3.

INTERNAL FORCES AND STRESSES IN BEAMS

3.1 Internal Forces in Beams

Introduction:

n:
Def Beams are structural members /machine components which are subjected to loads
/forces acting transversly to their longitudinal exist.

Beams may be straight or curved, vertical, horizontal or inclined in orientation and may
have constant or varying cross-section. However only straight and horizontally positioned
statically determinate beams will be considered in this section. Moreover it is assumed
that the forces applied to the beams lie in the same plane.

Diagrammatic Conventions/Representations for Supportsand corresponding reaction

forces.

i) link Support ii) roller Support

iii) pin /hinge support iv) fixed support

Loads on Beams

Loads acting on beams may be any one or combination of the following most commonly
encountered ones;

a) Concentrated load

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b) Concentrated moment:

C) Distributed load:
- Uniformly distribute:

- Triangularly, varying load:

- Trapezoidal load:

Classification of Beams

Based on the support conditions, beams can be identified in to the following types.

a) Simply supported beams:

b) Over hanging beam

c) Cantilever:

d) Propped cantilever:

e) Fixed end beam

f) Continuous beam:

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Reactions and Internal forces in beams

- The reactions at the supports can be determined as usual by using the equilibrium
equations.

- The internal forces (axial force, shear force and bending moment) in the beam at any
required location can be determined by considering a section cutting the beam in to
two parts at the required position and drawing /considering the free body diagram of
either of the parts

Sign Convention for Internal Forces

Axial Force: +P

-P

+V
Shear Force:
-V

Bending Moment: +M

_-M

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Axial Force, Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

- The magnitude & sense of axial force, shear force and bending moment at any point
can be obtained by taking section at the respective location as discussed previously.
Moreover a plot of these values along the longitudinal axis of the beam can be
obtained by joining /connecting points with the ordinates representing the magnitude
and sense of the internal actions at various and successive points along the axis of the
beam. These diagrams corresponding to the kind of quantities they depict. are called
the axial force, shear and bending moment diagrams.

- To facilitate the procedure, the beam can be divided in to a number of segments in each
of which it is possible to consider a representative section and derive functional
expressions/equations for the internal actions.

- The equations developed for each segment, when plotted with corresponding computed
end values give the required diagrams.

- The procedure of doing so can best be explained through the following example.

Example:

Determine the reactions at the supports and draw the axial force, shear force and bending
moment diagrams for the following beam. Specify all necessary values and indicate the
type of curve wherever necessary.

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Relationships between Loads, Shear forces and Bending moments

- The shear force and bending moment diagrams can easily be drawn through
Semi–graphical approach by making use of the relationship between loads,
shear force and bending moment.

- Consider an infinitesimal segment of a beam subjected to a distributed load of

as shown below:
q

M V+dV

M+dM
V dx

- Two equilibrium equations can be considered on the force body diagram of the element.

i) Force equilibrium equation

F Y 0

V  q dx  (V  dV )  0

 dV  q dx

dV
 q
dx

“The rate of change of the shear force at any point on the axis of the beam is
equal to the load intensity at the same point.”

- Integrating the above equation:

dV = q dx

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  dx   q dx

 V2  V1   q dx
L

“ The change in shear force between two point along the axis of the beam is
equal to the area of the loading diagram between the same two points.”

ii) Moment Equilibrium equation

M o 0

dx 2 dx 2
M  dM  M  Vdx  q 0 ; q  0
2 2

 dM  V dx

dM
 V
dx

“ The rate of change of the bending moment at any point on the axis of a
beam is equal to the shear force at that same point.”

- Integrating the above equation:

dM  Vdx

 dM   Vdx
M2 - M1 =  Vdx
L

“The difference in bending moments between two points on the axis of the
beam is equal to the area of the shear force diagram between the same two
points.”

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Important remarks:

* Concentrated forces have got an effect of causing sudden change on the shear
force diagram in the direction of application.

* Concentrated moments have got an effect of causing sudden change on the bending
moment diagram.

- Counter clock wise moment Sudden draw-down /decrease

- Clock wise moment Sudden up rise /increase
* choosing of curves: by proper observation of the nature of slopes

* areas under curves:

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3.2 Stresses in Beams:

The internal forces in beams (Axial force, shear force and bending moments) were
investigated in the previous section. More over the effect of axial force was discussed in
chapter one. The effect of the remaining internal forces, shear and bending moment will
be discussed in this sectio. In this treatment, the effect of separate actions will be
considered.

Pure Bending of Beams (Flexural Stress)

Basic Assumptions:

1. Beams are assumed to be straight with constant cross-sectional area having an axis of
symmetry in the vertical direction.
2. The bending moment lie in a plane containing this axis of symmetry and the beam
axis.
3. Plane sections through a beam, taken normal to its axis, remain plane after the beam
is subjected to bending.
4. Hook’s Law is applicable to the individual fibers and the same elastic modulus E is
assumed to apply to material in tension as well as in compression.

The Flexure Formula:

