussey (1997:74) point out, the two main paradigms represent two extremes of a
continuum, and therefore it is possible for a researcher to use a blend of philosophical assumptions
and methodologies. Some common ways, as Cresswell (2018:77) notes, in which this is done, are:

i. The two-phase design in which the researcher conducts entirely separate positivist and
phenomenological examinations of the problem.
ii. The dominant/less dominant where one paradigm predominates while the other is used for a
small component of the study (e.g. a researcher may use observation and in-depth study to
generate themes and variables and then use a quantitative, hypothesis–testing design for the
study as a whole).
iii. The mixed-methodology design where the researcher intentionally combines aspects of both
paradigms throughout, using the advantages of both where appropriate.
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 Research Methodology

Activity 3.2
Select a business research topic and provide a research design that
combines quantitative and qualitative strategies.

3.8 Research Strategies

Below is a brief description of some of the important research strategies available to business
students. Each strategy differs from others in two distinct areas: the nature of the question asked,
and the method used to answer it. If, for example, a student is interested in the success of television
advertising as a marketing tool, the research may take the form of a survey of randomly selected
viewers. If, in contrast, the student is interested in establishing the effectiveness of one type of
television advertisement in comparison with another, the research may take the form of an
experiment where the responses of two groups of viewers exposed to two separate television
advertisements are tested for significant differences in and response to the advertisement and future
buying behaviour.

3.8.1 Quantitative Research Strategies

Experimental Design

The basic experimental designs used in business research have been adapted from physical and
biological sciences. Experimental studies seek to identify causal relationships. The aim is to
manipulate the independent variable (for example, use of management style), in order to observe
the effect on the dependent variable (for example, productivity of subordinates). Because of the
greater difficulty in controlling experimental conditions in the human sciences, experimental methods
can only be used under very clearly defined conditions. The typical experimental design in business
research involves the selection of a sample of subjects; random assignment of these subjects to
experimental and control groups; the exposure of the experimental group to the independent
variable which is withheld from the control group; and finally the evaluation of the two groups on the
dependant variable. There are other variations in experimental designs – repeated measures
design, matched-pairs design and single-subject design.

In a quasi-experimental design, the researcher does not have as high a degree of control over the
independent variable. People, for example, are already assigned to groups such as social class, type
of injury, type of occupation and income group, for which the researcher is testing the effects. The
experimental designs isolate and control all the factors that could be responsible for any effects
except the one under examination. The most important use of quasi-experimental research designs
is where researchers cannot, in good conscience, assign people to groups and test the effect of

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group membership on some other outcome. For example, researchers interested in the effects of
retrenchment on staff morale could not encourage the process or actively identify those to be
retrenched. Rather they would seek out companies where retrenchments are occurring and then
conduct the research.

Quasi-experimental research is also called post hoc research or after-the-fact research since the
actual research takes place after the assignment of groups such as employed versus unemployed,
male versus female, etc.

Surveys

The survey is a positivist research design in which a sample is selected from a population and
studied to make inferences about the population. Surveys typically use questionnaires and
interviews in order to determine the opinions, attitudes, preferences and perceptions of persons of
interest to the researcher.

In well-designed surveys where the sample has been carefully selected to ensure that it is
representative of the larger population, it is possible to use statistical techniques to assess the
applicability and generalisability of the findings to the larger population. To ensure greater reliability
and validity, the researcher must also ensure that the questionnaire and interview do not reveal bias
in the way the items and questions are presented. The way a question is asked, for example, can
influence the responses (see section 5).

3.8.2 Qualitative Research Strategies

Case Study

Case study research designs involve looking at a small group, project, institution or company. Case
studies are basically intensive investigation of the factors that contributed to the characteristics of the
case under investigation. Case studies draw on multiple sources of information and tell a story,
usually in chronological order. The aim is to create a rich, textured description of a social process.
This can set the stage for more specific questions that might be asked later using more tightly
structured methods. Generally, case studies are most helpful when the researcher is dealing with
how or why questions, phenomena over which he/ she has little control, or phenomena embedded
in a real life context.

The data collection methods employed in case study research include questionnaires, in-depth
interviews, documentary records, direct observation, participant observation, narrative/log, and focus
groups.

The case study design contrasts sharply with other research strategies in that attempt is made to

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study a multitude of factors by limiting the number of cases observed. Another distinguishing feature
is that case study researcher tends to be an in-depth investigation of phenomena as they exist in the
natural setting.

Two methods that are frequently used in analysing case study data are pattern matching and time-
series analysis. Pattern matching is the process of taking several pieces of information that seem
logically related and connecting them to some idea or theoretical proposition. The patterns can be
compared to rival theories, looking for the best ‘fit’ of observed data to theory. Time-series analysis
involves comparing a trend of data points to some theoretically significant trend, to a rival theoretical
trend, or to some other alternative explanation.

Action Research

Action research is a methodology which has the dual aims of action and research, the action being to
bring about change in some community or organisation and the research seeking to increase
understanding in the part of the researcher and/or the target group/community. The explicit focus of
action research, however, is to promote change within the organisation.

Action research is a cyclic process that consists of planning, action, review of the outcomes of action
and a return to planning on the basis of outcomes. At each point in this cycle the data so far available
is used to determine the next stage. The whole purpose of the research is to determine
simultaneously an understanding of the social system and the best opportunities for change.

Researchers adapting an action research design generally increase the reliability of their findings by
working with multiple information sources, preferably independent or partly independent. As in
triangulation the researcher may use different informants or different but equivalent samples of
informants, different research settings, the same informant responding to different questions which
address the same topic from some different directions, information collected at different times,
different researchers or different methods.

Grounded Theory

The use of grounded theory methodology as a research strategy in business research studies
remains minimal partly because of the bias favouring deductive and quantitative approaches and
partly because of a critical view that some researchers have of the grounded theory methodology.

Grounded theory methodology has as its basic tenet the view that theory must be inductively derived
from the data. The theory, in short, must emerge from and be grounded in the data. Data collection,
analysis and theory formulation are regarded as reciprocally related. Research questions are open
and general rather than formed as specific hypotheses, and the emergent theory should account for

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a phenomenon which is relevant and problematic for those involved.

Data collection and analysis are deliberately fused, and initial data analysis is used to shape
continuing data collection. Interweaving data collection and analysis in this way is held to increase
insights and clarify the parameters of the emerging theory. The approach also argues for initial data
collection and preliminary analyses to take place in advance of consulting and incorporating prior
research literature. This is to ensure that pre-existing constructs do not shape the current analysis
and theory formation. Literature review, it needs to be underscored, is delayed, not omitted, and is
regarded as an important part of theory-building.

Ethnography
Ethnography is not a widely used research strategy in business as it is time-consuming and
generally requires the researcher to immerse himself/herself in the real life context of interest as a
participant observer. Over a period of time the researcher gathers data and applies an inductive
methodology to uncover patterns of meaning.

Activity 3.3

Confronted by low productivity, the Managing Director of the company asks

the Business Faculty of the University to investigate the problem.
Outline what would be effective research strategies for the problem.
Explain how you would persuade the MD of the validity of your approach

Illustrate how you would design the study if you combine the following
two strategies:

- Survey
- Case Study

3.8.3 Combined Research Strategies

As noted earlier, positivism and phenomenology represent two ends of a continuum. Often
researchers may develop research designs that combine research strategies from those two
paradigms in a single research design. A student, for example, may use a qualitative approach in
conducting in-depth interviews with individuals from the target population to develop dense case
studies from which research themes and theories may be inductively developed and then proceed to
test these tentative conclusions in the larger population through a survey research strategy and
quantitative, statistical analysis tools.

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3.9 Research Purpose

Research designs may also be classified in terms of their purpose. Below are some of the common
forms of research design defined on the basis of their broad purpose.

Casual-comparative Research

The basic objective of causal-comparative studies is to use an experimental or quasi-experimental

design to study closely comparable groups (except on the variable being studied) to establish
differences, reasons for these differences and to uncover causal links among variables.

Examples of problems amenable to causal-comparative research are:

(1) a study of the personality characteristics of graduate and non-graduate middle management staff
in small to medium-sized companies,
(2) an examination of job satisfaction among young and older staff in large companies and
(3) a comparison of the level of union-initiated work stoppages in companies which had experienced
a poor financial year and similar companies that had had a successful year of growth and expansion.
The causal-comparative approach in business research is valuable in identifying possible causes for
human behaviour in the business and management context.

Correctional Research

Correlation research refers to studies in which the purpose is to discover relationship between
variables through the use of correlational statistics such as the correlational coefficient (r) which
measures the strength of this relationship. A correlational relationship between two variables is
occasionally the result of an outside source; the researcher must thus be careful in not arguing for a
cause and effect relationship between the variables merely because of a strong correlation between
them. If a strong correlation is found between the two variables, causability can be tested by using an
experimental research design.

Correlation studies are sometimes classified as either ‘prediction studies’ or ‘relationship studies’. A
major advantage of correlational research is that the investigator can explore a wide variety of
different relationships in the same study. One of the most important points about correlational
research is that it examines relationships between variables but in no way implies that one causes
the other. If, for example, a researcher is interested in finding out the relationship between fluency in
a native language among managers and the incidence of staff grievances and complaints against
management, he/ she would use a correlational design as the purpose would be to establish the
strength of the relationship between the two variables.

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Explanatory Research

Explanatory studies seek to explain the relationship among variables and to identify the
connectedness among the components of a phenomenon. The basic aim in these studies is to
closely study a problem, collect data on the phenomenon, and through an analytic and deductive
process, often entailing statistical analyses, explain the relationship among variables.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research describes the characteristics of an existing phenomenon. Descriptive studies

seek to discover answers to questions relating to the fundamental characteristics that define the
research subject. Often it is conducted to advance the broad aims of science: it is performed to
develop knowledge on which the problems and explanations of subsequent research are based.

Descriptive research, however, often goes beyond a mere description of the phenomena. If, for
example, a researcher were interested in the occurrence of mergers and acquisitions and their
impact on the staff of affected companies, he/ she may survey a sample of companies involved in
mergers and acquisitions and present a descriptive account of the phenomenon. But the researcher
may also examine the coping responses of staff in the affected companies and out of the analysis of
the data identify a pattern of behaviour at various levels of the organisational hierarchy.

Exploratory Research

Exploratory studies are primarily concerned with finding out what is happening and discovering new
insights about a phenomenon. The researcher conducts an in-depth search of the literature,
interviews experts in the field, and/or conducts focus group discussions. Out of these diverse sources
of information the researcher begins to piece together details about the real nature of the field of
interest.

3.10 Summary
The design of a study thus demands a full grasp of research philosophy, research paradigms,
research processes and research strategies. In addition, the researcher needs to have a full grasp of
the theoretical and practical processes relating to sampling, data collection and data analysis. These
areas will be covered in the sections that follow.

What is important here is that the researcher recognises that good business research requires the
development of a research design that is fully compatible with the needs of the topic. The most
appropriate research design will be one capable of enabling the researcher to achieve his/ her
research objectives.
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Answers

Activity 3.1
1. You are interested in identifying effective practices that successful companies use in
preparing for annual salary increase negotiations with labour unions. You are particularly
interested in the approach (es) adopted by large multinational companies.
Explain how you will proceed with the study and be as specific and comprehensive as
possible.
Answer: Students are expected to do this practical activity to test their knowledge.

Activity 3.2
1. Select a business research topic and provide a research design that combines quantitative
and qualitative strategies.
Answer:
Since management research is about seeking alternative solutions to real problems, students are
advised to choose relevant topics based on evidence based solutions.

Activity 3.3
Confronted by low productivity, the Managing Director of the company asks the Business
Faculty of the University to investigate the problem.
1. Outline what would be effective research strategies for the problem. Explain how you would
persuade the MD ofthe validity of your approach.
2. Illustrate how you would design the study if you combine the following two strategies:

- Survey
- Case Study

Answer:

In order to answer activity 3 the student is advised to contextualise the problem - low productivity.
Since the research is qualitative in nature, the researcher could convince the managing director
that the triangulation method is suitable to validate the research outcome
The researcher can use quantitate research methods for the surveys and qualitative research
methods tor the case study
The two research approaches complement each other and generate reliable data

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Unit
4: Sampling and Representativeness

Unit 4: Sampling and Representativeness

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Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

Introduces the topic areas covered for

4.1 Introduction the unit

Integrate to a specified research

design and manage the practical
4.2 The Sampling Cycle
aspects of sampling

4.3 Representativity Explain representativity

4.4 Types of Sampling Implement different types of sampling

Examine different types of non-

4.5 Non-Probability Sampling probability sampling

4.6 Sampling Error Analyse the aspect of sampling error

Classify the sample size

4.7 Sample Size

Summarises the topic areas covered

4.8 Summary for the unit

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Prescribed and Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)

Prescribed Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Saunders, M.N.K, Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Methods
for Business Students. Sixth Edition. Harlow, England: Financial
Times/Prentice Hall.

Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Bell, E., Bryman, A., Harley, P. and Hirschsohn, P. (2021). Research
Methodology: Business and Management Contexts. Second Edition.
South Africa: Oxford University Press.

du Plessis, C. and Satar, A.A. (2021). Introduction to Social Media

Research Theory and Application. First Edition. South Africa: Juta.

du Plooy-Cilliers, F., Davis, C. and Bezuidenhout, R.M. (2021).

Research Matters. Second Edition. South Africa: Juta.

Howard, R.M. (2022). Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and

Research. Fourth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill LLC.

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4.1 Introduction
Most business research involves studying the behaviour of human subjects. It is very rare for the
researcher to study all individuals who would be appropriate subjects for a given research project.
For example, let us suppose the researcher wishes to determine consumer opinion with respect to
new products and ‘old’ products that have new packaging formats. Since it would be impossible for
this researcher to survey the opinion of every consumer, he/she would carry out the research on a
sample of randomly selected consumers, possibly as they leave the supermarket with their
purchases.

Key Concepts
The process of selecting a fractional part of the whole relevant group or population is called
sampling. The basic idea is that by selecting some of the elements in a population and focusing
research attention on this finite group, we may apply the findings of the study to the whole population
of interest. A population element is the single unit of the sample on which measurement and
observations are taken. For example, each consumer questioned about his/her preference in a
consumer study is a population element. A population is the full set of elements or cases from which
a sample is taken. In sampling the term population is not used in the normal sense as a full set of
elements may not necessarily be people. If a researcher wishes to examine the administrative
effectiveness of rural schools in Kwa-Zulu Natal, then the population from which he/she would draw
the sample would be rural schools and each rural school would be an element in the population of
rural schools.

Figure 4.1: Population, elements and sample

Source: Saunders et al. (2019)

A population is thus the full group of potential participants to whom the researcher wants to

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generalise the findings of the study. In contrast, the universe refers to all possible elements or cases
of a certain kind. The population is the portion of the universe that the researcher has possible
access.

There are two broad types of sampling – probability and non-probability. With probability
sampling, the likelihood of any one member (or element) of the population being selected, is known.
If there are a thousand rural schools and two hundred rural secondary schools, the odds of selecting
one secondary school as part of the sample is 200:1000 or 0.20. In non-probability sample, the
exact number of elements in the population is unknown with the result that the likelihood of selecting
any one member of the population, is not known. For example, if a researcher does not know how
many customers bought a specific product, the likelihood of any one being selected in a market
survey on the product cannot be computed.

Why sample the population?

As noted above, it is often not feasible or possible to study the entire population. Some of the major
reasons why sampling is necessary are:

1. Cost-effective procedure for quality control. To ensure that its products meet the minimum
standard a steel manufacturing company will have to subject a small sample to quality assurance
tests. Each item in the sample will have to be put through a rigorous test and its breaking point
capacity recorded. Obviously, if all items are subjected to breaking point tests, none would be
available for sale or use.
2. The physical impossibility of checking all items in the population. The population of
elements in many categories such as consumers, workers in large multinational companies and
managers are constantly moving, changing and dying. Moreover, in many instances in business
research the population may be so large and growing that it is impossible to define in fixed terms
the size of the population.
3. The cost of studying all items in a population is often prohibitive. Public opinion polls and
consumer testing organisations in the United States, such as Gallup Polls and Marketing Fact,
usually contact fewer than 2000 families out of approximately 50 million families in the country
(Mason and Lind, 1996:295). The cost of polling all the families would go into billions of rands.
4. The adequacy of sample results. Even if funds were available it is doubtful that studying the
entire population is essential in most problems. Good sampling techniques maximise the degree
to which samples represent the population. The results are therefore generalisable to the whole
population.
5. To contact the whole population would often be too time-consuming. Even in a population
which has 1000 items to interview every member would take a considerable amount of time if the
researcher were undertaking the task himself/ herself. Meanwhile, several changes may be
occurring within the population making the data obtained during earlier interviews possibly no
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longer applicable to the situation or representative of current thinking.

4.2 The Sampling Cycle

The sample in social sciences research may be divided into three specific subcomponents: the
invited sample, the accepting sample and the data-producing sample. The invited sample is all
elements of the population selected to form the sample and invited to participate in the study.

The portion of the sample that accepts the invitation to participate in the study may be categorised as
the accepting sample. The data-producing sample is the actual portion of the accepting sample
that provides data for the study (see Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2: The sampling cycle

Activity 4.1

Explain what you would consider to be the main purposes of sampling.

As noted above, the portion of the sample that actually yields data is seldom the researcher’s
primary focus of interest. Rather he/she is primarily concerned with learning about the population
and sometimes the universe. The research processes that are set in motion with the selection of a
sample are thus satisfactorily completed when the findings of the study are extended as
generalisations that are applicable to the population.

4.3 Representativity
Applying the findings and generalisations of a study to the population and the universe is only
permissible when the sample can be considered to be representative of the population and the
universe. Throughout the sampling process therefore the researcher must be guided by the recurring
requirement to ensure representativity. When the researcher locates the problem being investigated
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in the larger world, he/she has to identify the population and ensure that it can be considered
representative of the universe. If this condition is met, the researcher can proceed to the selection of
the sample and the data collection procedures. Next, when the data-collection instruments have
been administered, the researcher must face the critical issue of determining whether the actual
number of respondents constitute an adequate percentage of the sample for the findings of the study
to be representative of the population and the universe.

Activity 4.2

You are undertaking research to establish the after-cinema use of facilities by

cinema patrons in large shopping centres with cinema complexes and eating
places.
Outline the steps you would take to arrive at finding representatives of the
universe.

4.4 Types of Sampling

The two broad categories of sampling designs are probability sampling and non-probability
sampling. (See Figure 4.3 below).

Figure 4.3: Sampling Techniques

Source: Saunders et al. (2009:213)

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Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection – a selection procedure that
ensures that each element of the population is given a known chance of selection.
Some general concepts associated with probability sampling are listed below:

The sample obtained should be representative of the population from which it is drawn
The sample must be selected randomly from the population
Every element/member in the population has an equal probability of being chosen once they are
included in the sampling frame
It is possible to generalise the findings from the sample to the population
Probability sampling thus exists within the positivistic/quantitative paradigm as it is based on
scientific assumptions of developing generalised knowledge about categories and aspects of
reality and not about the individual and the unique
Non - probability sampling, in contrast, is non-random, subjective and purposive in that the
researcher may select the sample using criteria other than those associated with randomness of
selection. Some general points about non-probability sampling are noted below:
The overall aim is to select a sample that, by design, allows the researcher to capture a wide
range of facets
Elements from the population are not selected randomly but in a deliberate, consciously
controlled manner with prior design and purpose
Every member or element of the population does not have an equal chance of being selected
from the sampling frame
Non-probability sampling does not have generalisation beyond the sample as a critical aim
Non-probability sampling thus exists in the qualitative/ phenomelogical paradigm because of its
concentration on specific cases and in-depth analysis of the specific

Simple Random Sampling

In simple random sampling each element in the population has an equal and independent chance
of being selected as part of the sample. There is no bias or predetermination in the selection
process. If the researcher were to choose every fifth element in the sampling frame (the actual list of
elements from which sample is actually drawn, ideally the complete and correct list of population
members only), then there is no independent randomness in the selection process.
The process of simple random sampling consists of four basic steps:
i. The precise definition of the population.

ii. Listing of all members/elements of the population.

iii. Numbering the elements of the population.

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iv. Selecting the sample, using an approach that guarantees randomness.

The actual sample may be selected using a table of random numbers or computer programme to
generate random samples. See table 4.4 for a comparative summary of points relating to various
types of probability sampling.

Systematic Sampling

Often simple random sampling is not practical as it requires a complete population list – something
not always possible. Systematic sampling is one statistically valid alternative. In this approach every
nth element (e.g. 5th or 8th, etc.) in the population is sampled, beginning with a random start of an
element in the range of 1 to n (5 if it is 5th or 8 if it is eighth, and so on).
Systematic sampling is easier than simple random sampling though it may not be as precise as
simple random sampling in the randomness and independence of the selection process.

Stratified Sampling

In various studies, it is desirable to select a sample to assure that all subgroups in the population will
be represented in proportion to their numbers in the population itself. Stratified sampling assures that
the profile of the sample matches the profile of the population.
Essentially the steps in stratified sampling would be:

1. Identification of the various strata in terms of the variables of interest, e.g. senior managers,
middle managers, junior managers, foremen, factory floor workers.
2. Separate sampling frames are established for each stratum with a listing of all the elements/
members who fall into that stratum.
3. Each member in each group receives a number.
4. The proportion of each group is established in relation to the total population and the number that
will be selected from each stratum is calculated accordingly.
5. Using a table of random numbers, the individual members are selected from each stratum in
terms of the required numbers.

The strata samples are calculated in terms of:

i. How large the total sample should be and

ii. The ratio by which the total sample should be allocated among the strata with both proportionate
and disproportionate options available to the researcher.

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Cluster Sampling

In cluster sampling, the sampling unit is not the individual element or member but rather a naturally
occurring group of individual members. For example, the researcher may be studying worker
reaction to management during the initial stages of wage negotiations. It is not feasible to study or
convenient to select individuals from a wide range of worker settings. It would, for example, either be
impractical or impossible to obtain a list of all members of the theoretical population. In this situation
cluster sampling would be most practical and convenient: the population is divided into groups of
elements either geographically or by some other uniform criterion. Then some groups are randomly
selected. Researchers are generally obliged to opt for cluster sampling when it is the most
economical, efficient route in terms of time and money and when it is virtually impossible to establish
a reliable sampling frame of individual elements.

In cluster sampling the researcher must ensure that the clusters have been efficiently defined, then
randomly select the required number of clusters and then proceed with the appropriate probability
sampling procedure (often stratified sampling to ensure full coverage of all the strata in the
population of each cluster).
Table 4.1: A comparative summary of various types of sampling
Type Description Advantages Disadvantages
Simple Each population Easy to implement with Requires a listing of
random element has an equal automatic dialling (random digit population elements.
chance of being dialling) and with computerised
selected into the voice response systems. Takes more time to
sample. Sample drawn implement.
using random number
table/ generator. Uses larger sample sizes.

Produces larger errors.

Expensive.

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Systematic Selects an element of Simple to design. Periodicity within the

the population at a population may skew the
beginning with a Easier to use than the simple sample and results.
random start and random.
following the sampling If the population list has a
fraction selects every Easy to determine sampling monotonic trend, a biased
kth element. distribution of mean or estimate will result based
proportion. on the start point.

Less expensive than simple

random.
Stratified Divide population into Researcher controls sample Increased error will result
sub-populations or size in strata. if sub-groups are selected
strata and use simple at different rates.
random sample on Increased statistical efficiency.
each strata. Results Expensive.
may be weighted and Provides data to represent and
combined. analyse sub-groups. Especially expensive if
strata on the population
Enables use of different have to be created.
methods in strata.
Cluster Population is divided Provides an unbiased estimate Often lower statistical
into internally of population parameters if efficiency (more error) due
heterogeneous sub- properly done. to sub-groups being
groups. Some are homogenous rather than
randomly selected for Economically more efficient heterogeneous.
further study. than simple random.

Lowest cost per sample,

especially with geographic
clusters.

Easy to do without a population

list.
Source: Cooper and Schindler (2000:243)

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Activity 4.3

1. Explain, with an appropriate example for each, when it would be

appropriate to use:
a) Simple random sampling
b) Stratified sampling
c) Cluster sampling

2. Your automatic transmission factory has been having some problems with
quality. You have decided to gather information from tomorrow’s production
for careful evaluation.
For each of the following sampling methods, illustrate if the procedure is
good, acceptable, or unreasonable. Give a reason for your choice:
a) The first 5 transmissions produced.
b) The first 18 transmissions that are sitting outside the plant because they
never worked.
c) Every 20th transmission produced.

4.5 Non-Probability Sampling

With probability sampling researcher bias and subjectivity is reduced or eliminated through the
random selection of elements. There can thus be a relatively high level of confidence that the sample
is representative of the population from which it has been drawn. In nonprobability sampling,
because of the greater scope allowed to researcher subjectivity in the constitution of the sample,
there is greater opportunity for researcher bias to affect the sampling procedure and so to distort the
findings of the study.

Non-probability sampling is often the chosen route when the researcher, for example, is undertaking
an exploratory, qualitative study and does not have the objective of generalising the findings to the
population from which the sample was selected. Cost and time variables may also influence the
choice of non-probability sampling as probability sampling requires careful planning and
comprehensive effort in defining the population and establishing the sampling frame. Sometimes it
may be the only practical option as the total population may not be available or easy to identify.

Convenience Sampling

The researcher has the freedom to choose whoever is available for inclusion in the sample. Though
not a reliable research design, convenience sampling is often the easiest to constitute and effect.

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Examples include the selection of friends and neighbours who are easy to locate and convenient to
poll. While the findings emerging from convenience samples may not be precise and lack reliability,
they may be useful, for example, in the exploratory stage of studies with multiple data gathering
procedures and combined research strategies. Generally, however, this strategy has little more to
commend or justify it as a sampling strategy as it lacks a sound research ethic and validity.

Judgement Sampling

Judgement sampling is a form of purposive sampling. Purposive sampling, in turn, is a generic term
that is used to describe any sample which is deliberately chosen by the researcher in accordance
with predetermined nonprobability criteria. For example, in a study of computer hardware trends, the
research may want to interview only those with fairly wide experience in the field. When used in the
early stages of an exploratory or descriptive study, a judgement sample is an effective, time-efficient
method.

Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is another purposive approach available to the researcher. The study may require a
sample stratified on certain variables but for some valid reason proportional stratified sampling is not
possible. In this situation, quota sampling may be an appropriate choice to improve the
representativeness of the study. Here the population is divided proportionately into predetermined
categories (for example, on the basis of population demography) and the subjects in each category
are deliberately selected from the population until a particular quota has been met for each category.
Basically, this type of sampling requires two basic conditions: first, the categories should have a
distribution in the population that can be estimated and secondly, the variable used in forming each
category should be pertinent to the topic of the study. For example, in a study of the buying patterns
of young, Black middle managers the following categories may be identified for quota sampling:

Gender – 2 categories – male, female

Marital status – 3 categories – married, single, divorced
Family social economic class – 3 categories – upper, middle, lower
Educational qualifications – 5 categories – Graduates, Matriculants with management diplomas,
Matriculants with non-management qualifications, Non-Matriculants.

Religion – 4 Categories – Protestant, Catholic, Zionist, other.

All combinations of these five variables produce 360 subjects. The researcher will proceed to locate
subjects who fall into each category in terms of an estimate of their occurrence in the population.

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Maximum Variation Sampling

In this form of purposive sampling the researcher identifies the categories of interest in relation to
the research topic and then intentionally seeks out subjects or settings which represent the greatest
possible range of differences in the phenomena being studied.

Snowball Sampling

In the initial stages of snowball sampling individuals are identified using probability or nonprobability
methods. This group is then used to locate other subjects who possess similar characteristics who, in
turn, direct researchers to yet other possible participants in the study.

Practical Application 4.1

After a study of the literature and discussion with management colleagues on

the structure of her questionnaire, a student is ready to administer the
research instrument on customer preferences relating to supermarket
shopping. She has considered various ways of doing this, including:

(A) Standing in the foyer of a supermarket and attempting to interview every

tenth person who comes into the building.
(B) Speaking to a small group of shoppers who have come into the mall and
are clearly enthusiastic about their shopping visit.
(C) Asking some of those she has administered the questionnaire to put her
in touch with others who may have a view on the subject.
(D) Obtaining a list of names of people living in one of the suburbs around the
shopping mall (through the telephone directory) and using a random numbers
table to select a sample to whom the questionnaire would be sent by post.
(E) Coming to the mall on a Sunday and administering the questionnaire to as
many people as possible in the course of the day.

The student seeks your advice about the best course of action.
1. Explain what kind of sample would result from each of the five possible
procedures she has considered.
2. Explain which you would recommend and why.
3. Explain which procedure you would not advise and why.
4. Illustrate what should be the size of the sample.

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4.6 Sampling Error

Sampling error is the difference between the statistical characteristics of the sample and those of the
population from which the sample was selected. Suppose the average income of 10 000 workers in
the clothing industry was R3000 per month. If the researcher took 5 samples of 50 each and
computed the average monthly income of each sample. The results are not likely to be identical to
the population statistic. The researcher may get means of R2900, R2750, R3250, R3050 and R2950.
The amount of variability or spread of these values suggests some idea of the amount of sampling
error. The sample error is calculated by subtracting the sample mean (X) from the population mean
(X). Thus, for the five samples above the sampling error would be: -100, -250, 250, 50 and –50. The
larger the diversity of sample values, the larger the error and the less precise and representative is
the sample in relation to the population from which the sample was selected.

The researcher should consult any good book on business statistics for the procedure relating to
computing the sampling error as a numerical value. Clearly the objective of good sampling is to
ensure that the sampling error value is as low as possible.

4.7 Sample Size

Sample size can be calculated statistically. Again the student who wishes to familiarize himself/
herself with the statistical formulae relating may need to consult any good book on business
statistics. However, the student can proceed without calculating a scientifically precise sample size.
He/she needs to be guided by the fact that a sample that is too small is not likely to be representative
of the sample while one that is too large is likely to increase costs and time demands without
producing significant benefits. Generally a larger sample is advisable to ensure representativity when
the amount of variability among members and sub-groups in the sample is relatively great and when
the differences among members and sub-groups in the sample is relatively small. As variability
increases it suggests that individuals in the sample are more diverse, thus suggesting that a larger
number of data points is required to be representative of the sample. Second, as differences among
members and sub-groups in the sample get smaller a larger number of participants becomes
necessary to confirm the fact that the sample is, indeed, representative of the population.

Salkind (2000:96) suggests that researchers keep the following in mind when determining the size of
their sample(s):

In general, the larger the sample (within reason), the smaller the sampling error and the higher
the representativity of the sample
If the researcher wishes to discuss the influence of variables such as gender, age, and profession
in the findings, then the initial selection of the sample must be large enough to enable the

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eventual creation of statistically sufficient numbers in each category or sub-sample

If the researcher intends to conduct a postal survey, he/she must increase the sample size by
40% to 50% to allow for lost mail and uncooperative subjects
While a big sample is good, an appropriate-sized sample is better as it is more cost-effective in
terms of time and money

Activity 4.4

1. Explain what is the easiest way to reduce sampling error.

2. Explain what is the relationship between sampling error and the
generalisability of the results of the study.
3. Explain the impact of sample size on sample error. Explain the dynamics of
the process

4.8 Summary
The results of any research project are most valid for subjects who actually participated in the study.
But good research norms require that these results should also have applicability and relevance for
the research population and other groups that have a similar population profile. Obviously, as the
similarity between the research sample in the original study and an immediate group of interest
decreases, there is a concurrent increase in the likelihood that the results will not apply.

Therefore, students must select samples from the populations in such a way that they increase the
likelihood that the sample represents the population as closely as possible. Only then can the results
of the study be generalisable to the larger population and other groups with a similar profile.
Moreover, in evaluating any study during the literature review, the student must carefully consider
how the research sample is similar to or differs from his/her population of interest and how this
similarity or difference might affect the relevance of the research results.

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Answers

Activity 4.1
1. Explain what you would consider to be the main purposes of sampling.
Answer: This is a practical activity which students have to do by themselves.

Activity 4.2
1. You are undertaking research to establish the after-cinema use of facilities by cinema
patrons in large shopping centres with cinema complexes and eating places.
Outline the steps you would take to arrive at finding representatives of the universe.
Answer:

Identify the cinema

Identify the manager of cinema
Identify the user

Activity 4.3
1.Explain, with an appropriate example for each, when it would be appropriate to use:
a) Simple random sampling
b) Stratified sampling
c) Cluster sampling
Answer:
a)

Simple random sampling is when every person in the target population has an equal chance of
being selected to participate in a study

b)

Stratified sampling is taken in proportion to the population from subgroups of the target
population (religion, gender, etc.)

c)

Cluster sampling is selected from sub-groups of the target population determined by simple
random sampling (SRS).

2.Your automatic transmission factory has been having some problems with quality. You have
decided to gather information from tomorrow’s production for careful evaluation.
For each of the following sampling methods, illustrate if the procedure is good, acceptable, or

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unreasonable. Give a reason for your choice:

a) The first 5 transmissions produced.
b) The first 18 transmissions that are sitting outside the plant because they never worked.
c) Every 20th transmission produced.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

Activity 4.4
1. Explain what is the easiest way to reduce sampling error.
Answer: Choose non-random sampling technique to avoid generalisation.

2. Explain what is the relationship between sampling error and the generalisability of the
results of the study.
Answer: They tend arrive to the same results and generate information from various sources.

3. Explain the impact of sample size on sample error. Explain the dynamics of the process
Answer: Sample can be biased against other participants and can generate uncritical data analysis.

Practical Application 4.1

1. Explain what kind of sample would result from each of the five possible procedures she has
considered.
Answer:
Sample type

a. Systematic random sample but you should check how she has determined the required sample
size and the sampling interval.
b. Cluster sample (random), with small (presumed uniform) groups being treated as the basic
sampling unit.
c. Snowball sample (non-probability and purposive).
d. Stratified random sample.
e. Convenience sample.

2. Explain which you would recommend and why.

Answer:
Recommendations for an appropriate sampling method
You would need to know the overall aims of the study before you could comment on this. If it was a
quantitative study, one of the probability methods based on random sampling would be chosen.
The systematic sample might be more reliable than the cluster sample, but the latter would be
quicker and more convenient in practice. The stratified random sample here is likely to be most
informative, as it would allow a comparison of the characteristics of various types of shoppers, and it
could, if necessary, be further stratified (e.g. by age, group, or gender). If, in contrast, the aim of the
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study was qualitative – seeking, for example, to elicit shoppers’ personal reflections on supermarket
design features, quality of service, prices, etc. – then the snowball sample would be a good choice.

3. Explain which procedure you would not advise and why.

Answer:
Unsatisfactory sampling method
The use of convenience samples (accidental samples) should generally be avoided, since no
rationale, other than the researcher’s convenience, can be advanced in their favour.

4. Illustrate what should be the size of the sample.

Answer:
Sample size
To answer this correctly, you would again need to know more about the aims of the study. If it is
intentionally a qualitative study, then relatively small, purposive samples would typically be used,
and there is no ‘rule’ that determines sample size. The sample builds and evolves as data gathers,
and it is the quality, rather than the quantity of the sample that is the researcher’s prime concern.
If, in contrast, the study is intentionally a quantitative and experimental in design, then the sample
size necessary can be calculated mathematically and will be determined by:

The required level of significance of the results (shown by the confidence intervals)
The probability of detecting an actual difference between the means
The standard deviation of the measurements

See any good textbook on business statistics for these concepts.

The student could also draw upon the suggestions of Salkind (2000:96) for the size of his/her
sample. See above

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Unit
5:
Data Collection

Unit 5: Data Collection

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Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

Introduces the topic areas covered for

5.1 Introduction the unit

Validate specified research design and

manage the practical aspects relating
5.2 Data Collection Methods
to data collection

5.3 Interviews Analyse different data collection tools

with a focus on interviews and
observation
5.4 Observation

5.5 Ethnographic Studies Analyse different data collection tools

with a focus on ethnographic studies
and case studies
5.6 Case Studies

Summarises the topic areas covered

5.7 Summary for the unit

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Prescribed and Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)

Prescribed Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Saunders, M.N.K, Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Methods
for Business Students. Sixth Edition. Harlow, England: Financial
Times/Prentice Hall.

Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Bell, E., Bryman, A., Harley, P. and Hirschsohn, P. (2021). Research
Methodology: Business and Management Contexts. Second Edition.
South Africa: Oxford University Press.

du Plessis, C. and Satar, A.A. (2021). Introduction to Social Media

Research Theory and Application. First Edition. South Africa: Juta.

du Plooy-Cilliers, F., Davis, C. and Bezuidenhout, R.M. (2021).

Research Matters. Second Edition. South Africa: Juta.

Howard, R.M. (2022). Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and

Research. Fourth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill LLC.

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5.1 Introduction
The entire research planning, design and literature review processes converge on the data collection
stage. All the hard thinking is a preparation for the actual process of collecting primary data on the
topic from the research subjects. Additionally, however, the researcher must also have the data
analysis plan established before commencing with the data collection process. Briefly some of the
essential pre-planning for data collection and data analysis requires clarity about:

The format of the research instruments. The researcher must ensure that all the categories of
data required for the completion of the research objectives have been included. In addition, there
has to be clarity about the way in which each area of the research instrument(s) will be analysed,
how qualitative and quantitative items will be processed, and how the computer will be used
during the data analysis stage
Identification of appropriate statistical techniques. The researcher must have full grasp of the
specific statistical techniques that will be used in the analysis of each section of the research
instrument(s). Should inferential statistics be required, the student must familiarise himself/
herself with the procedures and the interpretation of the relevant statistics
Data presentation and layout. The researcher must select the type of tables and graphics that
will be used in presenting the data
Pilot study. The researcher must administer the instruments to a small pilot group, examining the
user-friendliness, comprehensiveness and adequacy of the data collection procedures and
instruments. In addition, the data must be analysed to establish the adequacy of the data analysis
plan of action

The critical point in the data collection stage is that once the data is collated and about to be
analysed, it is often too late to return to participants to gather additional information on the gaps
revealed during the data analysis stage.

Implementing the Plan

The focus of all action during the data gathering stage must be the implementation of the plan of
action rather than arriving at ad hoc decisions or beginning the design process. The data gathering
plan, however, may not be implementable in its original, ideal form. The researcher has to be
prepared to address unforeseen contingencies. For example, if the sampling units for a cluster
sample have been identified, a change in the sample may be demanded if access to one of the
clusters is denied for some unforeseen reason. The researcher cannot know what may go wrong, but
he/she can anticipate something may go wrong and have contingency plans in place for each
possible obstacle.

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Interaction with participants in the study

The data gathering procedure must be designed to facilitate positive, informed interaction with the
research participants. Before the moment of data collection, a respondent is entitled to sufficient
information about the nature of the study, the kinds of information and/or behaviour expected of
him/her and the use to be made of the results so that he/she can decide whether or not to
participate. During the data gathering process itself, the researcher must ensure anxiety-free
cooperation from participants. And once the data has been gathered, the researcher has the
obligation to inform participants of the results.

5.2 Data Collection Methods

Below is a concise discussion of the major data collection methods. Clearly the decision in relation to
the specific research instrument that would be most suitable for the needs of the topic will have been
made during the research design stage. Here the various methods are discussed to assist the
student in understanding the operational issues relating to each specific technique.

Questionnaire
The two most commonly used primary data collection methods are the self administered
questionnaire and the interview. All research is generally concerned with obtaining answers to
questions. The questionnaire and interview are data collection instruments that enable the
researcher to pose questions to subjects in his/her search for answers to the research questions.
Both these instruments, however, have distinct features that have a bearing on the correct and
appropriate use of each for specific data collection purposes. (See Figure 5.1 below).

Figure 5.1: Types of questionnaire Source: Saunders et al. (2009: 363)

Activity 5.1

Outline a concise list of the major differences between self-administered

questionnaires and interviews as data gathering instruments.

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Appropriate Research Context

Questionnaires are most widely used in surveys with descriptive or exploratory purposes. They can,
however, also be effectively used in studies with experiment and case study research strategies. The
appropriateness of questionnaires as research tools, however, must be carefully examined in the
context of each study. Students sometimes fail to grasp that observation, semi-structured interviews
and other data collection procedures may be more appropriate for their research objectives than
questionnaires. Saunders et al. (2019:371) maintain that it is generally good practice not to rely
solely on questionnaire data but to use the questionnaire in conjunction with at least one other data
collection instrument. For example, a questionnaire designed to establish customers’ attitudes can
be complemented by in-depth interviews to explore and understand the basis of these attitudes.

Questionnaire design
In designing questionnaires there are five main issues that require attention. These are briefly
examined below.

1. Categories of Questions
The questions included in the questionnaire should, individually and collectively, provide the data
required for successful achievement of the research objectives. A well-constructed questionnaire
also has a range of question categories, each consisting of a small number of related questions,
intended to elicit information of a particular type relating to the research topic. Below are some of the
common categories of questions:

Socio-demographic items: to develop a ‘profile’ of the respondents by asking questions about

gender, marital status, age group, occupation, income and related personal information
Orientation items: to orientate the respondent on the core issues relating to the research and
sometimes to test his/her level of grasp of the topic area that follows
Behavioural questions: to measure attitudes, beliefs, opinions, motives and behaviours. Attitude
questions record how respondents feel about something; belief and opinion questions record
what respondents believe or think is true or false. Items that focus on motives and behavioural
variables elicit data on what individuals (or their organisations) did in the past, do now or will do in
the future and the motives for these behaviours
Content-related questions: to elicit data on the major purpose and content area of the research
topic

Activity 5.2

Explain what you would consider to be the main disadvantages associated

with questionnaires as data gathering instruments.

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2. Number and Content of Questions

Most researchers make the mistake of including too many questions in their questionnaires. This
often arises from an incomplete analysis of the research objectives. Researchers should therefore
have absolute clarity about their research objectives and keep these in mind during the planning and
design stage so that all the items on the questionnaire are relevant, concise and efficient.

In short, every question must be relevant and have a clear purpose. Clear, concise and well-
constructed questionnaires generally result in a better participant response rate.

3. Structure and Layout of the Questionnaire

Once the student has decided on the number, question categories and the types of questions that
will be asked, he/she should think about the actual structure and layout of the questionnaire – on the
component sections and the sequence of the questions. Some suggestions here are that the
researcher should start with similar and familiar ‘orientation’ questions, proceed to ‘content’ and
‘behavioural’ questions and keep the personal, ‘socio-demographic’ items to the end and to word
these carefully to avoid giving offence.

4. Type of Questions
Some broad points that are noteworthy here are:

‘Closed’ questions that circumscribe the respondents’ range of responses to questions are better
suited to questionnaires as they readily lend themselves to coding and to quantitative analysis
Questions should be designed to facilitate computer analysis as this allows for rapid computation,
statistical analysis and graphical presentation of data
Depending on the needs of the research topic and the range of data required for a
comprehensive coverage of the research objectives, the typical question formats include:

- single-option responses (‘yes’, ‘no’ or short answer)

- multiple choice responses (sets of options)
- rating questions (using, for example, Likert scales)
- ranking questions (ranking a set of options).
5. The Wording of Questions
Clear communication should be a fundamental goal of all questionnaires. Researchers must also
use extreme care in avoiding wording that gives rise to misunderstanding, suggests researcher bias,
or gives offence. Below are some points and suggestions on the wording of questions:

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Suggestions
1. Avoid open-ended questions: if necessary categorise into discrete groups.
For example, the question:

What do you think are the reasons for football hooliganism?

The above question may elicit a whole range of replies of varying length and articulation. If you are
interested in making very precise judgements of each individual respondent, this may well be useful.
If, however, you are concerned, as most surveys are, in summarising replies to produce a picture of
your population, a better approach may be …

Be sure to make your categories exhaustive, if necessary, by making fairly broad suggestions that
will still satisfy your objectives.

2.Plan to computerise analysis

If you still feel that your questions cannot be categorised until all the replies are returned leave a
space in the margin to code the response numerically for computer analysis.

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For example

3. Keep answers mutually exclusive

When designing questions for a single answer, make sure you will always have just one answer.

For example, if you ask the question:

How do you travel to work?

You may expect a different number of replies from each respondent. The student who lives locally
may always walk, but another may take a bike or come by bus when it rains.
Phrasing the question:

What is your most usual means of travelling to work?

Will certainly help but may not include all the information needed. Another way would be:

Here the respondent is allowed to select a combination of answers to what is, in fact, a series of
independent dichotomous yes/no questions.

Never be tempted to use the following structure:

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Select up to three of the options below and enter in the boxes opposite

Whilst this may be logically sound, you will have problems when summarising these results. A very
tedious and finally unsatisfactory search is required to determine how any given option performs.

4.Ranked replies
A useful way to ask for an ordering of a set of options may be to demand a numerical ordering from 1
to the maximum number you are interested in.

For example, to a question like:

Or even in a more complex and interesting way:

(Circle the number under the initials, which applies. VI = Very Important;
I = Important; N = Neutral; U = Unimportant; VU = Very Unimportant).

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Indicate your view of the following aspects of a camping holiday.

5.Avoid dual/double-barrelled questions

Sometimes questions hide a dual question, for example:

Do you think the South Africans should eat less and exercise more?

ASK INSTEAD:

6.Avoid asking questions involving negatives

Don’t confuse the respondent by language such as this:

Confusion leads to errors!

Instead, a better wording would be:

Do you support a ban on smoking?

7. Getting the maximum response

You cannot always expect the respondent to have the same concern for the greater good (which
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your questionnaire will undoubtedly serve!) as yourself. There are two main considerations which
must be made when asking a person to give up some time to help your research. Firstly allow for
privacy and do not ask questions which may offend. Apart from anything else your rate of return will
suffer. Secondly, especially if you need to ask some personally searching questions, it helps to
explain as much as you feel able to about your research to the respondent, both at the beginning
and all through the questionnaire. For example, having asked most of your general questions you
might at the end write:

Explaining the purpose of the questionnaire

The researcher must explain the purpose of the questionnaire to the participant not only to orient
him/her to the research subject but to obtain informed participation in the study. Most frequently used
method of explaining the purpose is to attach a covering letter to the questionnaire. In addition, the
questionnaire itself should have an opening section that clearly and concisely explains the basic aim
of the study and the importance of the participants’ involvement in the study.
Pilot testing
Before administering the questionnaire to participants in the study, the researcher must test it on a
small sample. The analysis of the pilot survey will reveal flaws in some questions, suggest possible
improvements and supply a range of possible answers to open-ended questions.
Additionally, the pilot survey enables the student to:

Make amendments necessary to maximise returns and minimise the error rate on answers
Categories the open-ended questions to a reasonable degree
Perform the analysis on the pilot sample and test out all the computational procedures and
produce some initial hypotheses
Evaluate the adequacy of the data for the research questions

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Activity 5.3

Outline a covering letter that would accompany your questionnaire for a study
on one of the following topics:
Sexual harassment in the workplace

Impact of culture in the workplace

Impact of the Labour Relations Act and related labour legislation on

management capacity to cope with ineffective staff members

Validity and Reliability

Validity addresses the issue of whether the researcher is actually measuring what he/ she has
set out to do. There are four specific types of validity – each of which the researcher would ideally
want to establish for the research instrument prior to administering it for the actual study

Face validity requires the research instrument to be relevant to participants in the study. Face
validity can be established by asking friends, colleagues and individuals from the target
population to comment on the relevance, balance and adequacy of the research instrument in
relation to the research objectives. The reason for this is that respondents sometimes become
resentful and uncooperative if they think they are being misrepresented to others, or worse, if
they believe the researcher is not being frank with them

Content validity is similar to face validity except that the researcher must seek the opinion of
experts in the field on the adequacy of his/her research instrument

Criterion validity has two distinct forms of validity associated with it. Predictive validity refers to
the capacity of a respondent’s ratings and responses to items on the instrument to predict
behaviour outside the immediate framework of the research instrument. For example, can
positive responses to questions on a job survey predict the work ethos and capacity of the
respondent? Concurrent validity indicates whether the level of responses to items on the
research instrument is parallel to other facets of the respondent’s overall behaviour. For example,
are low attitude responses concurrent with low levels of job satisfaction?

Reliability of a research instrument refers to the consistency or repeatability of the measurement

of some phenomena. The observed score is one of the major components of reliability. There are
three types of reliability:

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Parallel forms of reliability which is a measure of equivalence, and it involves administering

two different forms of measurements to the same group of participants and obtaining a
positive correlation between the two forms

Test-retest reliability which essentially involves administering the same research instrument
at two different points in time to the same research subjects and obtaining a correlation
between the two sets of responses

Inter-rater reliability which is a measure of homogeneity. With inter-rater reliability one

measures the amount of agreement between two people who rate a behaviour, object or
phenomenon

Practical Application 5.1

1. Outline some of the important points you should use in evaluating a self-
administered questionnaire-based study.
2. Outline the 2 types of questionnaires.
3. Outline and explain the three types of reliability.

5.3 Interviews
Interviews and Questionnaires
Questionnaires and interviews are two of the most widely used primary data collection methods. The
interview is a form of data collection that is very common in descriptive research such as surveys, but
can also be used to collect valid and reliable data in other types of research. In contrast to
questionnaires, interviews generally tend to:

Make greater use of open-ended questions

Be associated more typically with qualitative, phenomenologically–oriented research
Make use of small, deliberately selected purposive samples
Give a large, and potentially unlimited, information yield

Activity 5.4

Illustrate examples of research topics where the interview may be more

appropriate as a data gathering method.

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Direct, verbal interaction

The interview is unique in that it involves the collection of data through direct verbal interaction (often
face-to-face). The interview situation permits the research to follow up verbal leads and thus obtain
more data and greater clarity. The interview situation permits much greater depth than other methods
of collecting data.

Activity 5.5

Explain what you would consider to be the main advantages and

disadvantages of the interview as a research instrument.

There are various types of interviews with the highly structured, interviewer administered
questionnaire and the unstructured, open-ended, in-depth interview as opposite ends of a
continuum.
Table 5.1: Types of interviews

Highly structured Structured Semi-structured Unstructured, open-

ended
Only closed Closed questions List of themes and No
questions with predominate questions with predetermined
pre-coded opportunities for questions.
answers open-ended Informal, in-
discussion of depth discussion
items of a general
topic

Fast completion Fairly fast Relatively longer Time-

completion to complete consuming to
conduct

Quantitative Mainly qualitative Both quantitative Qualitative

analysis focus and qualitative analysis
required.
Relatively
difficult

Each type of interview has a different purpose. Highly-structured and structured interviews may be
used in surveys and be processed quantitatively. In contrast, semi-structured and unstructured
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interviews are essentially qualitative, phenomenologically-oriented data collection methods: they

enable exploratory discussions that allow the researcher not only to understand the ‘what’ and the
‘how’ but also to grasp and explore the internal dynamics of the research topic.

The various types of interviews can be used in a single study to increase the reliability of the findings.
For example, in-depth, unstructured interviews may be used in the initial stages of the study to
identify themes and variables. This data can then be used to design a questionnaire or a structured
interview to examine specific themes and the interaction of specific variables.

Similarly, in the second stage of a quantitative questionnaire-based study, semi-structured or

unstructured interviews may be used to explore and to validate the findings from the questionnaire.

Design of interview
Most interviews use a written script of one kind or another with varying levels of flexibility designed
into the interview schedule (the formal, written listing of the questions or themes). In a highly
structured interview the design of the interview would be very similar to that of a questionnaire. The
open-ended interview, on the other hand, would have no schedule of question at all. In addition,
semi-structured interview schedules would consist of some closed questions with the interviewer
having the freedom to ask the subject to enlarge upon his responses as well as a test of open-ended
questions and themes for discussion.

Activity 5.6

Illustrate a semi-structured interview schedule of 10 items for a study on

sexual harassment in the workplace.

Conducting the interview

Interviews do not require large samples. The subjects are often deliberately selected for their
experience and specialist background and thus constitute a purposive sample. In the interaction with
the subjects in the sample, the interviewer should avoid the common pitfalls in the interview situation
which may affect the reliability and validity of the findings:

Agreeing or disagreeing with the subject

Suggesting answers
Displaying bias or prejudice
‘Leading’ the subject

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Being in any way judgemental

Lapsing into general conversation

In addition, interviewers should use an appropriate dress code and create a conducive climate
before commencing with the interview proper.

Recording the interview data

Generally it is not appropriate to make notes as the interview is in progress as this is not only
distracting to the subject, but disrupts the flow of the interview. The researcher may also give the
subject clues about points of importance and so influence the subject’s later responses.

More appropriately, the interviewer may make use of a tape recorder (with the subject’s consent), or
use an accompanying note-taker, or depend on his/her memory and make the relevant notes as
soon as possible after the interview. In summary, the interview is an excellent technique for gathering
certain kinds of research information. However, because of its subjectivity, there are, as noted above
many potential sources of bias.

Practical Application 5.2

Explain some of the important criteria you would use in evaluating business
research that use interviews to collect data.

5.4 Observation
General Characteristics
Essentially observation involves systematic observation, recording, description, analysis and
interpretation of people’s behaviour. There are many positive aspects to observational research.
Observations are usually flexible, enabling the researcher to gather a wide range of data for a variety
of research objectives. For example, before undertaking more structured research, a researcher may
conduct observations to form a research question. In terms of validity, observational research
findings are considered strong because the researcher is able to collect a depth of information about
a particular phenomenon. Reliability and generalizability of findings, however, are not equally high. In
observational research, often findings only relate to a unique population and therefore not freely
applicable to the larger population. In general, however, observations are a valuable tool for
researchers.

Appropriate Use of Observation

As indicated above, observation can be used in conjunction with other data collection methods to

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increase the reliability of the study. Some points to note when deciding upon the use of observation
as a research tool:

Sensitivity of the topic. Sometimes subjects are reluctant to answer questions about sensitive
issues. For example, if the researcher were investigating racial prejudice among management
staff, many people would be reluctant to reveal the truth about their views and attitudes. Instead,
the researcher may choose to observe black and white staff interactions in a large company. In
this case observations are likely to assist in collating more accurate data. Thus, sensitive social
and business issues are often better approached with observational research
Observability of the phenomena. The researcher must be able to observe what is relevant to
the study. For example, you cannot see attitudes, but you can observe behaviours and make
inferences about attitudes. There are certain things that are normally not observable. For
example, questions relating to sexual behaviour can be better studied with the aid of a
questionnaire that grants participants anonymity
Availability of time resources. Observational research is time-consuming. In order to obtain
reliability, behaviours must be observed several times over a period of time. There is also the real
possibility that the observer’s presence may change the normal patterns of the behaviour being
observed. If the observation is extended over a period of time subjects are more likely to adjust to
the presence of the observer and act more normally
Observation to gain insight and research clarity. Often the researcher may begin with an area
of interest but not have full clarity on the topic and the research questions. Observation over a
period of time may suggest a theory and a theory testing procedure. These observations become
theory once they are replicated

Types of Observations

Participants Observation
As with interviews, there are two broad categories of observation – participant observation and
structured observation. Saunders et al. (2009:224) classify the researcher roles in the participant
observation data gathering strategy in terms of the researchers’ involvement in the activity being
investigated and the subjects’ awareness of the observer’s presence, as indicated in Figure 5.2
below. The description below uses this classification as a point of departure in presenting
observation as a tool for data collection.

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Figure 5.2: Classification of researcher roles in participant observation

Source: Saunders et al. (2005:224)

The roles of complete participant and complete observer require the researcher to conceal his
identity and his research preoccupation. The advantage here is that the research subjects do not
modify their behaviour as a reactive response to an external agent: they act naturally and
spontaneously because they do not know that they are being observed. There are ethical issues in
this form of data gathering because there is deception of the subjects.

In contrast, the observer as participant and participant as observer roles entail the researcher
disclosing his/her preserve and the research objectives of his presence to the subjects. While there
is the danger that they may react to the researcher’s presence by changing their actions rather than
showing what they are really like, the contrived behaviour itself may reveal aspects of what is judged
by the group to be socially desirable and what they feel about sharing their feelings. Even the most
contrived behaviour is difficult to maintain over time. A long-term observational study will often catch
glimpses of natural behaviour.

Structured Observation

Like structured interviews, structured observation is systematic with a predetermined protocol for
observation and clearly defined criteria for categories and structures. The objective would be
primarily to quantify the observed behaviour. The process basically involves establishing the
straightforward, observable facts and collating data to meet the research objectives
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Observational Variables

In both participant and structured observation the researcher has to know what he/she is observing
and how to interpret the observations.

Three categories of data, for example, may be generated by participant observation:

Primary observations: relate to observations of what is said and done. Diaries are generally
used to record this data
Secondary observations: relate to statements by observers of what was said or done
Experiential data: encompasses the perceptions and feelings in the course of observing
phenomena. Diaries are generally used to record this data

The important issue in the choice of any data gathering technique is that it must effectively meet the
demands of the research objectives. This is also true of observational data collection techniques. It is
also important, as with other data collection strategies, that the researcher should start with an
understanding of how he/ she is going to interpret the observations. The data may be categorised
into three groups from a data analysis perspective:

Descriptive observational data which require no inference making on the part of the researcher:
he/she sees something and writes it down
Inferential observational data which require the researcher to make inferences about what is
observed and the underlying emotion. For example, if the researcher observes a manager
consistently visit the staff offices, five minutes before closing time for the day, the researcher may
conclude an intrusive, fault-finding style of management
Evaluative observational data require the researcher to make an inference and a judgement
from the observed behaviour. For example, you may question whether managers and blue collar
workers have a positive relationship in a company. ‘Positive’ is an evaluative judgement. You
observe managers issuing regular written instructions and assessment to workers and conclude
that the level of personal, open communication between management and workers is low

Observation Collection Methods

Continuous monitoring (CM) involves observing a subject or subjects and recording (either
manually, electronically, or both) as much of their behaviour as possible. CM is often used in
organisational settings, such as evaluating performance. CM is relatively easy but a time-
consuming endeavour
Time allocation (TA) involves a researcher randomly selecting a place and time and then
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recording what people are doing when they are first seen, and before they see the
researcher. There are several sampling problems with this approach. First the researcher needs
a large representative sample in order to make generalisations. Second, questions such as
when, how often, and where the researcher should observe the subject(s) are often a concern
Diaries and narrative logbooks in which the researcher maintains a descriptive and/ or
narrative account of his/her observations. The diaries, however, must not only record descriptions
and narrative accounts but interpretations and evaluations and develop a framework of theory
which will help in understanding the underlying dynamics of the business phenomena
Coding schedules are used in structured observation to record the nature and frequency of
defined categories of behaviour in the research context. In business studies coding schedules
are often used for recording interpersonal interactions in social situations such as meetings or
negotiations

Activity 5.7

As part of the efforts of an organisation to move to a participative style of

management, regular team meetings have been introduced to make staff
more involved in the decision-making processes. You have been asked, as a
junior manager, to analyse the implementation of the change.
Explain how appropriate would it be to use observation as the data
collection method

If you decide that participant-observation is appropriate, explain what

practical problems you foresee

Explain if you are likely to be faced with any moral dilemmas

Outline how you would overcome both sets of problems.

Appropriate use of observational procedures

In evaluating the appropriate use of observational procedures in any business study, the reviewer
should examine the research in terms of the following criteria:

Were there a full range of behavioural variables identified to permit description, inferences and
evaluations of behaviours and inter-related patterns of actions?
Was the observer/were the observers trained to identify the variables to be observed?
Were the observers trained in the maintenance of diaries, records and coding schedules?
If there were more than one observer, what was the inter-observer reliability of the data, that is,
what was the level of agreement between the observations of independent observers?

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What was the duration of observation as observations must aim at a representative sample of the
behaviour of individuals being observed? Was the period too short to permit sufficient observation
of the entire research situation?
How conspicuous, obtrusive and directive was the role of the observer? Did the researcher
describe the observational situation and present an estimate of the possible effects of his/her
presence as a participant-observer?

5.5 Ethnographic Studies

Ethnography essentially involves a systematic, extended observation of social groups to gain insider
information of the phenomenon. Ethnographic studies are characterised by all or many of the
following features:

A broadly qualitative, phenomenological orientation

Participant-observation, often of a concealed, covert, unobtrusive variety
The researcher’s adoption of the subject’s worldview and frame of reference
Use by the researcher of the subjects’ communication conventions and the special meanings and
significance they attach to ordinary words and phrases
The researcher’s efforts to define and dramatise the group’s sense of its own identity and
uniqueness as a group
Presentation of detailed accounts of specific situations from a narrative, descriptive and
inferential perspective
A complex interweaving in the events and the wider social context within which they are located

Generally ethnographic studies do not commence with a highly structured research design: the
researcher is generally open to observing, evaluating and interpreting quite unexpected behaviour
and events. There is at first only the broad focus of research interest that evolves as the participant-
observation process unfolds.

Practical Application 5.3

Explain what you would consider to be the pros and cons of conducting
business research using an ethnographic methodology.

5.6 Case Studies

The case study generally involves the in-depth study of a phenomenon with reference to a particular
‘case’ or ‘cases’. It is usually an exploration of a question or phenomenon of interest when little is
known in advance and where the situation may be complex. Case studies examine the processes
and dynamics within a specific case, draw on multiple sources of information, and tell a story, usually
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in a chronological order. In case studies, the researcher can create a rich textured description of a
social process or the operation of an organisation. This can set the stage for more specific questions
that might be probed later using more tightly structured methods.

Use of Case Study Methodology

Case studies can be undertaken for a variety of reasons. Five distinct types of case studies can be
identified:

Exploratory case studies are undertaken in little researched or new areas where there are few
existing theories or a deficient body of knowledge
Descriptive case studies limit themselves to present a comprehensive description of current
practices and operation in an organisation or of the research situation
Illustrative case studies attempt to illustrate new and possibly innovative practices adopted by
particular companies
Experimental case studies examine the processes and problems in implementing new
procedures and techniques in an organisation and evaluating the outcomes
Explanatory case studies use existing theory to understand and explain events and practices
within the observational context

Within this typology of case studies, there are two broad categories – the single case-study design
and the multiple case-study design. The former tends to be more frequently used in qualitative
studies. Multiple case-study designs are widely used in both qualitative and quantitative research
and have the advantage that they can allow the researcher to compare and contrast aspects of the
phenomenon of research interest in different contexts.

Issues with Case Study Methods

The case study, like all social research, should clearly and thoughtfully be designed to facilitate the
data collection stage. The researcher should pay attention at the outset to:

Evaluation questions. The researcher should have a clear sense of what he/she is going to
examine in the research process, with the variables of interest clearly defined
Propositions. The researcher must have a clear map of all the things that should be examined
within the scope of the study. Propositions should address the aspects of the study that are
relevant to the question at hand. To the extent possible, propositions should derive from theory,
that is, some theory about the variables involved in the study should provide the researcher with
a guide as to what to look for that is important, and where that information might be found. For
example, if the researcher is examining the way companies handle staff grievances, the
researcher might state as a proposition: ‘Companies with carefully designed grievance
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procedures that require written submission of grievances are likely to encounter greater
polarisation between complainant and company.’ The propositions provide the researcher with
information on what to look at (for example, forms for submission of grievances, filing and
processing of grievances, etc.)
Unit of analysis. This refers to the level at which the case study is focused. This may be the
section of the HR division responsible for staff welfare. The unit of analysis will be determined by
the research question and availability of time and other resources. The research may also go
beyond the unit of analysis to develop a more textured and detailed presentation of the case
study. For example, in the example above, the researcher may also focus on the nature of the link
between the HR division and union representatives

Advantages of the Case Study Design

In general, a number of benefits accrue from the use of case-study designs. Perhaps most
compelling is the fact that it can incorporate multiple methodological approaches in a single
research. There can thus be triangulation of methodologies: different investigative methods can be
combined within the study, increasing its validity. Thus, within the context of the case study,
questionnaires, interviews and observational research might all be combined, in the context of a
clear research framework. Similarly, quantitative and qualitative approaches can be used, either
separately, or in combination. Case study is a way of presenting data, more than it is a data
gathering technique. Data gathered in different ways can be presented in a unified case study format

Gathering Data for the Case Study

As noted above a variety of quantitative and qualitative data gathering techniques can be used in the
case study framework. Indeed, to increase the reliability and validity of the study, it is imperative that
there be multiple sources of data. Possible data gathering techniques are:

Narrative/ log/ diary/ journal

Documentary records
Focus group meetings
In-depth interviews
Direct observation
Participant observation

Data should be stored in such a way that the raw data, field notes about the data, and other reports
of the investigator are maintained in separate databases. A chain of evidence should be maintained
in which the researcher’s logic and reporting informs the reader of the steps taken from initial
propositions to final reporting of data. The specifics about data collection should be reflected in the
case study protocol and the protocol should relate to the original study questions and propositions.
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Developing a Case Study Protocol

During the design stage the researcher should develop a comprehensive case study protocol. The
protocol acts as a driver’s manual from the initial stages of the study to its completion. The protocol
usually includes the following:

Overview, including project objectives, case study issues, propositions and relevant readings
Sources of information, including locations for information, and general procedures
Case study questions
Guide for the case study report, including an outline, narrative format, and any bibliographic or
background literature

Activity 5.8

Students often submit a topic based on their own organisations as topics for
their dissertation. Often the issue is purely an internal management policy
issue that could be addressed with some close study of the area of attention.
Such topics are often rejected as being not founded on a true management
PROBLEM or as being too NARROW or not reflecting a good understanding
of case study research methodology.

There are instances where a single organisation can be the focus of study as
the researcher is validly utilising a CASE STUDY methodology.
1. Explain the proper use of the case study and outline the advantages and
disadvantages associated with the use of this research design.
2. Outline some important considerations that you should keep in mind when
using a case study approach in business research.
3. Outline the data gathering and data analysis strategies that are appropriate
in case study based research.

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5.7 Summary
The questions about which type of data gathering method is the best are really false. The real issue
is the choice of the appropriate data collection method in terms of the specific demands of the
research objectives. Moreover, it is increasingly desirable that researchers use multiple methods to
increase the reliability and validity of their findings through an approach generally referred to as
triangulation.

The essence of triangulation is that multiple techniques are used in a parallel sense, so that they
provide overlapping information, making it possible to check results from more than one viewpoint.
There are four distinct types of triangulation:

Data triangulation where data is collected at different times, or from different sources, in the
study of a phenomenon
Methodological triangulation where different methods of data collection, commonly both
qualitative and quantitative, are combined in the study
Investigator triangulation where several different researchers collect data independently on the
same phenomenon and compare their findings
Triangulation of theories where the research phenomenon is examined from different
theoretical perspectives, disciplines or sub-disciplines

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Answers

Activity 5.1
1. Outline a concise list of the major differences between self-administered questionnaires
and interviews as data gathering instruments.
Answer:
Questionnaires is a list of questions a person gets to answer while interviews are face-to-face or
person to person either in the same room or via telephone.

Activity 5.2
1. Explain what you would consider to be the main disadvantages associated with
questionnaires as data gathering instruments.
Answer:

Answers may not be answered

Participants may interpret the questions differently/ may not understand the question
Participants do not convey feelings and emotions

Activity 5.3
Outline a covering letter that would accompany your questionnaire for a study on one of the
following topics:

1. Sexual harassment in the workplace

2. Impact of culture in the workplace
3. Impact of the Labour Relations Act and related labour legislation on management capacity
to cope with ineffective staff members.

Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

Activity 5.4
1. Illustrate examples of research topics where the interview may be more appropriate as a
data gathering method.
Answer: These are practical activities that involve the student answering questions in relation to
their research topics.

Activity 5.5
1. Explain what you would consider to be the main advantages and disadvantages of the

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interview as a research instrument.

Answer: These are practical activities that involvethe student answering questions in relation to their
research topics.

Activity 5.6
1. Illustrate a semi-structured interview schedule of 10 items for a study on sexual harassment
in the workplace.
Answer: These are practical activities that involve the student answering questions in relation to
their research topics.

Activity 5.7
As part of the efforts of an organisation to move to a participative style of management,
regular team meetings have been introduced to make staff more involved in the decision-
making processes. You have been asked, as a junior manager, to analysethe implementation
of the change.

1. Explain how appropriate would it be to use observation as the data collection method.
2. If you decide that participant-observation is appropriate, explain what practical problems
you foresee.
3. Explain if you are likely to be faced with any moral dilemmas.
4. Outline how you would overcome both sets of problems.
Answer: These are practical activities that involve the student answering questions in relation to
their research topics.

Activity 5.8
1. Explain the proper use of the case study and outline the advantages and disadvantages
associated with the use of this research design.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

2. Outline some important considerations that you should keep in mind when using a case
study approach in business research.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

3. Outline the data gathering and data analysis strategies that are appropriate in case study
based research.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

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Practical Application 5.1

1. Outline some of the important points you should use in evaluating a self-administered
questionnaire-based study.
Answer:To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

2. Outline the 2 types of questionnaires.

Answer:
Self-administered
Interviewer administered

3.Outline and explain the three types of reliability.

Answer:
Parallel forms of reliability whichis a measure of equivalence, and it involves administering two
different forms of measurements to the same group of participants and obtaining a positive
correlation between the two forms.
Test-retest reliability which essentially involves administering the same research instrument at two
different points in time to the same research subjects and obtaining a correlation between the two
sets of responses.
Inter-rater reliability, which is a measure of homogeneity. With inter-rater reliability one measures the
amount of agreement between two people who rate a behaviour, object or phenomenon.

Practical Application 5.2

1. Explain some of the important criteria you would use in evaluating business research that
use interviews to collect data.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

Practical Application 5.3

1. Explain what you would consider to be the pros and cons of conducting business research
using an ethnographic methodology.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

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Unit
6:
Data Analysis

Unit 6: Data Analysis

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Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

Introduces the topic areas covered for

6.1 Introduction the unit

Analyse types of quantitative data and

6.2 The Analysis of Quantitative Data apply a data analysis technique in
order to transform raw data into
6.3 Types of Quantitative Data information

Analyse types of qualitative data and

apply a data analysis techniques in
6.4 Analysis of Qualitative Data order to transform raw data into
information

Summarises the topic areas covered

6.5 Summary for the unit

Prescribed and Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)

Prescribed Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Saunders, M.N.K, Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Methods
for Business Students. Sixth Edition. Harlow, England: Financial
Times/Prentice Hall.

Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Bell, E., Bryman, A., Harley, P. and Hirschsohn, P. (2021). Research
Methodology: Business and Management Contexts. Second Edition.
South Africa: Oxford University Press.

du Plessis, C. and Satar, A.A. (2021). Introduction to Social Media

Research Theory and Application. First Edition. South Africa: Juta.

du Plooy-Cilliers, F., Davis, C. and Bezuidenhout, R.M. (2021).

Research Matters. Second Edition. South Africa: Juta.

Howard, R.M. (2022). Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and

Research. Fourth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill LLC.

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6.1 Introduction
Research includes the formal and informal process of gaining, utilising and systematically applying
knowledge to an area of interest. The aim is to establish a link between what one knows and what
one learns about a research problem through a review of relevant literature and gathering primary
data from individuals located in the research situation. Therefore, there is tremendous value in
understanding the various dimensions of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies.
Throughout this manual students have been advised of the necessity of becoming familiar with
research paradigms and the range of research methods in order to appropriately select the
approach and the method that best fits their area of research and their research design. The context,
purpose and types of research questions asked will define the methodological foundation of the
study. Students must avoid the all too frequent mismatch between research objectives and the
research method selected for the study. This is a problem most prevalent among students new to the
field of business research and dissertation writing.

The process of data collection and data analysis go hand-in-hand. If the research has a positivistic
bias, then the data collection and the data analysis procedures will most likely be quantitative. On the
other hand, if the study is located in a phenomenological paradigm both the data collection and data
analysis techniques will tend to be qualitative.

Activity 6.1

Explain the implications of the use of ‘open’ and ‘closed’ questions for the type
of data that is likely to be gathered and for the techniques for data analysis.

6.2 The Analysis of Quantitative Data

Quantitative data refers to all data that can be reduced to numerical values, ranging from the
numerical frequency of occurrences to complex presentation of data in terms of graphs and charts.
To convey meaning within the framework of the study, this data has to be analysed and interpreted.
In short, collecting and analysing data with quantitative techniques includes understanding the
relationship among variables utilising descriptive and inferential statistics.

This process will require the student to:

Seek advice regarding statistics and statistical analyses should he/she not be knowledgeable in
this field
Utilise, if possible, computer-based analysis software, seeking again, if necessary, the assistance
of experts in the field

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Study the statistical concepts relevant to the needs of the study

The presentation of statistics is beyond the scope of this module. Students are advised to refer to
textbooks on Quantitative Methods for an in depth analysis.

Briefly, descriptive statistics enable a concise description of the data in terms of statistics such as
percentages, frequencies, means and standard deviations. Figure 6.1 below provides the measures
of central tendency and the data type that would apply to it.

Figure 6.1: Measures of central tendency and data type

Inferential statistics goes a step further. While descriptive statistics are used to describe a sample’s
characteristics on the basis of the data gathered from respondents, inferential statistics are used to
infer something about the population from which the sample was drawn based on the information
summarised in the descriptive statistics. For example, in a study of TV programme preferences
among rural and urban viewers, from an examination of the means and standard deviations for
specific variables in these two samples in the study, the researcher may make inferences about
similarities and significant differences in these two sets of viewers in the larger population. In short,
inferential statistics are based on descriptive statistics and enable the researcher to generalise to the
population from the selected sample.

For students who have access to the Internet, see Table 6.1 on the following page for a list of sites
where information on specific statistical processes may be sought.

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Table 6.1: Internet addresses providing assistance on statistics

Probability
http://www.intergalact.com/threedoor/threedoor.html
Central Limit Thoerem
http://www.stat.sc.edu/~west/javahtml/CLT.html
http://huizen.dds.nl/~berrie/clt.html
Testing Hypotheses About Single Means
http://www.psychstat.smsu.edu/introbook/sbk20.htm
t-Distribution and t-Tests
http://www.psychstat.smsu.edu/introbook/sbk24.htm
http://www.psychstat.smsu.edu/introbook/sbk25.htm
http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/Stories/WomenintheLaborForce.html
Errors in Hypothesis Testing
http://www.psychstat.smu.edu/introbook/sbk26.htm
Correlation
http://www.psychstat.smsu.edu/DASL/Stories/BrainSizeandIntellegence.html
ANOVA
http://www.psychstat.smsu.edu/introbook/sbk27.htm
http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/Stories/ReadingComprehension.html
http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/Stories/HomeFieldAdvantage.html
Chi-Square
http://www.psychstat.smsu.edu/introbook/sbk28.htm
http://www.mste.uiuc.edu/patel/chisquare/intro.html
http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/Stories/EducationalAttainmentbyAge.html

Statistical Shareware and Freeware

The Internet may also be used to locate a range of statistical shareware and freeware. These
programs can be of assistance to students who have basic statistical knowledge and are computer-
literate.

See Table 6.2 for a list of sites that may prove useful:
Table 6.2: Statistical shareware and freeware

Decision Analyst [.COM] STATS – Free software for statistical functions for marketing research,
running on IBM PC Windows.
Click & Learn Regression [.COM] Interactive tutorial software for regression analyses, demo
version available, $49, - for full version.
EZQuant [.EDU] (from Gene Glass and Sam Hicken). Old and simple spreadsheet-based
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statistical analysis programme for students, DOS version only.

MD Anderson Cancer Centre Biomathematics [.EDU] Various specialized statistical software,
freeware available as source, DOS or Mac programmes, including STPLAN software for power,
sample size and related calculations to plan studies.
Provalis Research [.COM] Some statistical software like SimStat (for DOS and Windows),
StatItem, Easy Factor Analysis and MVSP.
STEPS [.UK] Statistical Education through Problem Solving – software to support the teaching
of Statistics in Biology, Business, Geography and Psychology. Freeware for educational
institutions, Windows and Mac versions available.

6.3 Types of Quantitative Data

In analysing quantitative data, it is important to understand, at the outset, the inherent nature of the
data being collected, because this, in fact, determines the type of analysis which is appropriate and
legitimate in the context of the study and the data collected.

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Figure 6.2: Defining the Data Type

Source: Saunders et al. (2009: 417)
Quantitative data can be classified into four categories, each representing a means of measuring or
describing specific variables.

Nominal measures are descriptive measures that serve only to indicate the alternative states of
the variable. For example, referring to gender, a respondent may be MALE or FEMALE or in
noting their religion, a respondent may be CHRISTIAN, JEWISH, HINDU, MUSLIM, BUDDHIST,
or belong to some OTHER unspecified faith. The respondent is either male or female, either a
Christian or not a Christian. Nominal measures thus possess the distinctive characteristic of
exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness. They represent the lowest possible level of
measurement. In attempting to quantify such data, all that can be done is to convert it, and
perhaps express the findings as frequencies or percentages. Although it is common practice to
assign numerical codes to these attributes to facilitate computer analysis, these numbers cannot
be used for mathematical purposes

Ordinal measures are ranked estimates, usually reflecting either choices made by the subject or
categories predetermined by the researcher. An example, relating to choice from a range of
alternatives would be the expressed preference of the respondent for a particular type of holiday.
An example of selecting from categories predetermined by the researcher would be socio-
economic status or age-range of the respondent. Ordinal measures can be logically rank-ordered
and the different attributes represent relatively more or less of the specific variable. As with
nominal data there is little scope for treating such data mathematically. Frequencies and
percentages can be calculated, but not the arithmetic mean, and statistical analysis is likewise

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largely precluded

Interval measures refer to those variables whose attributes are not only rank-ordered, but are
also separated by a uniform distance between them. An example would be the IQ scale or
temperature scales. Interval measures allow some degree of mathematical and statistical
treatment. Thus, the arithmetic mean IQ of a group of respondents with a range of IQs can be
calculated, and correlation and regression analysis can also be carried out
Ratio measures are based on an absolute scale which has a fixed zero point. This means that
the scale readings are exactly proportional to the variables being measured. Ratio measures
represent the highest possible level of precision and are amenable to all forms of statistical
analysis. (See Table 6.4 below)

Table 6.3: Types data and the Level of Measurements Source: Author Unknown, 2010

Type of data Level of measurement Examples

Nominal
Eye colour, ethnicity, diagnosis
(no inherent order in categories)
Ordinal
Categorical Job grade, age groups
(categories have inherent order)
Binary
Gender
(2 categories – special case of above)

Quantitative Continuous
Temperature °C/°F (no absolute zero)
(Interval/Ratio) (can, in theory, take any value in a
(interval)
range, although necessarily
(NB units of recorded to a predetermined degreeof
Height, age (ratio)
measurement used) precision)

Activity 6.2

It is important in designing research instruments to collect data to bear in

mind the level of precision that you require in your subsequent analysis of
data and discussion of findings.

Explain if it would be legitimate to apply statistical analysis to the numerical

scores obtained from Likert scales. Give reasons for your answer.

As Saunders et al. (2019:328) note, quantitative data can also be divided into two distinct categories:

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(i) Categorical data cannot be measured numerically but can be classified into sets (categories)
according to specified criteria (e.g. gender, religion, profession, qualification) or placed in rank order
(e.g. level of experience, consumer preference, etc.) Nominal and ordinal data fall into this group.

(ii) Quantifiable data is data whose values can be measured numerically. The more precise the
measurement the greater the range of statistical techniques that can be used in analysing the data.
Interval and ratio measures fall into this group. Generally it is better in quantitatively-oriented
studies to collect data that enables the highest possible level of statistical analysis.

Coding of Data

As soon as the information has been collated from respondents in the study, all data should be
recorded using numerical codes to categorise responses to each item on the research instrument.
Simultaneously a code-book should be to design to maintain a record of the codes for each variable.
For example, for the gender of respondents, the code used may be 1=male and 2=female or for an
item which uses a Likert scale, 1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=uncertain, 4=disagree and 5=strongly
disagree. All missing data should also be indicated through codes. For example, if a respondent did
not indicate his/her sex, the code 9 may be used. Items with missing data are then excluded from
subsequent analysis of data.

Statistical Analysis

Once the data has been coded into a format that can be entered on a spreadsheet or a statistical
analysis package, the appropriate procedure may be used to process the data into a format that can
be analysed (frequencies, tables, diagrams, etc). The tables and diagrams most relevant in
addressing the needs of the study will eventually appear in the dissertation.

Tables and diagrams can be used in an exploratory analysis of data to identify trends, show
proportions and the distribution of values and to compare visually the relationship among variables.

Through the use of descriptive statistics, the researcher can describe (and compare) variables
numerically through the use of means and standard deviations. Next, through the use of inferential
statistics the researcher can reach conclusions about how the data collected relate to the original
research objectives and hypotheses and how these results might be generalisable to the research
population.

Use of Statistical Methods

As noted earlier, it is beyond the scope of this manual to present anything other than an explanatory

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introduction to statistics. Should the study require the use of statistical methods in the analysis of
quantitative data, the following are general guidelines for the successful application of statistics in the
analysis of data:

1. Statistics must be appropriately integrated into the study and not used as a device to create an
impression of scientific analysis and objectivity.
2. The student must develop a good working knowledge of the principles underlying the statistical
procedures that are used in the study to analyse data to enable appropriate use and meaningful
interpretation of the results.
3. Should the student have access to statistical software packages such as SPSS for Windows,
he/she should first work through examples of coding and analysing research instruments before
proceeding to an analysis of the research data.
4. Before the researcher embarks on any kind of statistical analysis, he/she should determine the
characteristics of the data in terms of its type (i.e. Nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio) and its
distribution (normal or skewed) since these inherent properties will determine what kind of
statistical test (parametric or non-parametric) it is possible to use.

The Analysis of Univariate Data

Univariate data analysis involves the analysis of a single variable, usually through the use of
descriptive statistics such as the calculation of:

Frequencies
Percentages
Means (the arithmetic ‘average’ of the data)
Median and mode
Standard deviations

Frequencies and percentages can be graphically expressed as tables, charts or graphs.

The Analysis of Bivariate Data

In business research, the study often demands the analysis of the relationship between two
variables. One useful way of doing this is to conduct frequency analysis of each variable and then to
group the data in a matrix or table. For example, a researcher may wish to establish the nature of the
relationship between gender and promotion to senior positions in the clothing industry in KwaZulu
Natal. Earlier analysis has indicated that there are respondents in your sample with no missing data
for either variable. The table for the data on these two variables may be presented as follows:

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Table 6.4: The relationship between gender and promotions in the clothing industry

Rank Male Female Row rates

Senior management 22 6 28
Supervisor 100 50 150
Worker 98 104 202
Column totals 220 160 380
In tables such as this which present the data for two variables through a process referred to as
cross-tabulation, it is possible to examine if the variables are significantly associated. The degree of
association can be statistically tested by using the Chi-squared (X²) test, a non-parametric test which
can be used with any data type. The degree of association between two variables can also be
measured through the use of correlation coefficients.

Another common procedure in the analysis of two variables is to test the significance of a difference
between the means of two groups for the same variable. A number of statistical procedures can be
used for this purpose: “students’” t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and Mann Whitney U-test.
The student is advised to become familiar with the appropriate statistical procedures so that the data
can be correctly analyzed to address the needs of the topic.

Activity 6.3

Examine the statistical procedures a researcher may incorporate in his/her

study of gender affirmative action in two major companies in the country.
Explain clearly the research design and the data analysis procedures that will
be used.

The use of software packages for quantitative data analysis

The use of statistics by researchers has been greatly facilitated by software packages such as
Minitab and SPSS for Windows.IBM SPSS Statistics 19 Made Simple can run on Windows XP (32-
bit); Windows Vista (32-bit and 64-bit) and Windows 7 (32-bit and 64-bit) and produce a variety of
tables as well as perform a wide range of statistical analyses (Ensure to check the system
requirements for compatibility before installation). If a student has access to SPSS for Windows,
he/she is advised to gain a sound grasp of the operation of the programme through close study of a
suitable textbook on the package before engaging in any statistical analyses.

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The newest version for SPSS for windows is:

Gray, C.D. and Kinnear, P.R. (2012). IBM SPSS Statistics 19 Made Simple. First Edition. New York:
Psychology Press.
ISBN: 9781848720695.

Link:HYPERLINK "https://url.za.m.mimecastprotect.com/s/wJoJC2RXQpT863p8hnf4tB6osZ?
domain=routledge.com"https://www.routledge.com/IBM-SPSS-Statistics-19-Made-Simple/Gray-
Kinnear/p/book/9781848720695

6.4 Analysis of Qualitative Data

The analysis of qualitative data presents the researcher with a different set of procedures, which
reflect, at a fundamental level, the philosophical assumptions which underpin the aims of, and
approach to, qualitative research. The analysis of qualitative data is different from the approach
outlined above for qualitative data. While the analysis of quantitative data is based on meanings
derived from numbers through the use of charts, diagrams and statistics, the analysis of qualitative
data concentrates on meanings expressed through words and analysis conducted through the use of
conceptualisation.

As Saunders et al. (2009:381) observe the nature of qualitative data has implications for both its
collection and its analysis. Hussey and Hussey (1997:248) suggest that there are three related
elements in the analysis of qualitative data:

Reducing the data by condensing the material in some systematic way to make it more
manageable
Structuring the data in terms of themes, patterns and interrelationships
Detextualising the data by converting extended texts into more manageable forms such as
summaries, charts, diagrams and illustrations

Strategies for Qualitative Analysis

There are different approaches to the commencement of the process. As Saunders et al. (2009:390)
point out, should the researcher commence from a deductive position, he/ she will seek to use
existing theory to shape the process of analysis. In contrast, if the researcher adopts an inductive
approach, he/she will seek to develop a theory, which emerges out of the analysis of the data.

Should the researcher adopt a deductive approach, he/she must first establish a theoretical or
descriptive framework that incorporates the main variables, components, themes and issues in the

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study and the presumed relationships among them. This framework acts as the means to guide the
data analysis process.

The inductive strategy, in contrast, would require the researcher to collect the data and then to
explore them to see which themes or issues to follow up or concentrate on. Generally, this is the
more difficult approach, requiring a high investment of time and material and human resources. As
Saunders et al. (2009:392) point out, where the researcher adapts this approach; he/she must be
guided by this design from the data collection into the data analysis stage. The researcher analyses
the data as he/she collects them and develops the conceptual framework that would be used during
the data analysis stage. This strategy is referred to as a grounded approach because the theory that
unfolds is an organic product of the research process. While such a study does not begin with a
defined theoretical framework, it nevertheless, begins with a clear research purpose.

Activity 6.4

1. Explain how you would differentiate between a deductive and an inductive

analytical strategy.
2. Explain the main implications of using a deductive analytical strategy for
the way in which you conduct the process of qualitative analysis.

General Sequence in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research generally requires the researcher to see the data collection and data analysis
stages as a linked progression of events. As Saunders et al. (2003:380) point out; the researcher
must undertake data collection and analysis in a systematic and well-planned manner in order to be
able to analyse the data in an efficient and sound manner.

Generally the researcher decides on a broad focus of enquiry, or may possibly formulate a broadly-
based research question. The researcher asks many open-ended questions and/or makes
observations or ‘process recordings.’ The examination of this data leads to the development of
categories of information and grouping of ideas. Concurrently the researcher looks for patterns and
recurrences in the data, interprets these patterns, defines interrelationships among the categories
and patterns identified in the data, and attaches meanings to the patterns and interrelationships. As
the process unfolds the researcher develops a tentative theory or compares the pattern with other
theories, using inductive reasoning processes. The resultant ‘pattern theory’ contains an
interconnected set of concepts that make sense, but unlike a causal theory, it does not require causal
statements. The main implications for analysis of qualitative data in this general sequence of
processes are that the whole procedure is based on inductive reasoning. Structure and meaning are
both emergent as analysis proceeds and theory is generated as ‘grounded theory.’

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Broadly a continuum of three approaches can result from this general qualitative data analysis
procedure. The first is a ‘journalistic’ approach which is characterised by minimal researcher
intervention and the lowest level of patterning, abstraction and interpretation. The participants in the
study are allowed to speak for themselves as much as possible. The second is the ‘interpretive
descriptive’ approach where the researcher makes some effort at identification of patterns,
establishing interrelationships and general interpretation of the patterns and interrelationships. The
third is the ‘grounded theory’ approach which embodies the highest level of abstraction and
interpretation, where building a theory is the primary aim.

Activity 6.5

Explain clearly the use of theories and pattern identification as a strategy in

the analysis of qualitative data.

Analysing Case Study Data

In analysing case study data, two methods are most fruitful: pattern matching and time series
analysis.

Pattern matching is the process of taking several pieces of information that seem logically
related and connecting them to some idea or theoretical proposition. The patterns can be
compared to rival theories, looking for the best ‘fit’ of observed data to theory. If, for example, the
researcher were examining the management of housing development projects, he/she may have
begun with the proposition that projects with broader community support from stakeholder groups
in the community will be more successful with developing successful relationships with state and
local government authorities. The researcher may gather information about several housing
development companies and then compare the level of support each receives from the state or
local government authorities. This provides a rough interpretation of the relationship between the
data and the theoretical assumptions about community-based housing projects. The key is to
define what the expected pattern for a given proposition and then review the case data to see if
there is a match

Time-series analysis is the second most common method for analysing case study data. Here, a
trend of data points is compared to some theoretically significant trend, to a rival theoretical trend,
or to some other alternative exploration. For example, if the researcher were testing the idea that
successful housing projects encourage the emergence of small business ventures in the
community, he/she would gather the relevant data; compare it to the theoretical unfolding of
events in communities with new housing projects and see if it “fits” the time order

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suggested.Whether the analytic technique is pattern matching or time-series analysis, the closer
the “fit” between the expected and the observed data, the more one can assume that the case
study is yielding useful results. Discrepancies between the theory and the empirical data lead to a
revision of the theory, and then ideally comparison to a second set of such data. If required, this
process may be repeated and the theory refined over time as a result of increasing adjustments
and revisions that flow out of the process. Thus researchers can continually reappraise the theory
to see if it is useful for interpreting the ‘real world’ context of the research topic.

Data Presentation and Report Writing for Case Studies

When presenting qualitative data, a number of formats can be utilised. These include: linear-analytic
presentation, comparative structures, chronological structures, and theory-building structures. The
linear-analytic presentation includes the study questions, an explanation of methods used for
study, findings from the data, and an explanation and discussion of implications. This is a standard
approach, found in most journal articles and dissertations presenting case study findings.

The chronological approach follows the case in a time sequence from beginning to end, allowing
the researcher to draw conclusions more easily about causal relationships between elements of the
study.

The dissertation based in a case study methodology should include:

Data collection which is thorough, generally using several data collection strategies
Careful substantiation of any claims relating to relationships among variables, with alternate
explanations carefully considered
Comprehensive and engaging presentation of information with case details to support key points

Computer Assisted Qualitative Analysis Software

The use of computer-assisted qualitative analysing software offers a number of advantages, but most
packages are not easily available. Most students will have to use the strategies briefly outlined
above. Again the data analysis strategy or strategies selected must be appropriate to the needs of
the topic. Generally qualitative data analysis involves the development of data categories
recognising patterns and relationships in the data, and developing theories that may produce well-
grounded conclusions. The process of data collection and data analysis is generally closely linked
and interactive in qualitative studies

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6.5 Summary
Data analysis should always be directed at increasing the validity of the findings of the study. Validity
is the best possible approximation of the truth of a given proposition, inference or conclusion. In
other words, when we make some claim in a study, does the evidence support our conclusions?

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Answers

Activity 6.1
1. Explain the implications of the use of ‘open’ and ‘closed’ questions for the type of data that
is likely to be gathered and for the techniques for data analysis.
Answer:
Yes it is legitimate to apply statistical analysis to the numerical scores obtained from Likert scales.
Tables and diagrams are most relevant in addressing numerical data.

Activity 6.2
1. It is important in designing research instruments to collect data to bear in mind the level of
precision that you require in your subsequent analysis of data and discussion of findings.
Explain if it would be legitimate to apply statistical analysis to the numerical scores obtained
from Likert scales. Give reasons for your answer.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

Activity 6.3
1. Examine the statistical procedures a researcher may incorporate in his/her study of gender
affirmative action in two major companies in the country.
Explain clearly the research design and the data analysis procedures that will be used.
Answer:
The manager has to follow the following steps:

1. Report information about the number of members of the sample who did and did not return the
survey. A table with numbers & percentages describing respondents and non-respondents is a
useful tool to present this information.
2. Discuss the method by which response bias will be dertermined
3. Discuss plan to provide a descriptive analysis of data for all independent and dependent
variables in the study.
4. Identify statistical procedure and mention reliability checks for internal consistency of scales.
5. Identify the statistics and statistical computer programme for testing major inferential research
questions or hypothesis in the study.
6. Final step in the data analysis is to present the results in tables or figures and interpret the results
from the statistical test (Creswell: 2018).
7. The manger can use experimental research design amongst others.

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Activity 6.4
1. Explain how you would differentiate between a deductive and an inductive analytical
strategy.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer

2. Explain the main implications of using a deductive analytical strategy for the way in which
you conduct the process of qualitative analysis.
Answer:
The impact of using deductive research is that it uses a selection of samples that are sufficient in size
in order to generalise conclusion. This means results are generalised.

Activity 6.5
1. Explain clearly the use of theories and pattern identification as a strategy in the analysis of
qualitative data.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer

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Unit
7:
Putting It Together

Unit 7: Putting It Together

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Unit Learning Outcomes

CONTENT LIST LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

Introduces the topic areas covered for

7.1 Introduction the unit

Analyse different
7.2 The Research Idea social/political/organisational/economic
problems to convert into possible
7.3 Writing the Research Topic research

Explain the components of a

7.4 Writing the Dissertation dissertation

Explain the organisation of a

7.5 Standard organisation of a Dissertation dissertation

Examine the different ethics associated

7.6 Research Ethics with the research proposed

7.7 Reference Format Explain the concept of referencing

7.8 Some Style Rules Analyse the styles rules in research

7.9 General hints on Language Classify general hints on language

Explain the assessment criteria for

7.10 Assessment Criteria writing a dissertation

Analyse roles and responsibilities of all

7.11 Roles and Responsibilities stakeholders who are a part of the

research process

Summarises the topic areas covered

7.12 Summary for the unit

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Prescribed and Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)

Prescribed Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Saunders, M.N.K, Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2012). Research Methods
for Business Students. Sixth Edition. Harlow, England: Financial
Times/Prentice Hall.

Recommended Reading(s)/Textbook(s)
Bell, E., Bryman, A., Harley, P. and Hirschsohn, P. (2021). Research
Methodology: Business and Management Contexts. Second Edition.
South Africa: Oxford University Press.

du Plessis, C. and Satar, A.A. (2021). Introduction to Social Media

Research Theory and Application. First Edition. South Africa: Juta.

du Plooy-Cilliers, F., Davis, C. and Bezuidenhout, R.M. (2021).

Research Matters. Second Edition. South Africa: Juta.

Howard, R.M. (2022). Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and

Research. Fourth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill LLC.

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7.1 Introduction
The idea of doing research frightens many students who believe it to be a highly technical and
complex activity. Students often have the impression that only a few gifted individuals have mastered
the research process. These students are not alone. Even experienced professionals and senior
managers of large companies speak with awe of ‘research findings’ while admitting that they know
almost nothing about the way in which research is conducted. Yet, every day, these same
professionals and managers attack complex real life problems, gathering information, analysing the
available data, identifying trends, solving problems, and making decisions which have profound
consequences on the operation of the organisations. They write comprehensive reports explaining
these decisions. Often they do not realise that they have been ‘doing research’ all through this
process. The only difference is that business research implies a formal academic process that
investigates, analyses and contributes original knowledge to that field of study.

The earlier units in this manual have taken students through the various components that interact to
form the research process and contribute to successful research. In this final unit the focus falls on
bringing together the various processes in preparing the proposal and writing the dissertation.

7.2 The Research Idea

Developing the Research Idea

All research begins with the researcher’s mind centering on the idea which is generally something
that the individual perceives to be a problem. Indeed, a good problem for a study is the key to good
research. Noteworthy here is the fact that any problem can be turned into a research question, but all
questions are not good research problems. For example, an individual may be curious about the
conversation topics which workers cover in the lunch breaks. But until someone comes up with a
good reason why we need to know this, it is not a worthy research problem.

A good research idea is not just what can be usefully addressed, but what should be addressed in
order to achieve or make progress towards a desirable goal or avoids an undesirable event. It is
something in which you are genuinely interested rather than something that is ‘done’ or serves only
the purpose of an academic exercise – it is also something that has a wider social, public and
economic relevance. In other words, a good research problem is an issue or difficulty of some
significance, urgency and priority whose investigation will make a useful contribution to knowledge.
Conversely, if the researcher already knows the answer, or if it is to be found by a simple search of
existing studies, or if it is totally predictable, there is no valid reason to undertake the study.

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Activity 7.1

Outline the aspects that a student should first undertake in the initial stages of
developing the project.
Find a topic and then read on it to refine it.

Read extensively to identify a suitable topic.

Present your arguments in support of EACH approach.

Care in selecting the Research Topic

It is therefore advisable that students should not choose the research topics hastily, without thinking
through all the implications and operational consequences. The research idea and the consequent
research must demonstrate qualities of:

Relevance in that it must address a recognisable and significant problem in the field of business
management
Originality in that the study must not be a close duplication of an earlier research as even
replication studies are only valid if they are set in a different context and with a different set of
subjects
Specificity in that the problem must be a clearly defined issue that is not too broad or too general
in scope

The study that flows from the research problem must also enable the student to:

Design and conduct a Masters level of study that demonstrates skills of analysis and synthesis
Review and critically analyse existing literature on the topic, identify key trends and themes in
the field, examine the key concepts, and clarify the focus of the current research against the
background of the existing body of knowledge
Select, develop and use appropriate research strategies and instruments to collect and
analyse data in a way that heightens the validity and reliability of the findings
Discuss the findings in detail, drawing appropriate, well-substantiated conclusions
Make sound recommendations that translate the findings into significant points of departure for
further research and for good management practice

Studies that are a superficial interaction with the research topics or are purely descriptive or an
examination of an insignificant issue will not fulfill the critical requirements outlined above.

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Activity 7.2

Outline a suitable research problem and write a one-page report on the

significance of the study, should the research be undertaken.
NB: The general rules of MANCOSA provide that a student should submit a
topic and a clearly defined research problem for approval by the Research
Committee before undertaking detailed work on the proposal.

7.3 Writing the Research Topic

Once the topic has been approved, students are required to submit a detailed proposal, for approval,
before they can commence with the dissertation. If the proposal does not present a sound overview
of the study or is poorly prepared, the Research Committee generally withholds approval, requiring
the student to develop the proposal more fully to present a precise, better grounded and more
scientifically valid proposal. Therefore, students are advised not to start with the dissertation until
they receive written clearance of the topic and approval of their proposal.

Views differ about the specific areas of information that should be included in a good research
proposal. The individual components and the order of presentation suggested below have been
chosen to match what seems to be the order in which researchers generally think through their
ideas. See Appendix 1 for the first draft of a research proposal. The writer has occasionally ‘violated’
the guidelines offered below. As it is an early draft, the writer still has opportunities to improve before
submitting the final copy.

1. Introduction
The introduction orients the reader to the researcher’s approach and sets the stage for the study.
General strategies for writing the introduction include:

Preliminary, often rather dramatic, statements about the need for the study
Use of statements by key authorities in the field to establish the importance of the research area
and to explain the logic behind the research objectives/hypothesis
A concise overview of past research to contextualise the focus of the present study and its
significance in contributing to the body of knowledge

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Activity 7.3
Outline a dramatic illustration or quote that can set the tone in the introduction
of your proposal on the research idea you identified earlier.
Put yourself in the position of the reader of your proposal. Explian if you
would continue reading the introduction. If not, you need to rework the
introduction.

2. Problem
Developing an adequate statement of the problem is one of the most important and possibly the
most difficult task in research. It is not uncommon for researchers to spend months studying an area,
reading the literature on the field and ‘bouncing ideas’ off other people before feeling ready to state
the problem.

The problem is the heart of any research proposal. All other elements flow from the problem
statement. Problems are often presented as questions concerning the nature of the relationship
between two or more variables. Sample problem statements are listed below:

Is the productivity of staff working night shifts different from those who work day shifts?
What makes some workers more diligent than others?
Do cultural factors affect the success of television advertisements?

Research problems, however, are not merely questions. They are questions that arise in areas in
which knowledge is needed. But before proceeding with the study the student must evaluate the
problem in terms of the potential for successful completion. Cresswell (1994:3) suggests several
questions which provide the student with a useful checklist:

Is the project researchable, given time, resources and availability of data?

Is there personal interest in the topic?
Will the results from the study be of interest to others?
Does the study fill a void in the current body of knowledge?

- Replicate an earlier study in a new context

- Extend the current body of knowledge

- Develop new ideas in the literature

Is the study likely to be publishable in an academic journal?

Will the project contribute to your career goals?
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The problem statement should be refined until the student is certain that the study is achievable,
manageable and sufficiently challenging to meet the standards demanded of Masters level students.
Part of this process involves developing a clear research focus for the study so that it is not too broad
or vague in its details. For example, a student who is interested in outsourcing as a device to
consolidate company operations and efficiency may narrow his study down to outsourcing practices
at universities and technikons in Kwa-Zulu Natal to make it a manageable topic.

Activity 7.4

Assuming that you have settled on a topic area for your proposal, now:
Outline a clear research focus so that it is narrowed down to a
researchable topic

Outline a proposed title for your research project ensuring that it is no

more than 12 words

Illustrate in one sentence the essence of the problem statement starting

with the words: ‘My study is about ….’

Explain if this is really what you want to concentrate on and the reason
for it

3. Background
This section of the proposal elaborates the problem by providing a complete statement of why the
problem is of pressing management interest or theoretical concern. In the background the student
should include statements of opinion by knowledgeable writers who attest that the problem is worth
addressing. Such persons may include political figures, national and international business leaders
and management gurus, important theorists, or professionals in a position to comment authoritatively
in some aspect of the problem statement. It is incumbent on the student to demonstrate that the
problem is worth investigating. After reading this section the reader should know the management
problem and agree with the student that something should be done to change the current situation.

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Activity 7.5

Assuming that you have settled on a topic area for your proposal, now:
1. Outline atleast three reasons why the problem you have chosen is
important and valid. To you? To society?
2. Illustrate at least two concrete examples of the problem.
3. To what public statistics, management trends, or theoretical controversy
does your study relate?

Research question/ objective/ hypotheses

The student should ensure that the research questions, objectives or the hypotheses flow logically
from the research problem. In this section of the proposal the student outlines the purpose of the
study and states exactly what the research hopes to accomplish in relation to the research problem
in the form of concrete, specific and achievable goals.

Cooper and Schindler (1998:92) suggest that it is best to list the objectives in order of importance or
in general terms first, moving to specific terms (e.g. broad research question followed by underlying
investigative questions.)

Research questions express the specific purpose of the study in the form of questions that
require to be answered to address the research problem. Below is an example:

- Why do small to medium-sized companies in the Greater Durban area find increasing and
managing diversity in the workplace difficult?

Research objectives are clear statements of the specific purposes of the study which identify the
key variables and their possible relationships. Below is an example:

- The purpose of this study is to investigate worker responses to macro-policies in companies

involved in planning mergers with larger organisations.

Research questions and research objectives are generally used in qualitative, phenomenologically
oriented studies. In contrast, quantitative studies often use hypotheses to define what is being
planned by the proposed research. Hypotheses are stated in a declarative form, a relationship
between variables and reflect a theory or body of literature in which they are based. It is derived
directly from the statement of the problem and is actually a guess at a solution to the problem based
on a review of the literature, past research and personal experience. Below are three examples:

Companies located in rural areas of Kwa-Zulu Natal are less likely to experience strikes and shop
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floor stoppages than those located in urban areas.

Frequent and structured communication between top management and workers leads to more
favourable attitudes by production workers towards the company.

A promotion campaign will increase savings activity, especially when free prizes are offered, but
chiefly among smaller savers. The results come from enhancing the motivation to save.

Activity 7.6

1. Assuming that you have settled on a topic and have defined the research
problem, and have decided on whether the study shall be quantitative or
qualitative, proceed to the articulation of the research objectives/ questions/
hypotheses.
Answer the following questions about the study:
Explain what you think the results of your study will show

Explain how the results, whatever they show, will fulfill the purpose of
the study

Explain what impact the expected results will have upon the problem

4. Definition of Terms
Reviewers and readers of dissertation proposals, even from within the same academic field, often
have widely divergent academic and management experience. As a result the same concept may
have different shades of meaning for different reviewers and readers. In addition, postgraduate level
research tends to be more complex and formal than ordinary business report writing, and
consequently requires a precise, technical language to describe exactly what is being undertaken.
Without a clear explanation of the meaning of key terms used in the proposal, there is the danger of
the reviewer or reader attributing meanings not intended by the researcher. Therefore, when
preparing the proposal, the student should take care to define terms that:

Are specific to the field in which the study is being conducted

Have every day language counterparts with which they might be confused, and
Are related substantively and methodologically to the study

The student must make the assumption that there will be readers who will not understand the
technical terms that will be used in the study. These terms should be listed and defined carefully so
that the reader of the proposal will have exactly the same frame of reference as the researcher.
Definitions can also be presented as operational definitions which qualify the meaning of terms by

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pointing directly to some specific example. It enables the reader to know precisely what the
researcher is talking about whenever he/she uses a technical term.

Activity 7.7

1. Outline the terms from your problem statement, objectives and research
methodology components which you feel require definition. Have colleagues
look over these sections when you complete your proposal and add any
terms they feel need to be defined.
2. Select which terms are most critical (and belong to this section) and which
terms can go in the appendix.
3. Outline the clearest definition of each term, defining any theoretical terms
as they are defined by major writers in the field.

5. Literature Review
Probably from the time the student begins thinking about a research problem, he/she will be
reviewing literature about it. There should not just be a listing of books and articles read but a critical
analysis of the literature. The student should include in this critical analysis all literature that:

Elucidates the problem

Suggests why the study is appropriate
Relates the current research topic to other works in the field

The review should be comprehensive and concise without being exhaustive. This means that the
review should cover all the major facets of the problem area but not in as great a detail as will be
later undertaken in the full dissertation. Thus, in the proposal the aim should be to provide:

A plan of the topics that will be covered in the subsequent review

The highlights of major theory and research already completed in the field
Important results and conclusions of other studies, trends evident in previous research, and
particular methods or designs that should be included or avoided in the present study

Cooper and Schindler (1998:92) suggest that the literature review should begin with a concise,
analytical and evaluative coverage of related literature and then narrow the focus down to more
specific studies that are associated with the current research problem. The literature review should
cover both material that contributes to the purpose and design of the study and background research
material that delineates the theory on which the current study is based.

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Activity 7.8

1. Outline the topics that your literature reviews should cover.

2. Outline studies that support your view that the problem is important and of
theoretical and management interest.
3. Explain what methodological approaches have been used by others
studying your problem.

6. Research Design
The research design presents in technical terms how the researcher will proceed in addressing the
research questions/ objectives/ hypotheses. The student must explain why he/she has selected a
specific research methodology and include as many subsections as necessary to present the various
phases of the study. More specifically this section should provide information on:

Research paradigm – is the study qualitative or quantitative or does it use a combined approach?
General design characteristics of the study, i.e. is it a survey, a descriptive/ analytical study, a
cross-sectional longitudinal design, an experiment/quasi-experiment, or correlational study?

Each research design has different strengths and weaknesses. The student’s choice must be based
upon careful consideration of how appropriately each methodology addresses the research purpose
and the feasibility of each approach depending on the limits of time and other available resources.

Activity 7.9

1. Explain from what paradigm you view the research problem. Explain the
operational consequences and design implications of your decision.
2. Outline three research methods you could use and explain why each might
be appropriate and feasible.
3. Select your choice from the possibilities you have listed above and
describe the nature of your study in its terms
.

7. Data Collection
This section states the specific activities the student will undertake to fulfil the purpose of the study. It
provides a step-by-step explanation of how the data will be collected. This section also should
include as many subsections as needed to explain the elements of the data gathering process. The
major subsections include subjects, sampling procedures and research instruments.

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Subjects

Since most dissertations involve the examination of evidence that bears upon the research purpose,
it is necessary to present clearly the sources of these data. When describing the data sources, a
clear distinction should be made between the population of the study and the sample. The
population is the total group, set of events, or theoretical constructs to which the generalisations of
the study will apply. The characteristics of such a group and the precise method used to select the
sample must be described. The sample selected must accurately reflect the characteristics of the
population. Selecting a sample from a poorly identified population has the effect of undermining the
validity of the study and reliability of the data.

The type of research being undertaken will influence the type and size of the sample. If the study is
quantitative (with a number of variables and groups) then the size of the sample has to be relatively
large and the sampling procedure, meticulously correct. In contrast, if the researcher is undertaking a
qualitative research, which involves intense and long interviews, administration of questionnaires to
a purposive sample, observation of a sustained nature, a study of relevant documents, he/she will
require a relatively small sample as the study is not directed at achieving generability of findings to a
defined population.

Data Gathering

In this subsection the student must describe precisely all the information required to achieve the
purpose of the study and the exact method by which this information will be gathered. In designing
the research instrument(s) that shall be used to collect data, the student must devote specific
attention to:

The objective(s) of the study

Definition of concepts
Appropriate choice of the data gathering strategy
Examination of the strengths and weaknesses of each data gathering technique
Triangulation through the use of multiple data-gathering strategies
Reliability, i.e. the degree of consistency with which the research instrument(s) in the study
measure a variable (internal consistency, test-retest reproducibility, etc.)
Validity, i.e. the degree to which the instrument measures what it is intended to measure (content
validity, concurrent validity, and instrument validity)
Interpretability, i.e. the degree to which one can assign meaning to the instrument’s quantitative
scores

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If the research paradigm selected is quantitative, then the student must describe each research
instrument (questionnaires, structured interviews, structured observation, attitude scales, etc.)
precisely and include copies as well as the instructions for their administration and the covering
letter(s) in the appendices to the proposal. If the approach is more qualitative and open-ended, the
student must describe the qualitative data collection strategies that will be used and state exactly
how each will be used in the study. Copies of relevant documents such as interview schedules and
the list of topics and themes that will be covered in open-ended interviews must be included in the
appendixes.

The student must use the proposal as a medium to try to speculate about all the possible difficulties
and problems that may be encountered during data gathering and suggest steps that he/she will take
to overcome them.

Pilot Testing

As Cooper and Schindler (1998:76) and Saunders et al. (2009:394) note, the data gathering phase
of the research process usually begins with pilot testing. The purpose of the pilot test is to detect
weaknesses in design and instrumentation. It should draw subjects from the target population and
simulate the planned procedures for data collection and data analysis. The student should also
explain the exact approach that will be used to conduct the pilot study. The pilot test is used when
conducting a quantitative study.

Activity 7.10

1. Outline all the information you intend to gather to address the purpose of
your study.
2. Explain clearly the design and rationale for your data-gathering.
3. Characterise the population to which you wish your results to apply and the
sampling procedure you intend to use (if your study is located in a quantitative
paradigm).
4. If your study has a qualitative bias, fully explain the data gathering strategy
you intend to use and how this strategy will be shaped to the needs of your
topic.

8. Data Analysis
The aim of this section of the proposal is to convince the Research Committee that the study will be
based on theoretically sound data analysis procedures. Therefore, the student must explain the
proposed treatment of data and the theoretical basis for using specific procedures. More specifically,
the student must explain the procedures for recording, storing, reducing and interpreting data.

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Should the study have a quantitative bias, the student must specify which types of descriptive
statistics will be employed and the rationale for the use of specific statistical measures. There also
has to be a clear explanation of the inferential statistics that will be employed to present data and
to make estimates of the pattern and strength of association among variables. If the student does not
have statistical expertise, he/she should contact an expert for assistance in the use and analysis of
statistics. If the student intends to use a computer-based statistical package, he/she should present a
brief description of the program and the statistics that shall be used. Again if the student is not fully
familiar with the operational details of the programme it is advisable to seek assistance from an
expert.

Activity 7.11

1. Explain how you will present your data. Tables? Graphs? Figures? Select
what would be most appropriate and most persuasive.
2. Data does not speak for itself. It must be interpreted. Explain how the data
in your study will be interpreted. Statistical tests? Comparison of distribution
values? Pattern-matching? Explanation building?

9. Significance of the Study

Just as the section on ‘Background’ develops the rationale for the study by elaborating on the
importance of the problem that is the focus of the study, so does the section on significance of the
study develop the importance of the present study. The questions that the student must address in
this section relate to what makes the present study worth pursuing. The student must highlight the
explicit benefits that will accrue from his/her study. In short, he/she must provide persuasive answers
to questions such as:

Why is the study important?

What contribution does the study hope to make to management theory and practice?
What is likely to happen if the study is done/not done?

The researcher must present a convincing rebuttal to someone who may say of the research
problem and the research objectives “So what?”

Potentially valid reasons for having a specific purpose include a dearth of similar studies on the
problem or the needs of various public that will be affected by the study – publics that might be
ignored or overlooked by more conventional studies. The study may also be justified by describing in
detail a select group for whom the problem is of critical importance, and for whom the study will be
especially beneficial. For example, in a country where there are regular problems in financial
management and adherence to Treasury regulations, a study of the problem through close

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examination of provincial and state auditors’ reports and the interview of public servants in a cross-
section of provincial departments will be of value to heads of various government departments,
senior public servants, public service unions and the public sector human resource divisions
responsible for training programmes.

Activity 7.12

1. Explain why your study is important. To whom is it important other than

yourself?
2. Place yourself in the position of responding to someone who says ‘so what’
to your project. Outline a persuasive rationale to such a person.

10. Scope and Limitations

Since any research problem can be approached from many different angles and since no study can
be expected to cover all these angles, it is necessary for the researcher to define and delimit the
study as precisely as possible. This is the study’s scope. But even within a relatively narrow scope,
no one researcher has total access to sufficient time and resources to fully and perfectly cover all
facets of the study. It is therefore necessary for the researcher to describe ways in which the study
does not attain what might occur under perfect conditions.

Defining the scope of a study does not mean simply announcing that “the study will deal only with
aspects A and B of the total problem” and letting it go at that. A convincing reason must be provided
for such delimitation - a set of constructs and principles that will guide the reader to a clear and
focused understanding of the researcher’s frame of reference. This set of guiding constructs and
principles is called the conceptual framework of the study. The task of the conceptual framework is
to provide the reader with the appropriate logical structure that is being used to address the research
problem, to specify the logical path that will be used in organising the research data. Thus, the
conceptual framework focuses the study and narrows it down to one of many possibilities. The
researcher tells the reader what that focus is, that is, he/ she define the study’s scope.

The limitations of the study include the conceptual and methodological shortcomings identified by
the researcher as those that cannot be overcome because of his/her limited time and general
resources. These may include difficulties of:

Design: If, for example, the researcher is unable to gain access to all relevant groups of subjects
because of their reluctance to participate in the study, he/ she may have to proceed without
perfect representation
Sampling: If, for example, the researcher expects to have serious difficulty in finding or securing
an adequate response rate to his/her questionnaire, affecting the representativity of the sample
Instrumentation: If, for example, the research instruments used are difficult to test for validity and
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reliability
Data analyses: If, for example, the data analysis procedures selected don’t fit well with the level
of measurement and statistical analyses the study demands

Identifying limitations, however, does not excuse the student from attempting to reduce or overcome
them. The most rigorous attempts should be made to do so. But after considering all possible
improvements, pointing to the limitations in advance shows that the student is aware of them.

Activity 7.13

1. Explain the kind of design, sampling, measurement, and analysis you

would use for your research topic ‘under ideal conditions’.
2. Outline how far from these ideals is your study likely to be. Be specific, be
honest. Explain the ramifications. These are potential sources of error and
should be noted. Can any be eliminated? How? If necessary you should
make revisions.

11. Ethical and Considerations

The researcher must indicate that the study will be guided by fundamental ethical considerations that
relate to responsible research in the human sciences. Specific concerns that should be addressed
relate to:

1. Scientific validity: Is the research scientifically sound and valid?

2. Recruitment: How and by whom are the participants recruited?
3. Participation: What does participation in the study involve?
4. Harms and benefits: What are the real and potential harms and benefits of participating in the
study?
5. Informed consent: Have the participants been appropriately asked for their informed consent?

12. Conclusion
The researcher must present a summary of key issues and touch on the possible long-range
consequences of the study. The student must try to assess the impact of the study on management
practice and theory. This section should in no way suggest that the student already knows what the
results of the study will show but only what he/she considers to be the possible impacts. Such a
conclusion will draw together the problem, the research purpose and the methodology by
speculating how the study may be of value.

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Activity 7.14

1. Explain new research that will have been made possible by you having
done the study. Outline any further research that may be suggested by your
study.
2. Explain what would have happened had you not done the study.

13. References
This section must present a detailed list of the books, journal articles and electronic sources
consulted in the completion of the proposal. Attention must be paid to the precise inclusion of all
works reviewed in the completion of the literature review

14. Appendices
The student must include the copies of the research instruments that shall be used in the study. If the
study is quantitative, copies of the questionnaire and/or structured interviews must be included here.
If the study is qualitative, the student must supply a list of themes or open-ended questions that will
be a part of the unstructured interview, the areas that will be the points of interest during
observations and details of any other procedures that will be used during data collection and data
analysis

FINAL TOUCHES TO THE PROPOSAL

Title page
The title of the study should be as brief as possible (no longer than 12 words), omitting words such
as ‘An Approach to ….’ and ‘A Study of ….’. It should be as follows:

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Abstract
The abstract is a summary of the proposal. It provides information on the problem, the background,
objectives of the study, the research methodology, participants who will be used in the study, the
expected findings and the overall significance of the study.

Content Page

This provides a full list of all sections, including subsections with page references. The headings and
subheadings must be numbered in standard report format.

Layout

The proposal should be:

Presented on white A4 paper, right-hand side only

Line spacing should be double
Left-hand margin should be 30mm to allow for binding
Right-hand margin should be 25mm
All pages should be numbered. The number can be at the bottom or top. A number only should
be used, not the word ‘Page’ followed by the number or the number in letters
Top and bottom margins should be 25mm, the page number appearing in this margin
Figures and tables can be inserted in the body of the text. Each one should be numbered, and a

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list included at the beginning as part of the contents page. Make sure the table or figure is as
close as possible to the text to which it refers
A standard type face should be used (e.g. Times Roman). Point size should be 12 for the main
text. Headings and subheadings can be a larger type face if preferred. Bold and Italics can be
used for headings and subheadings
All quotes must be identified by the use of inverted commas if included in the text (“). They can be
inset; if inset the inverted commas must be omitted
For referencing format see below

General Advice

Below are some words of advice from Hussey and Hussey (1997: 134) for students engaged in
developing their research proposal:

Don’t be too ambitious – it is better to submit a modest research proposal which is achievable
Don’t try to impress – it is better to write simply and clearly
Discuss the proposal with family and friends
Be prepared to revise the proposal – it is better to make changes at the planning stage than to
start the research and fail to complete it
Remember that the proposal is a plan – the student may adapt the plan as the research
progresses
Do not submit the research proposal as soon as it is completed – reflect on it and revise it if
necessary

Criteria for judging a Research Study

Salkind (2000:33-34) offers a very useful list of criteria that may be used to reflect on and revise the
proposal:

1. The Review of Previous Research. How closely is the literature cited in the study related to
previous literature? Is the review recent? Are there any seminal or outstanding references you
know of that were left out?
2. The Problem and Purpose. Can you understand the statement of the problem? Is the purpose of
the study clearly stated? Does the purpose seem to be tied to the literature that is reviewed? Is
the objective of the study clearly stated? Is there a conceptual rationale to which the hypotheses
are grounded? Is there a rationale for why the study is an important one to do?
3. The Hypothesis. Are the research hypotheses clearly stated? Are the research hypotheses
explicitly stated? Do the hypotheses state a clear association between variables? Are the
hypotheses grounded in theory or in a review and presentation of relevant literature? Are the
hypotheses testable?
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4. The Method. Are both the independent and dependent variables clearly defined? Are the
definition and description of the variables complete? Is it clear how the study was conducted?
5. The Sample. Was the sample selected in such a way that you think it is representative of the
population? Is it clear where the sample comes from and how it was selected? How similar are
the participants in the study to those that have been used in similar studies?
6. Results and Discussion. Does the author relate the results to the review of literature? Are the
results related to the hypothesis? Is the discussion of the results consistent with the results? Does
the discussion provide closure to the initial hypothesis that the author presents?
7. References. Is the list of references current? Are they consistent in their format? Are the
references complete? Does the list of references reflect some of the most important reference
sources in the field?
8. General Comments about the Report. Is it clearly written and understandable? Is the language
biased? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research? What are the primary
implications of the research? What would you do to improve the research?

7.4 Writing the Dissertation

This section outlines the format of the dissertation. Each element of the suggested structure is
explained so that all students are clear about what is required. Some of the components have
already been discussed in the course of outlining the components of the research proposal.

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General Structure and Format

Below is the general structure and format of the dissertation:

On the following page is a brief description of the elements listed above. If a student wants to make
deviations from the proposed structure, he/she must first discuss the proposed change with his/her
Supervisor.

Title Page

The title page will be similar to that for the proposal with only the word ‘proposal’ removed.

Abstract

The abstract is a summary of the contents of the study. It should include information on:

The research problem and its background

The research purpose
The research methodology
A description of the research population and the sample
The major findings and conclusions of the study

The abstract should be concise and not exceed a page and a half.

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Below the abstract should be a list of 6-10 keywords that encapsulate the key concepts and issues in
the study.

Declaration

This is a formal statement by the student declaring that the dissertation represents his own work and
that it has not been submitted previously for any degree at any other university. Below is the wording
of the declaration:

Acknowledgement

It is usual (but not obligatory) to acknowledge the supervisor, any company personnel who have
helped and any family or friends the student feels have contributed to the completion of the
dissertation.

Contents

This is a full list of all sections, including subsections with each part numbered in standard report
format. The following example illustrates the basic format.

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(The above format should be adopted for every chapter).

Bibliography

Appendices

Appendix 1
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Appendix 2

7.5 Standard organisation of a Dissertation

Chapter One: Introduction

This section sets the scene for the study. It typically includes information on the research problem,
background to the problem, purpose of the study, definition of terms, delimitations, significance of the
study, and outline of the study.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

In this chapter the student presents a review of the core literature on the research problem. It must
be a critical and evaluative process, not just a list of summaries of various works in the field.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

This chapter describes, in clear detail, how the study was undertaken so that someone else can
study the methodology and replicate the study to test the validity of the original findings. Since there
are many components to the methods section, it is common practice to present the information under
different subheadings such as design of the study, sample, data collection and data analysis. It is
also possible that each of these subheadings may have further subheadings.

Chapter Four: Findings of the Study

This chapter is a straightforward reporting of the findings through the use of tables, graphs and
figures and verbal descriptions. This chapter also presents information on which variables were used
in the analysis and, if necessary, a rationale for why these particular procedures were selected.

Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings

In this chapter the student explores important relationships among what was done in the past, the
purpose of the study, and the results of the current study. The student interprets the results and
discusses their implications. This chapter is often the hardest part to write up well, requiring the
student to think hard and carefully, and argue persuasively using the data to address the research
objectives. This chapter ties together the information culled during the literature review, the findings
of the current study and the conclusions and recommendations.

Chapter Six: Conclusions and Recommendations

These can be two separate chapters, or combined in one chapter. The conclusions must proceed

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logically from all that has gone before, and must indicate that the student has fully addressed the
research objectives. No new information should be presented.

For topics that have clear practical management implications, the student must offer feasible
recommendations. It should be recognised that recommendations are of no use without a plan for
their implementation, or at least a consideration of the main problems that will be encountered in
their implementation. Students often overlook this part. The researcher must demonstrate in the
recommendations section that he/she has bridged the theory-practice gap.

References

The student must include here all the works that are cited in the study. As poor referencing can result
in loss of marks, the student must give full details of all books, articles, reports, etc cited as
references in the dissertation. See below for referencing format.

Appendices

These should only include material that has been referred to in the body of the dissertations, but
which for reasons of style are not included in the main body of the text. Raw data, reference tables,
regulations, copies of research instruments, list of interviewees, etc should be in an appendix. This
material should support the main findings. If it is not referenced in the body of the text then it cannot
be included in the appendices.

7.6 Research Ethics

Good business research requires the student to translate his/her personal ethics into sound business
ethics and that both codes of ethic must find expression in the research process itself. The
challenges that ethical social sciences research demands have produced a whole field of academic
and practical interest called research ethics. Below are some of the critical issues that relate to
research ethics.

Scientific Validity
The research must be conducted in a manner that ensures its academic integrity and scientific
validity. Academic dishonesty is a corrosive force in the academic life of any higher education
institution. It jeopardises the quality of research and depreciates the genuine achievement of others.
Some common forms of unethical practice in research are:

Fabrication which involves the intentional and deliberate falsification or invention of any
information or citation in a study
Plagiarism which involves intentionally or knowingly representing the words or ideas of another

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as one’s own

Recruitment
A key requirement for ethical research is that subjects must never be forced or coerced into
participation in a study. The threat of sanctions against those who refuse to participate, for example,
is evident in a situation where workers and junior staff members are asked by senior managers to
participate in surveys and other forms of research.

Participation
Participation in a study must not expose participants to an invasion of their privacy. The anonymity of
participants must be maintained. Equally, anything learned about participants during their
involvement in a study must be maintained in the strictest confidence.

Protection from Harm

Subjects must be protected from physical, psychological or general work-related harm. The
researcher must ensure that participants will not be placed in any danger. The potential benefits of
the research cannot be used to justify the possible adverse consequences on participants.

Informed Consent
The informed consent of participants is critical to research ethics. Every participant must understand
the nature and consequences of his participation before engagement in the research. Good research
ethics, in fact, requires the participant to read, understand and sign an informed consent form. This
consent document must be presented in simple and clear language to ensure full communication.
Some points that must be included in this document are the purpose of the research, the length of
participation, potential benefits and harms, assurances of anonymity and confidence, and
communication of the results of the study.

Sharing Results
All research is directed at broadening the base of knowledge in the field. Therefore, scientific
knowledge must be placed in the public domain as soon as practical and possible. Among those with
whom the knowledge has to be shared are those who participated in the study.

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Activity 7.15

By now your research proposal would have been completed and possibly
submitted for assessment / approval. Nevertheless, in an effort to remove
possible shortcomings, re-evaluate it in consultation with a fellow student.
Evaluate his/her proposal while he/she does the same with yours. Questions
you need to address in reviewing and evaluating the research proposal are:
1. What is the topic and why was it selected by the student?
2. How would you describe the purpose of the study? Is it primarily
exploratory, descriptive, correlational, explanatory, or does it have more than
one purpose?
3. What type of research would you say that it is an instance of? Would you
say it is basic research, or applied? If applied, how would you describe it?
4. How would you evaluate the quality of the literature review? Do the
references cited appear to be relevant to the topic? Does it seem to give
adequate coverage to the topic by citing current as well as earlier research?
Does it deal with relevant theories or theoretical frameworks as well as
research studies? Does it lead to a focused, researchable question, including
hypotheses? Can you think of any aspect of the problem that was overlooked
in the literature review?
5. What is the research question or questions? In what sense is it a
researchable question, i.e., what makes it researchable? Has the student
convinced you that it is important enough to be researched in terms of its
importance concerning what is already known about the topic and/or an
existing theory or theoretical framework?
6. Are there any testable hypotheses? If so, what are they? Are they clearly
stated?
7. What are the independent and dependent variables? How are they defined
and operationalised or measured? Do the definitions and measures seem
appropriate?
8. What are the units of analysis? Do they seem appropriate in terms of the
research question? Do you foresee any possibilities for the proposed
research leading to the fallacies or errors because of the units?
9. Is the proposal written according to the framework presented in the
manual? Is it well-written and free of typographical, spelling, grammatical, and
other errors?
10. How does the student propose to assess and maximise the reliability and

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validity of the measures of her/his variables? Do the student’s plans in these

regards appear reasonable and convincing?
11. Does the student recognise and state the potential ethical issues and
dilemmas that are likely to be encountered in conducting the proposed
research? If so, how does he/she plan to deal with the ethical problems? Do
the plans seem appropriate?
12. What type of research design is proposed for the study? Does the design
seem appropriate given the topic, the research question(s), and the
hypothesis or hypotheses (if any)? Can you recommend a better, alternative
design?
13. Does the student’s description of the proposed research design appear to
be in accord with the principles of good practice for using such designs (e.g.,
if an experiment, are the independent and dependent variables clearly
defined and measured, are appropriate controls considered and planned,
etc.; or if a survey, do the sampling methods seem appropriate, are the plans
for developing and administering the questionnaire clear and do they appear
sound, etc.)?
14. Are plans for how the data will be collected described? Do the proposed
data collection procedures appear to: (a) control for possible biases or errors
in data collection, and (b) conform with the ethical guidelines for treating
human subjects?
15. Does the student describe how the data will be analysed, and what
descriptive and inferential statistics will be used? Do these strategies and
decisions seem appropriate in light of the types of data and the levels of
measurement of the variables?

7.7 Reference Format

What is Referencing?

Referencing is the practice of letting the reader of any written work knows the source of any idea,
opinion or information included in the text. It is an acknowledgement of a piece of writing by another
author which has been referred to or quoted directly in a written piece of work. Referencing enables
the student to identify whose ideas or arguments they are using. There are three specific reasons for
using referencing:

To let the reader know whose ideas are being used? In the academic system, ideas are a kind of
property of those who develop them. To not acknowledge the source of information opens the
student to accusations of plagiarism
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To enable the reader to check the information. The reader might want to go back to that author’s
original work for her/himself and check the accuracy of the information
To provide information for the reader. The current research into a topic might produce an
interesting book or journal article which may be new to the reader. If referenced accurately, the
reader will be able to find that book or article to get a fuller grasp of the original material

How referencing is done?

Different institutions and publications have different ways of citing references. MANCOSA suggests
that all students use the Harvard System of referencing described here. Some advantages of this
style are:

It ensures one alphabetical list of all references in the text, facilitating easy identification of
sources
Last minute additions and deletions can be made without having to renumber all references
Only one entry is necessary in the list even though the work may have been referred to more than
once

There are two parts to the Harvard System, one relates to the in-text references and the other to
the reference list at the end of the text.

In-text references

General requirement for in-text references is that the writer must insert the surname of the author
whose idea/ information/ argument is being used, the year in which the work was published, and the
page number(s) where the information is located. The underlying principle here is that ideas and
words of others must be formally acknowledged. The reader can obtain the full source citation from
the list of references that is supplied at the end of the text.

The source is part of the sentence

When the names of the author(s) of a source are part of the formal structure of the sentence, the
year of the publication and the page number/s with a colon separating the two, appear within
brackets following the identification of the author/s. Below are some examples:
(a) As Smith (1990:25) points out, the
(b) Mitchell and Smith (2000:72-73) found that
(c) Smith, Jones, Sherwin and Pearson (1997:45) maintain that
When there are two authors, the names of both authors occur in every in-text reference. For multiple
author citations (three to five authors), the names of all authors must be noted with the first
reference, and then the reference is shortened to the name of the first author with et al. Thus, in the

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case of example (C) above, all later uses in the text would be:
(d) Smith et al. (1997:56-57) argue that mergers and acquisitions

For references with six or more authors, students must use et al. with the first reference and provide
the final citation in the references list:
(e) Jones et al. (1996:101-102) state that work stoppages often reflect

If two or more multiple author references shorten to the same et al. form, making it ambiguous, and
the student must give as many authors as necessary to make them distinct before et al. Below is an
example:
(f) Marketing, as Smith, Jones, et al. (1990:36) observe, is pivotal to

Occasionally the student may want to write about one author’s research (primary reference) which is
mentioned by another author (secondary reference). Both need to be identified:
(g) Smith’s research in 1982 (cited in Hanson, 1998:55) found that ; or
(h) Hanson (1998:55) in reporting Smith’s (1982) research maintains that

Generally, however, students should avoid secondary referencing if at all possible.

If the author that the student wants to reference has published more than one text in a particular year
and he/she wants to reference more than one item from the same year in the dissertation, then
he/she must add a, b or c after the date to distinguish the publications both in the text and the
reference list at the end:
(i) Drucker (1999a:75) argues that managers
(j) Strategic planning, as Robertson (1998c:210) observes, is often not a systematic process

Source is not part of the sentence

B. When the author(s) of a source are NOT part of the formal structure of the sentence, the author(s),
year of publication, and page number/s must appear within brackets. For the exact format see the
example below:
(k) A recent study (Robertson, 1998:210) noted that strategic planning is often not a systematic
process.

If the student is citing multiple works by the same author at the same time, they should be arranged
in date order:
(l) Several studies (Johnson, 1988, 1990a, 1990b, 1995) came to a similar conclusion about the
impact of management styles.

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In example (l) there are no page references. This suggests that the writer is referring to each
publication in its entirety. Where several writers are referred to in the same context, they should listed
by date and then alphabetically by first authors’ surnames, each citation is separated from the next
by a semi-colon:
(m) Reviews of research on religion and health have concluded that at least some type of
religious behaviours are related to higher levels of physical and mental health (Ronald & Smith,
1992; Gortner, Larson & Allen, 1991; Levin and Vanderpool, 1991; Palomarana and Pendleton,
1991; Payne et al., 1991; Benner et al., 1987; Appleton, Smith and Jones, 1984).

References with multiple authors cited in full imply that this is the first reference to those citations in
the study.

Quotations

When a direct quotation is used in the text, the student must always include author(s), year and page
number within the brackets, exactly in the manner noted above.

Short quotes of up to two lines

Short quotations of up to two lines should be incorporated into the formal structure of the sentence
and enclosed in quotation marks. Consider the following example:
(n) Weir (1995:10) states that “defining roles and their remits is not simple”. A similar view is
expressed by Holmes and Arthur (1996:210) who argue that “role definitions must be precise to
avoid a blurring of functions”.

Larger quotations

Larger quotations should be indented in a separate paragraph in block format:

(o) Thomas and Ingham (1995:33) in discussing staff development state:

Development is infectious, and staff that previously have recoiled from undertaking a degree or
conversion course have been encouraged by the success of others.

If part of the quotation has been omitted then this can be indicated by using three dots:
(p) Weir and Kendrick (1995:88) state that ‘networking is no longer solely within the male domain
… but is part of general staff interaction.’

It needs to be stressed that the student must only use three dots when omitting material from
quotations, four if the omitted material includes the end of the sentence. Students should not use
dots at the beginning or end of a quotation.
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Reference list at the end of the text

References should be listed in alphabetical order by authors/ first author’s surname and then, if the
writer has several works that have been cited in the text, by date (the earliest first), and then if more
than one item has been published during a specific year by letter (1995a, 1995b, etc.). Details must
be taken from the title page of a publication and not from the front cover, which may be different.
Each reference should include the elements and punctuations given in the examples below. Title of
the publication should be in italics or underlined. The examples given below are underlined.

A book with one or two authors.

Smith, D. (1990) Elements of Management. London: MacMillan.

Mitchell, J. and Smith, D. (2000) Decision theory: conduct, critique and utilization. Third Edition.
New York: Bantam Books.

Book with three or more authors

Deighton, J., Horsley, R., Stewart, S. and Cain, C. (1983) Sweet ramports: women in revolutionary
Nicaragua. London: War or Want and the Nicaraguan Solidarity Campaign.

A book by a corporate author (e.g. a government department)

Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet. (1989) Office of the Status of Women: an introduction.
Melbourne: Australian Government Publishing Service.

Australian Nursing Federation. (1989) Standards for nursing practice. Melbourne: Australian
Nursing Federation.

An edited book

Swanepoel, B.J., Slabbert, J.A., Erasmus, B.J. and Nel, P.S. (eds.) (1999) The management of
employment relations: organizational level perspectives. Special student edition. Durban:
Butterworths.

Wellington, J. J. (ed.) (1986) Controversial issues in the curriculum. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Basford, L. and Slevin, O. (eds.) (1995) Theory and practice of nursing: An integrated approach to
patient care. Edenburgh: Campion.

Books with no publisher, place of publication or date of publication given

Saulwick, Weller and Associates. (1995) Sex role portrayal of women in advertising: a content

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analysis. Canberra: [publisher unknown].

Kelly, F. (1996) Will trees survive? [place of publication unknown]: Western Publications.
Wolverton, H. [date unknown] Management issues for reservation Indians. Wilmington, South
Dakota: Prairie Press.

A chapter in a book

Capra, F. (1983) The systems view of life. In Kendrick, K and Johnathan, Y. (eds.) (1983) The
turning point: science, society and the rising culture. London: Fontana Press, pp. 285-322.
Weir, P. (1995) Clinical practice development role: a personal reflection. In Smith, Albert (ed.)
(1995) Innovations in nursing management. London: Edward Arnold, pp. 5-22.

An article in a periodical/ journal

Boydell, D. (1975) Pupil behaviour in junior classrooms. British Journal of educational

psychology. 45(1), pp. 122-129.

NB 45(1) signifies Volume 45, Number 1.

Phillips, E. R. (1957) The South African labour market. South African Journal of Industrial
Relations. 1(3), pp. 25-39.

Review or interview when titled

Cormond, T.P. (1982) A new look at medicine from the social perspective [review of Social contexts
of health care management by Carol Senn]. Contemporary Society. 27(1), pp. 208.

An article in a newspaper

White, M. (1998) £68m to cut NHS waiting lists. Guardian, Manchester Monday, 18 May, p.8.
Chopra, R. (1990) Frustration and despair [letter to the editor]. The Daily News, Durban, Monday,
21 June, p. 21.

A newspaper article with no obvious author

[Author Unknown] (1999) Recruitment: lessons in leadership. Sunday Times, Johannesburg, 11

March, p. 32.

Government publications

Department of Health (1996) Choice and opportunity: primary care: the future. CM 3390. London:
Stationery Office.

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A thesis or dissertation

Ngubane, M.E. (2000) An investigation of the impact of affirmative action policy as a strategy for
removing discrimination in the workplace. Unpublished MBA dissertation. High Wycombe,
Buckinghamshire: Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College.
Rameshur, H. (1996) Education policy implementation in a system in transition: A multivariate
systems approach. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

A secondary reference

Fidler, F. and Chemers, M. (1974) Leadership and effective management. Glenview, Illinois: Scott
Foresman and Co. Cited in: Lawrence, David (1996) Leadership and management. New York:
Wiley.

Referencing electronic sources

References must be correct, complete and consistent.

Reference to an Internet source

Basically the information required are author’s name, year, title [online], edition, place of
publication, publisher (if ascertainable), where available and date on which it was accessed.
Barnett, M. (1996) Management issues for the contemporary office [online]. London: Eastern
Highlands University. Available from:
http//easternhigh.ac.uk/busfac/resources/mico.html [Accessed 27 September 2000].

The term [online] indicates the type of medium and is used for all Internet resources. [Accessed
Date] is the date on which the document was viewed. This allows for any subsequent modifications
to the document. The term publisher can cover both publishers or printed sources as well as
organisations responsible for maintaining sites on the Internet, such as the University of the
Witwatersrand. If no specific author is cited ascribe authorship to the smaller organisational unit:
Library Services (1995) Internet user’s guide [online]. Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg.
Available from http://joburgun.co.za/library/guides/ [Accessed 30 September 2000].

Reference to an electronic journal

The reader needs to know the author’s or editor’s surname and initials, year of publication, title of
article, journal title, volume number, issue number in brackets, location within the list available from,
URL, and [accessed date].
Church, K.B. (1995) People machines: on robot-consciousness. Psychology [online]. 6(15). Available
from: gopher://wwachaw.ai.univie.ac/Psychology/1654/ [Accessed 17 June 2000].

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The location within the host is the equivalent of pagination used with printed sources. It should be
given if the format of the document includes page numbers or an equivalent internal referencing
system. The specification of location should be chosen according to the following order of
preference:

Page, screen, paragraph or line number where the features are a fixed feature of the online
source (e.g. 5-21 indicating that it is page 5 of 21 pages; lines 100-150)
Labelled part, section, table, etc.
Any host-specific designation

If the document does not include pagination or internal referencing system, the extent of the item
may be indicated in such terms as the total number of lines, screens, etc. (e.g. [35 lines] or [approx.
12 screens])

Example of a typical bibliography

Allen, A. (1993) Changing theory in nursing practice. Senior Nurse, 13(1), 43-5.

Basford, L. and Slevin, O. (eds) (1995) Theory and practice of nursing: an integrated approach to
patient care. Edinburgh: Campion.

Burns, N. and Grove, S.K. (1997) The practice of nursing research: conduct, critique & utilization.
Third edition. London: Saunders.

Canetti, E. (2000) Crowds and power. Translated from German by C. Stewart. London: Phoenix.

Department of Health (1996) Choice and opportunity: primary care: the future. Cm.3390. London:
Stationery Office.

Department of National Health (1990) National Health Service and Community Care Act 1990. pp.
20-37. London: HMSO.

Fiedler, F. and Chemers, M. (1974) Leadership and effective management. Glenview, Illinois, Scott
Foresman and Co. Cited in: Douglass, L.M. (1996) The effective nurse: leader and manager. 5th
Edition. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby.

Marieb, E. (2000) Essentials of Human anatomy and Physiology: AWL Companion Web Site [online].
6th Edition. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. Available from: http://occ.awlonline.com

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/bookbind/pubbooks/marieb-essentials/ [Accessed 4th July 2001].

McConnell, D. ([email protected]) (28th November 1997)Follow up to your interview.

Personal email to L.Parker ([email protected]).

Osman, S. (1998) R68m to cut NHS waiting lists. Guardian, Monday May 18 1998, p.8.

Proctor, P. (1998) The tutorial: combining asynchronous and synchronous learning. In: Banks, S. et
al. Networked Lifelong Learning: innovative approaches to education and training through the
Internet: Proceedings of the 1998 International Conference held at the University of Sheffield.
Sheffield, University of Sheffield. pp. 3.1 - 3.7.

Redman, G. M. (1997) LPN-BSN: education for a reformed healthcare system. Journal of Nursing
Education 36 (3), 121-7. Abstract [online]. Available from: http://www.mancosa.co.za. [Accessed 28th
May 1998].

Sandall, J. (2001) Free web-based virtual midwifery library. Midwifery-research [online]. Available
from: http://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/lists/midwifery-research.html [Accessed 5th July 2001].

Seedhouse, D. (1997) Health promotion: philosophy, prejudice and practice. Chichester: John Wiley.

Stones, M. (1995) Women, nurses, education: an oral history taking technique. Unpublished M.Ed.
dissertation, University of Sheffield.

Weir, P. (1995) Clinical practice development role: a personal reflection. In: K. Kendrick et al. (eds)
Innovations in nursing practice. London: Edward Arnold, pp. 5- 22.

7.8 Some Style Rules

Abbreviations and acronyms

Avoid abbreviations except for long, familiar terms. The student must use it in full the first time the
term occurs and then put the acronym or abbreviation in brackets.
The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) is very rigorous in…

A list of abbreviations/ acronyms must be presented at the beginning or as part of the appendices.

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Plurals of abbreviations

To form the plurals of abbreviations, add s alone without an apostrophe (PhDs, Iqs, Eds).
Avoiding biased and pejorative language
In general, avoid anything that causes offense. Below are some examples:

Do not use ethnic labels (e.g. Hispanic) when you can use geographical labels (e.g. Mexican
Americans)
‘Men’ (when referring to all adults) when you can use men and women
‘Chairman’ when you can use ‘Chairperson’ and ‘Chair’

Current use of the terms ‘gender’ and ‘sex’

The term “gender” refers to culture and should be used when referring to men and women as social
groups. The term “sex” refers to biology and should be used when biological distinctions are
emphasised. Avoid gender stereotypes. Below is an example:
“A South African boy’s fascination with rugby” can be replaced with, “A South African youth’s
fascination with rugby”.

Sensitivity to labels
In general, students should call people what they want to be called. Students should use a neutral
term:
“Non-whites in South Africa are now given greater access …” should be replaced by “Blacks in
South Africa are now given greater access …”
In referring to age, the student should be specific about age ranges and avoid open-ended
definitions like “under 16” or “over 65.” Similarly, the term “elderly” should be avoided as the term
“older person” is preferable.

Numbers

Below are some general pointers:

Spell out common fractions and common expressions (one-half, Sixteenth of June)
Spell out numbers at the beginning of sentences (Ten respondents …)
Use numerals for numbers 10 and above, or lower numbers grouped with numbers 10 and above
(e.g. from 6 to 12 hours of work …)
Spell out numbers which are inexact or below 10 and not grouped with numbers over 10 (eight
items, nine pages, five trials)
To make plurals out of numbers, add s only with no apostrophe (the 1950s)
Use combinations of written and Arabic numerals for back-to-back modifiers (five 4-point scales)
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Use combinations of numerals and written numbers for large sums (over 3 million people)
Use numerals for exact statistical references, scores, sample sizes and sums (multiplied by 3; or
5% of the sample; “We used 30 subjects, all with over two years of work experience, and spent an
average of 1hr. 20 min per day not engaged in direct work-related activities.”)
Use the percent symbol (%) only with figures (5%) and not with written numbers (five percent)

7.9 General hints on Language

Errors of language spelling and punctuation can severely affect the overall assessment of a
dissertation. Therefore students must exercise great care in editing and re-editing their completed
dissertations to ensure that they are free of errors. Indeed, some universities require a statement
from the student declaring that he/ she has carried out this process or has sought the assistance of a
language expert to ensure accuracy of language and expression.

Below are some words of advice for the student:

Always re-read your work for spelling errors, grammar errors and errors of expression. If
possible, secure the services of a knowledgeable friend or expert to do this
Do not place over-reliance on a computer spell-check programme. Also ensure that the spell-
check is set to the UK or South African and not the American form of English
Check the logic of the numbering system and where there is a reference to another page ensure
that it is the right page
Check the accuracy of references to appendices and ensure that each appendix is correctly
numbered
Keep sentences short as this makes them easier to read
Use complete sentences, which flow logically from one to the next with appropriate connectors
Each paragraph should contain one key idea. Short paragraphs are easier to read than
paragraphs which extend over the full page

7.10 Assessment Criteria

Dissertations are marked both by an internal and an external examiner. The following are the
assessment criteria:

Relevance and significance of research problem

Clarity in definition of research purpose
Depth, adequacy and currency of literature review
Quality and appropriateness of research design
Soundness of research methodology
Application of theory
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Quality of data collection and data analysis

Coherence of argument
Logicality of conclusions
Relevance and appropriateness of recommendations and implementation guidelines
Language, style and presentation factors

7.11 Roles and Responsibilities

The relationship between the supervisor of a dissertation and the student is a reciprocal one with
clearly defined roles and responsibilities.

The Supervisor

Broadly the supervisor’s role is one of providing appropriate and expert guidance and advice but not
one of actually doing the work of the dissertation. More specifically the guidance role of the
supervisor entails:

Giving early advice on the selection of the topic, the deadline for a full research proposal, and the
expected standard of work required in a Masters level study
Advising the student, on receipt of the research topic, about the feasibility of the problem for a
Masters level management dissertation
Commenting, on receipt of a detailed research proposal, on the quality of the design and setting
deadlines for regular submission of work and making arrangements for regular supervisory
meetings and/or contacts
Advising the student on technical details and any ethical issues that may be raised by the
proposed research and underscoring the problem of plagiarism and how to avoid it
Providing the student with prompt, constructive feedback on the sections of work submitted for
guidance and comment
Assisting the student by putting him/her in touch with others who may provide specialist
assistance in areas such as statistics, editing, binding, etc.

The Student

The student has to grasp fully that he/she is the researcher. He/she therefore has the primary
responsibility for identifying and defining the research problem, planning the study, conducting the
literature review, collecting and analysing the primary data, and writing the dissertation. More
specifically the responsibilities of the student entail:

Developing a sound grasp of the theory and practice of business research

Identifying a significant research problem and submitting to the College a brief rationale for the

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study
Developing, after discussion with the supervisor and approval of the topic, a comprehensive
research proposal
Receiving further guidance from the supervisor on the research proposal, making appropriate
amendments and improvements to the research design and methodology and working
conscientiously and independently within the parameters of the guidance offered
Developing a plan of action for meetings/consultations with the supervisor and maintaining the
progress of work in accordance with this agreed plan
Completing work on each chapter in sufficient time to allow for supervisor comments and
discussion before proceeding to the next stage of research
Attending all supervisory meetings well prepared and with a clear agenda of issues that need to
be discussed
Recognising that the supervisor has many other responsibilities, implying that all scheduled
meetings must be punctually attended and that unscheduled meetings may not be possible
Developing the study in accordance with the format provided by the College and taking special
care to avoid plagiarism in the dissertation.
Keeping both the College and the supervisor advised of changes in contact details and any
problems that may interfere with the progress of the study so that appropriate advice can be
rendered both at a personal and official level

7.12 Summary
As a rule any Masters level management study which does not include a dissertation can
immediately be judged to be below international norms for such qualifications. The dissertation
provides the student with a wide range of academic and business-related skills which include:

Understanding the theory-practice linkage

Applying research method in the investigation of a defined management problem
Exercising individual judgement in collating primary data in a problem
Marshalling information in arriving at sound conclusions and recommendations

This manual has sought to be comprehensive and useful and has provided a variety of exercises
requiring student involvement and problem-solving. Nevertheless, it cannot replace the prescribed
textbook. Therefore, students are advised to study their textbook as the primary source for it often
presents a more comprehensive coverage of concepts and a wide range of practical examples and
guidelines.

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Answers

Activity 7.1
Outline the aspects that a student should first undertake in the initial stages of developing the
project.

Find a topic and then read on it to refine it

Read extensively to identify a suitable topic
Present your arguments in support of EACH approach

Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

Activity 7.2
1. Outline a suitable research problem and write a one-page report on the significance of the
study, should the research be undertaken.
NB: The general rules of MANCOSA provide that a student should submit a topic and a clearly
defined research problem for approval by the Research Committee before undertaking
detailed work on the proposal.
Answer: To be discussed during the webinar(s) with lecturer.

Activity 7.3
1. Outline a dramatic illustration or quote that can set the tone in the introduction of your
proposal on the research idea you identified earlier.
Put yourself in the position of the reader of your proposal. Explian if you would continue
reading the introduction.If not, you need to rework the introduction.
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.4
1. Assuming that you have settled on a topic area for your proposal, now:

Outline a clear research focus so that it is narrowed down to a researchable topic.

Outline a proposed title for your research project ensuring that it is no more than 12 words.
Illustrate in one sentence the essence of the problem statement starting with the words:
‘My study is about ….’
Explain if this is really what you want to concentrate on and the reason for it.

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Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.5
Assuming that you have settled on a topic area for your proposal, now:
1. Outline atleast three reasons why the problem you have chosen is important and valid. To
you? To society?
2. Illustrate at least two concrete examples of the problem.
3. To what public statistics, management trends, or theoretical controversy does your study
relate?
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.6
1. Assuming that you have settled on a topic and have defined the research problem, and
have decided on whether the study shall be quantitative or qualitative, proceed to the
articulation of the research objectives/ questions/ hypotheses.
Answer the following questions about the study:

Explain what you think the results of your study will show
Explain how the results, whatever they show, will fulfill the purpose of the study
Explain what impact the expected results will have upon the problem

Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.7
1. Outline the terms from your problem statement, objectives and research methodology
components which you feel require definition. Have colleagues look over these sections when
you complete your proposal and add any terms they feel need to be defined.
2. Selectwhich terms are most critical (and belong to this section) and which terms can go in
the appendix.
3. Outline the clearest definition of each term, defining any theoretical terms as they are
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defined by major writers in the field.

Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.8
1. Outline the topics that your literature reviews should cover.
2. Outlinestudies that support your view that the problem is important and of theoretical and
management interest.
3. Explain what methodological approaches have been used by others studying your problem.
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.9
1. Explain from what paradigm you view the research problem. Explainthe operational
consequences and design implications of your decision.
2. Outline three research methods you could use and explain why each might be appropriate
and feasible.
3. Select your choice from the possibilities you have listed above and describe the nature of
your study in its terms
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.10
1. Outline all the information you intend to gather to address the purpose of your study.
2. Explain clearly the design and rationale for your data-gathering.
3. Characterisethe population to which you wish your results to apply and the sampling
procedure you intend to use (if your study is located in a quantitative paradigm).
4. If your study has a qualitative bias, fully explain the data gathering strategy you intend to
use and how this strategy will be shaped to the needs of your topic.
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

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Activity 7.11
1. Explain how you will present your data.Tables? Graphs? Figures? Select what would be
most appropriate and most persuasive.
2. Data does not speak for itself. Itmust be interpreted. Explain how the data in your study will
be interpreted. Statistical tests? Comparison of distribution values? Pattern-matching?
Explanation building?
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.12.
1. Explain why your study is important.To whom is it important other than yourself?
2. Place yourself in the position of responding to someone who says ‘so what’ to your project.
Outline a persuasive rationale to such a person.
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.13
1. Explain the kind of design, sampling, measurement, and analysis you would use for your
research topic ‘under ideal conditions’.
2. Outline how far from these ideals is your study likely to be. Be specific, be honest. Explain
the ramifications.These are potential sources of error and should be noted. Can any be
eliminated? How? If necessary you should make revisions.
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

Activity 7.14
1. Explain new research that will have been made possible by youhaving done the study.
Outline any further researchthat may be suggested by your study.
2. Explain what would have happened had you not done the study.
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

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Activity 7.15
1. What is the topic and why was it selected by the student?
2. How would you describe the purpose of the study? Is it primarily exploratory, descriptive,
correlational, explanatory, or does it have more than one purpose?
3. What type of research would you say that it is an instance of? Would you say it is basic
research, or applied? If applied, how would you describe it?
4. How would you evaluate the quality of the literature review? Do the references cited appear
to be relevant to the topic? Does it seem to give adequate coverage to the topic by citing
current as well as earlier research? Does it deal with relevant theories or theoretical
frameworks as well as research studies? Does it lead to a focused, researchable question,
including hypotheses? Can you think of any aspect of the problem that was overlooked in the
literature review?
5. What is the research question or questions? In what sense is it a researchable question,
i.e., what makes it researchable? Has the student convinced you that it is important enough to
be researched in terms of its importance concerning what is already known about the topic
and/or an existing theory or theoretical framework?
6. Are there any testable hypotheses? If so, what are they? Are they clearly stated?
7. What are the independent and dependent variables? How are they defined and
operationalised or measured? Do the definitions and measures seem appropriate?
8. What are the units of analysis? Do they seem appropriate in terms of the research
question? Do you foresee any possibilities for the proposed research leading to the fallacies
or errors because of the units?
9. Is the proposal written according to the framework presented in the manual? Is it well-
written and free of typographical, spelling, grammatical, and other errors?
10. How does the student propose to assess and maximise the reliability and validity of the
measures of her/his variables? Do the student’s plans in these regards appear reasonable and
convincing?
11. Does the student recognise and state the potential ethical issues and dilemmas that are
likely to be encountered in conducting the proposed research? If so, how does he/she plan to
deal with the ethical problems? Do the plans seem appropriate?
12. What type of research design is proposed for the study? Does the design seem
appropriate given the topic, the research question(s), and the hypothesis or hypotheses (if
any)? Can you recommend a better, alternative design?
13. Does the student’s description of the proposed research design appear to be in accord
with the principles of good practice for using such designs (e.g., if an experiment, are the

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independent and dependent variables clearly defined and measured, are appropriate controls
considered and planned, etc.; or if a survey, do the sampling methods seem appropriate, are
the plans for developing and administering the questionnaire clear and do they appear sound,
etc.)?
14. Are plans for how the data will be collected described? Do the proposed data collection
procedures appear to: (a) control for possible biases or errors in data collection, and (b)
conform with the ethical guidelines for treating human subjects.
15. Does the student describe how the data will be analysed, and what descriptive and
inferential statistics will be used? Do these strategies and decisions seem appropriate in light
of the types of data and the levels of measurement of the variables?
Answer:
All activities in this unit should be done by the students themselves as they are related to the choice
of their own topics and research designs.

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Appendix 1: An Example of a Proposal

Appendix 1: An Example of a Proposal

FACULTY SELF-ESTEEM AND ATTITUDES TOWARD

STUDENT EVALUATIONS OF TEACHERS

by

Carol Ann Nguni

A Dissertation Proposal Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Management College of Southern Africa

2008

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FACULTY SELF-ESTEEM AND ATTITUDES TOWARD

STUDENT EVALUATIONS OF TEACHING

Introduction

Logan Wilson, former president of the University of Texas, wrote over 30 years ago in the Academic
Man that “indeed, it is no exaggeration to say that the most critical problem confronted in the social
organisation of any university is the proper evaluation of faculty services, and giving due recognition
through impartial assignment of status” (1982:112). More recently, L. Richard Meeth (1996:3),
director of the University Student National Project on Undergraduate Teaching has stated that:

Systematic, comprehensive, and valid evaluation of teaching has been an educational problem for
many years. It continues to evade educators, although most administrators and legislators desire it
as a meaningful way to determine rewards and sanctions for faculty, and most serious teachers seek
it as a way of improving their performance and more closely relating what they do to what students
learn.

It would appear that the problem of faculty evaluation has not been solved since Wilson’s statement
of more that 30 years ago. Dressel (1999:373) has further stated that faculty evaluation continues to
be “sporadic in nature, limited in perspective and largely ineffective”.

Problem

Although it is widely known and accepted that most faculty members resist the student evaluation
process, few if any studies have been conducted that such investigate the reasons for this
resistance, or harm that such resistance can cause.

Many college faculty members believe the classroom is sanctified territory and that to make the
results of student ratings available to a tenure committee or to the student body at large constitutes a
violation of academic freedom with eventual loss of autonomy (Lee, 2000:314). As Dressel
(1999:332) aptly points out, “Those who evaluate may ultimately direct and control.” Other faculty
members question the reliability of the rating device itself or the student’s capability to rate teaching
performance with any degree of validity. In addition, recognition of some faculty members as good
teachers inevitably carries the connotation that others are less good which may culminate in a threat

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to the faculty member’s self-esteem.

Background

Most people, whether faculty members or students, would prefer not to be evaluated. Since
evaluation of teaching performance by students can be threatening and ill-defined, and can
sometimes result in unfair judgments, faculty resistance is understandable.

Faculty resistance toward student evaluation of teaching is influenced, in part, by the many variables
inherent in the situation: level and type of students taught, attractiveness of disciplines to students,
course difficulty, and difference between required and elective courses – all factors over which faculty
members exercise little control. In addition, much of faculty resistance to students’ evaluation seems
to be motivated by an ingrained and pervasive distrust of the student’s ability to evaluate objectively.
He is viewed as an incompetent judge, biased, immature, and arbitrary. Further, he is charged with
confusing good teaching with showmanship and construing evaluations as an open invitation for
retribution to get back at the faculty member for a grade or an unexpected grade. Finally, mechanical
problems involved in the evaluation process have traditionally been a major concern for faculty.

Declining enrolments, scarce educational funding and continued societal pressure for teaching
accountability have made most faculty members acutely aware of their tenuous positions, and the
need for evaluation programmes that document teacher contributions to the teaching-learning
process. For too long, higher education has been unaware of what is taking place in the classroom.
At least as much as the student, faculty members need to learn which of their teaching practices are
appropriate and effective and which are not, so that they can improve their performance. If the
reasons for faculty resistance to student evaluation of teaching are analysed and mitigated, then it
may be possible to discern through student ratings what contribution the teacher makes to what the
student learns; and thus improve the whole educational process.

The Purpose

The purpose of this study will be to assess the relationship between faculty self-esteem and attitudes
toward student evaluation.

Significance

Although in recent years the area of faculty evaluation has received much research attention, many
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research problems and questions remain unanswered. One such problem is related to the need for
data about the individuals who have been evaluated, i.e., the college faculty members themselves.
Most, if not all, of the research regarding the status of faculty evaluation has been gathered from
college administrators such as college deans and presidents. Current research demonstrates that
administrators are highly satisfied with present faculty evaluation systems. What we do not know is
the degree to which faculty are satisfied with these processes. To date, few studies have been
conducted that seek to answer this question. This study will, therefore, attempt to analyse faculty
attitudes relative to systematic student ratings of teaching performance.

By examining the relationship between faculty attitudes toward student ratings of teaching
performance and level of faculty self-esteem, the study will suggest direct answers to the question of
faculty resistance to student evaluations and may lead to revisions of existing faculty evaluation
systems. Indirectly, the study may also influence faculty development programmes.

Nature of the study

The study will use the methodology of correlational research. Several characteristics of college
faculty members will be correlated to discover the extent to which they are related. Faculty self-
esteem and faculty attitudes toward student ratings of teaching performance will be assessed to
determine the way they vary together with other intervening variables controlled.

Literature Review Plan

From a preliminary review of the literature it became apparent this study focuses on a problem that
has not been investigated before. Therefore, a rather unusual approach to the literature review has
been adopted by this researcher. Indeed, a survey of the literature indicates that hundreds of studies
on student evaluations of faculty teaching performance have been conducted, but to date, no study
has investigated faculty members’ attitudes toward this procedure. Consequently, theories and
concepts which might account for attitudes are included in the literature review.

As a starting point a conceptual framework will establish a common meaning for essential concepts
and also provide a similar frame of reference for the reader. To illustrate how faculty attitudes toward
student evaluations of teaching performance are established, the framework portrays relationships
among four concepts – beliefs, attitudes, behavioural intentions, and behaviour. Most importantly, the
framework provides a rational explanation as to how and why the various elements concerned with

190
 Research Methodology

the study – faculty attitudes toward student evaluations, faculty self-esteem and autonomy – are
related.

In the next section, a theoretical orientation is analysed in terms of the conceptual framework. The
subsequent sections deal with the literature concerning the categories of self-esteem, and faculty
evaluation. Attitude rating scales constitute the final segment.

(Note)

This brief excerpt taken from a much longer literature review illustrates the “plan” concept of the
literature section in a proposal. Often, the dissertation or thesis adviser will request a fuller review,
with some even expecting that the entire review for the dissertation will be completed by the time the
proposal is accepted.

Hypothesis

The higher the level of a faculty member’s self-esteem the less resistant he/she will be toward
student ratings of teaching performance.

Definition of Terms
Faculty evaluation: Both the process and the result of ascertaining the value of a faculty member’s
contribution to the teaching-learning process in his/her institution.

Teaching performance: A complex set of attitudes, knowledge, skills, motivations, and values a
teacher brings to the classroom, and the behaviour that results from them.

Systematic student ratings: Written assessments (judgments) of a teacher’s performance carried

out at recurring intervals.

Self-esteem: The need for a stable firmly based high evaluation of oneself, and for the respect of
others.

Loss of autonomy: The teacher’s perception of losing possession of self-directing freedom in the
classroom.

Resistance: The inherent capacity of a human being to withhold assent to undesirable events.
191
 Research Methodology

Assumptions

1. Faculty members are an important educational source and their teaching performance must be
systematically refined.

2. Faculty members are committed to teaching and are continually striving for self-improvement.

3. An attitude rating scale is a valid and reliable methodology for collecting data for the study.

4. Systematic student ratings can provide faculty with information for improving teaching
performance.

Scope and Limitations

Since a person’s attitude is determined by collective beliefs concerning a specific object or event,
attitude generally may be measured by assessing beliefs. Although faculty members hold several
distinct beliefs toward student evaluation of teaching performance, self-esteem is the belief this study
focuses on as a factor in a faculty member’s attitude and subsequent behavioural intentions toward
the evaluation process.

Beliefs – Beliefs are the fundamental building blocks in the conceptual framework used for this
study. On the basis of information received from outside sources, from direct observation, or by way
of various inference processes, an individual learns or forms a number of beliefs concerning an
object. In other words, one associates the object with various attributes. In this manner one forms
beliefs about oneself, about other people, about institutions, behaviour events, etc. The totality of an
individual’s beliefs serves as the informational base that ultimately determines one’s attitudes,
intentions and behaviours.

Attitudes – An attitude can be described as a learned predisposition to respond (behave) in a

consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object. Subsequently, attitude
is determined by an individual’s belief that the object has certain attributes and by one’s evaluation of
those attributes. Most individuals hold both positive and negative beliefs about an object, and attitude
is viewed as corresponding to the total evaluation associated with their beliefs. In terms of the
relationship between beliefs and attitudes, the conceptual framework thus suggests that an
individual’s attitude toward some object is related to a set of his beliefs about the object, but not

192
 Research Methodology

necessarily to any specific belief. Similarly, an individual’s attitude toward performing a given
behaviour is related to one’s beliefs that performing the behaviour will lead to certain consequences
and also to one’s evaluation of those consequences. For clarification, attitude refers to a person’s
favourable or unfavourable evaluation of an object, while beliefs represent the information one has
about the object.

Behavioural Intentions – Behavioural intentions refer to an individual’s intention to perform various

behaviours. Since most social behaviour is viewed as volitional (i.e. act of choice), an individual
should perform those behaviours he/she intends to perform.

Behaviour – In this framework, behaviour is considered as overt and refers to all observable acts of
the individual. This includes both questionnaire and verbal responses. Although such responses may
be treated as records of behaviour, they are instead utilised in this study to infer beliefs, attitudes
and/or intentions.

One obvious source of information about beliefs is direct observation. Direct experiences with a
given object result in the formation of descriptive beliefs about the object, which in this study, are
expressed in response to a questionnaire. There is no necessary connection between such
responses and a faculty member’s real-life action, so the results of this study are both focused on
attitudes faculty are willing to express and limited to them. These inherent limitations must be added
to limits imposed by sample bias, instrument unreliability, and non-response.

Procedure

Subjects (Sources of data) – The population for the study will include all full-time teaching,
undergraduate faculty at the State University of New York at Buffalo.

Sample Study – From this group, a study sample of 500 subjects will be randomly selected across
undergraduate disciplines.

Procedure – Faculty members will be identified as assigned to a particular discipline, e.g. Social
Sciences, Physical Sciences, Health Sciences, etc. From each group a proportionate number of
subjects will be randomly selected so that each teaching discipline will have equal representation in
the study.

Independent Variable – In this study, level of self-esteem is viewed as the predictor or independent
193
 Research Methodology

variable (low-mid-high level of self-esteem). This research study is viewing self-esteem status as a
cause; results are dependent upon differences in the independent variable, which is viewed as a
random variable.

Dependent variable – Faculty attitudes toward student ratings are viewed as the dependent variable
because it should vary in some relationship to the independent variable (self-esteem).

Intervening Variable – Loss of autonomy is viewed as an intervening variable because its effect will
be to influence the relationship between the independent variable (level of self-esteem), and the
dependent variable (attitudes toward student ratings). It would “intervene” if a positive relationship
between level of self-esteem and faculty attitudes toward student ratings were to exist only for those
faculty members with average loss of autonomy. For those with high loss and for those with low loss
of autonomy, there would be no relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.

Other intervening or test variables to be considered in this study will be the faculty member’s sex,
age, academic rank, tenure status, and department. These variables will also help determine the way
the independent variable will serve as aids to understanding the primary relationship.

Statistical Hypothesis – Faculty members with high levels of self-esteem will exhibit less resistance
toward student ratings of teaching performance than faculty members with low self-esteem,
regardless of autonomy loss.

Data Gathering – A questionnaire format will be utilised to gather data for the study. Scores on a
measure of self-esteem will be correlated with scores on a researcher-constructed questionnaire of
attitudes toward student evaluations, and to responses to demographic items.

Data Analysis – Bivariate Correlation Analyses will be used to examine the data and test the
hypothesis of this study. Bivariate correlation provides a single number which summarises the
relationship between two variables (self-esteem and faculty attitudes toward student ratings), and
produces a single summary statistic describing the strength of the association. This statistic is the
correlation coefficient. These correlation coefficients indicate the degree to which variation (or
change) in one variable is related to variation in another.

Further hypothesis testing and analysis of relationships will be performed by the partial correlation
procedure. This technique provides a single measure of association which describes the linear

194
 Research Methodology

relationship between two variables while controlling for the effects of one or more additional
variables. Partial correlation will enable the researcher to remove the effect of the control variable
from the relationship without manipulating the raw data.

Long Range Consequences

As a consequence of a study that measures faculty attitudes towards student evaluations of teaching
performance, useful information will be provided for all those concerned with higher education, e.g.,
faculty, administrators, students, institutions of higher learning, and society at large.

Certainly, the continuing dissatisfaction of the general public with higher education can be to some
extent mitigated by a well-advertised programme of evaluation, which can simultaneously be
interpreted as an effort towards faculty accountability.

From an institutional point of view, a study of this nature will provide guidelines for those considering
the implementation or revision of their faculty evaluation programs. Indirectly, the study will provide
guidance for faculty development programs that may be directed towards increasing faculty self-
esteem, or altering faculty attitudes towards student ratings of teaching performance.

In addition, this study, by focusing on the faculty as subjects will undoubtedly open the door for future
studies that will utilise faculty as informational sources relative to the evaluation process. The use of
this information will lead to greater faculty acceptance of evaluation as their viewpoints are
considered in the designing and/or revision of evaluation programs. Concomitantly, faculty will utilise
the evaluation system with consistency if it is deemed a valid and non-threatening process.
Subsequently, by using faculty input into the evaluation system, future evaluation programmes may
be implemented so as to eliminate faculty resistance to the process.

Also, the use of the evaluation system may ultimately single out those teaching skills and behaviours
that are identified with effective teaching. Further, if the evaluation process is utilised by the entire
faculty, then it will be another source of information for administrators to use in evaluating faculty
relative to promotion, retention and tenure decisions.

As far as students are concerned, a closer relationship will no doubt develop between faculty and
students as they actively participate in decisions relative to classroom teaching, and serve in an
evaluator role providing the faculty members with teaching performance feedback. Eventually,
teaching performance will improve over a period of time.
195
 Research Methodology

Indeed, a goal of higher education is the development of faculty evaluation systems that demonstrate
a reputation for teaching excellence. However, since Wilson’s statement some 30 years ago, higher
education has made imperceptible progress toward the designing and implementation of equitable
faculty evaluation programmes. The intent of this study is to hasten the process toward this end.

196
 Research Methodology

Appendices Appendix 1: An Example of a Proposal

Appendices

Appendix 1:

An example of a proposal

FACULTY SELF-ESTEEM AND ATTITUDES TOWARD

STUDENT EVALUATIONS OF TEACHERS

by

Carol Ann Nguni

197
 Research Methodology

A Dissertation Proposal Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Management College of Southern Africa

2008

FACULTY SELF-ESTEEM AND ATTITUDES TOWARD

STUDENT EVALUATIONS OF TEACHING

Introduction
Logan Wilson, former president of the University of Texas, wrote over 30 years ago in the Academic
Man that “indeed, it is no exaggeration to say that the most critical problem confronted in the social
organization of any university is the proper evaluation of faculty services, and giving due recognition
through impartial assignment of status” (1982:112). More recently, L. Richard Meeth (1996:3),
director of the University Student National Project on Undergraduate Teaching has stated that:

Systematic, comprehensive, and valid evaluation of teaching has been an educational problem for
many years. It continues to evade educators, although most administrators and legislators desire it
as a meaningful way to determine rewards and sanctions for faculty, and most serious teachers seek
it as a way of improving their performance and more closely relating what they do to what students
learn.

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 Research Methodology

It would appear that the problem of faculty evaluation has not been solved since Wilson’s statement
of more that 30 years ago. Dressel (1999:373) has further stated that faculty evaluation continues to
be “sporadic in nature, limited in perspective and largely ineffective”.

Problem
Although it is widely known and accepted that most faculty members resist the student evaluation
process, few if any studies have been conducted that such investigate the reasons for this
resistance, or harm that such resistance can cause.

Many college faculty members believe the classroom is sanctified territory and that to make the
results of student ratings available to a tenure committee or to the student body at large constitutes a
violation of academic freedom with eventual loss of autonomy (Lee, 2000:314). As Dressel
(1999:332) aptly points out, “Those who evaluate may ultimately direct and control.” Other faculty
members question the reliability of the rating device itself or the student’s capability to rate teaching
performance with any degree of validity. In addition, recognition of some faculty members as good
teachers inevitably carries the connotation that others are less good which may culminate in a threat
to the faculty member’s self-esteem.

Background

Most people, whether faculty members or students, would prefer not to be evaluated. Since
evaluation of teaching performance by students can be threatening and ill-defined, and can
sometimes result in unfair judgments, faculty resistance is understandable.
Faculty resistance toward student evaluation of teaching is influenced, in part, by the many variables
inherent in the situation: level and type of students taught, attractiveness of disciplines to students,
course difficulty, and difference between required and elective courses – all factors over which faculty
members exercise little control. In addition, much of faculty resistance to students’ evaluation seems
to be motivated by an ingrained and pervasive distrust of the student’s ability to evaluate objectively.
He is viewed as an incompetent judge, biased, immature, and arbitrary. Further, he is charged with
confusing good teaching with showmanship and construing evaluations as an open invitation for
retribution to get back at the faculty member for a grade or an unexpected grade. Finally, mechanical
problems involved in the evaluation process have traditionally been a major concern for faculty.
Declining enrolments, scarce educational funding and continued societal pressure for teaching
accountability have made most faculty members acutely aware of their tenuous positions, and the
need for evaluation programmes that document teacher contributions to the teaching-learning
process. For too long, higher education has been unaware of what is taking place in the classroom.
At least as much as the student, faculty members need to learn which of their teaching practices are
199
 Research Methodology

appropriate and effective and which are not, so that they can improve their performance. If the
reasons for faculty resistance to student evaluation of teaching are analyzed and mitigated, then it
may be possible to discern through student ratings what contribution the teacher makes to what the
student learns; and thus improve the whole educational process.
The Purpose
The purpose of this study will be to assess the relationship between faculty self-esteem and attitudes
toward student evaluation.
Signficance
Although in recent years the area of faculty evaluation has received much research attention, many
research problems and questions remain unanswered. One such problem is related to the need for
data about the individuals who have been evaluated, i.e., the college faculty members themselves.
Most, if not all, of the research regarding the status of faculty evaluation has been gathered from
college administrators such as college deans and presidents. Current research demonstrates that
administrators are highly satisfied with present faculty evaluation systems. What we do not know is
the degree to which faculty are satisfied with these processes. To date, few studies have been
conducted that seek to answer this question. This study will, therefore, attempt to analyze faculty
attitudes relative to systematic student ratings of teaching performance.
By examining the relationship between faculty attitudes toward student ratings of teaching
performance and level of faculty self-esteem, the study will suggest direct answers to the question of
faculty resistance to student evaluations and may lead to revisions of existing faculty evaluation
systems. Indirectly, the study may also influence faculty development programmes.
Nature of the study
The study will use the methodology of correlational research. Several characteristics of college
faculty members will be correlated to discover the extent to which they are related. Faculty self-
esteem and faculty attitudes toward student ratings of teaching performance will be assessed to
determine the way they vary together with other intervening variables controlled.
Literature Review Plan
From a preliminary review of the literature it became apparent this study focuses on a problem that
has not been investigated before. Therefore, a rather unusual approach to the literature review has
been adopted by this researcher. Indeed, a survey of the literature indicates that hundreds of studies
on student evaluations of faculty teaching performance have been conducted, but to date, no study
has investigated faculty members’ attitudes toward this procedure. Consequently, theories and
concepts which might account for attitudes are included in the literature review.
As a starting point a conceptual framework will establish a common meaning for essential concepts
and also provide a similar frame of reference for the reader. To illustrate how faculty attitudes toward
student evaluations of teaching performance are established, the framework portrays relationships
among four concepts – beliefs, attitudes, behavioural intentions, and behaviour. Most importantly, the

200
 Research Methodology

framework provides a rational explanation as to how and why the various elements concerned with
the study – faculty attitudes toward student evaluations, faculty self-esteem and autonomy – are
related.
In the next section, a theoretical orientation is analyzed in terms of the conceptual framework. The
subsequent sections deal with the literature concerning the categories of self-esteem, and faculty
evaluation. Attitude rating scales constitute the final segment.
(Note)
This brief excerpt taken from a much longer literature review illustrates the “plan” concept of the
literature section in a proposal. Often, the dissertation or thesis adviser will request a fuller review,
with some even expecting that the entire review for the dissertation will be completed by the time the
proposal is accepted.
Hypothesis
The higher the level of a faculty member’s self-esteem the less resistant he/she will be toward
student ratings of teaching performance.
Definition of Terms
Faculty evaluation: Both the process and the result of ascertaining the value of a faculty member’s
contribution to the teaching-learning process in his/her institution.

Teaching performance: A complex set of attitudes, knowledge, skills, motivations, and values a
teacher brings to the classroom, and the behaviour that results from them.

Systematic student ratings: Written assessments (judgments) of a teacher’s performance carried

out at recurring intervals.

Self-esteem: The need for a stable firmly based high evaluation of oneself, and for the respect of
others.

Loss of autonomy: The teacher’s perception of losing possession of self-directing freedom in the
classroom.

Resistance: The inherent capacity of a human being to withhold assent to undesirable events.

Assumptions
1. Faculty members are an important educational source and their teaching performance must be
systematically refined.
2. Faculty members are committed to teaching and are continually striving for self-improvement.
3. An attitude rating scale is a valid and reliable methodology for collecting data for the study.
201
 Research Methodology

4. Systematic student ratings can provide faculty with information for improving teaching
performance.
Scope and Limitations
Since a person’s attitude is determined by collective beliefs concerning a specific object or event,
attitude generally may be measured by assessing beliefs. Although faculty members hold several
distinct beliefs toward student evaluation of teaching performance, self-esteem is the belief this study
focuses on as a factor in a faculty member’s attitude and subsequent behavioural intentions toward
the evaluation process.
Beliefs – Beliefs are the fundamental building blocks in the conceptual framework used for this
study. On the basis of information received from outside sources, from direct observation, or by way
of various inference processes, an individual learns or forms a number of beliefs concerning an
object. In other words, one associates the object with various attributes. In this manner one forms
beliefs about oneself, about other people, about institutions, behaviour events, etc. The totality of an
individual’s beliefs serves as the informational base that ultimately determines one’s attitudes,
intentions and behaviours.
Attitudes – An attitude can be described as a learned predisposition to respond (behave) in a
consistently favourable or unfavourable manner with respect to a given object. Subsequently, attitude
is determined by an individual’s belief that the object has certain attributes and by one’s evaluation of
those attributes. Most individuals hold both positive and negative beliefs about an object, and attitude
is viewed as corresponding to the total evaluation associated with their beliefs. In terms of the
relationship between beliefs and attitudes, the conceptual framework thus suggests that an
individual’s attitude toward some object is related to a set of his beliefs about the object, but not
necessarily to any specific belief. Similarly, an individual’s attitude toward performing a given
behaviour is related to one’s beliefs that performing the behaviour will lead to certain consequences
and also to one’s evaluation of those consequences. For clarification, attitude refers to a person’s
favourable or unfavourable evaluation of an object, while beliefs represent the information one has
about the object.
Behavioural Intentions – Behavioural intentions refer to an individual’s intention to perform various
behaviours. Since most social behaviour is viewed as volitional (i.e. act of choice), an individual
should perform those behaviours he/she intends to perform.
Behaviour – In this framework, behaviour is considered as overt and refers to all observable acts of
the individual. This includes both questionnaire and verbal responses. Although such responses may
be treated as records of behaviour, they are instead utilized in this study to infer beliefs, attitudes
and/or intentions.
One obvious source of information about beliefs is direct observation. Direct experiences with a
given object result in the formation of descriptive beliefs about the object, which in this study, are
expressed in response to a questionnaire. There is no necessary connection between such
responses and a faculty member’s real-life action, so the results of this study are both focused on
202
 Research Methodology

attitudes faculty are willing to express and limited to them. These inherent limitations must be added
to limits imposed by sample bias, instrument unreliability, and non-response.
Procedure
Subjects (Sources of data) – The population for the study will include all full-time teaching,
undergraduate faculty at the State University of New York at Buffalo.

Sample Study – From this group, a study sample of 500 subjects will be randomly selected across
undergraduate disciplines.
Procedure – Faculty members will be identified as assigned to a particular discipline, e.g. Social
Sciences, Physical Sciences, Health Sciences, etc. From each group a proportionate number of
subjects will be randomly selected so that each teaching discipline will have equal representation in
the study.
Independent Variable – In this study, level of self-esteem is viewed as the predictor or independent
variable (low-mid-high level of self-esteem). This research study is viewing self-esteem status as a
cause; results are dependent upon differences in the independent variable, which is viewed as a
random variable.
Dependent variable – Faculty attitudes toward student ratings are viewed as the dependent variable
because it should vary in some relationship to the independent variable (self-esteem).
Intervening Variable – Loss of autonomy is viewed as an intervening variable because its effect will
be to influence the relationship between the independent variable (level of self-esteem), and the
dependent variable (attitudes toward student ratings). It would “intervene” if a positive relationship
between level of self-esteem and faculty attitudes toward student ratings were to exist only for those
faculty members with average loss of autonomy. For those with high loss and for those with low loss
of autonomy, there would be no relationship between the independent and the dependent variables.
Other intervening or test variables to be considered in this study will be the faculty member’s sex,
age, academic rank, tenure status, and department. These variables will also help determine the way
the independent variable will serve as aids to understanding the primary relationship.
Statistical Hypothesis – Faculty members with high levels of self-esteem will exhibit less resistance
toward student ratings of teaching performance than faculty members with low self-esteem,
regardless of autonomy loss.
Data Gathering – A questionnaire format will be utilized to gather data for the study. Scores on a
measure of self-esteem will be correlated with scores on a researcher-constructed questionnaire of
attitudes toward student evaluations, and to responses to demographic items.
Data Analysis – Bivariate Correlation Analyses will be used to examine the data and test the
hypothesis of this study. Bivariate correlation provides a single number which summarizes the
relationship between two variables (self-esteem and faculty attitudes toward student ratings), and
produces a single summary statistic describing the strength of the association. This statistic is the
correlation coefficient. These correlation coefficients indicate the degree to which variation (or
203
 Research Methodology

change) in one variable is related to variation in another.

Further hypothesis testing and analysis of relationships will be performed by the partial correlation
procedure. This technique provides a single measure of association which describes the linear
relationship between two variables while controlling for the effects of one or more additional
variables. Partial correlation will enable the researcher to remove the effect of the control variable
from the relationship without manipulating the raw data.
Long Range Consequences
As a consequence of a study that measures faculty attitudes towards student evaluations of teaching
performance, useful information will be provided for all those concerned with higher education, e.g.,
faculty, administrators, students, institutions of higher learning, and society at large.
Certainly, the continuing dissatisfaction of the general public with higher education can be to some
extent mitigated by a well-advertised programme of evaluation, which can simultaneously be
interpreted as an effort towards faculty accountability.
From an institutional point of view, a study of this nature will provide guidelines for those considering
the implementation or revision of their faculty evaluation programs. Indirectly, the study will provide
guidance for faculty development programs that may be directed towards increasing faculty self-
esteem, or altering faculty attitudes towards student ratings of teaching performance.
In addition, this study, by focusing on the faculty as subjects will undoubtedly open the door for future
studies that will utilize faculty as informational sources relative to the evaluation process. The use of
this information will lead to greater faculty acceptance of evaluation as their viewpoints are
considered in the designing and/or revision of evaluation programs. Concomitantly, faculty will utilize
the evaluation system with consistency if it is deemed a valid and non-threatening process.
Subsequently, by using faculty input into the evaluation system, future evaluation programmes may
be implemented so as to eliminate faculty resistance to the process.
Also, the use of the evaluation system may ultimately single out those teaching skills and behaviours
that are identified with effective teaching. Further, if the evaluation process is utilized by the entire
faculty, then it will be another source of information for administrators to use in evaluating faculty
relative to promotion, retention and tenure decisions.
As far as students are concerned, a closer relationship will no doubt develop between faculty and
students as they actively participate in decisions relative to classroom teaching, and serve in an
evaluator role providing the faculty members with teaching performance feedback. Eventually,
teaching performance will improve over a period of time.
Indeed, a goal of higher education is the development of faculty evaluation systems that demonstrate
a reputation for teaching excellence. However, since Wilson’s statement some 30 years ago, higher
education has made imperceptible progress toward the designing and implementation of equitable
faculty evaluation programmes. The intent of this study is to hasten the process toward this end.

204
 Research Methodology

References
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GuhaThakurta, S. (2015). Understanding research philosophy. [Available
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205
 Research Methodology

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207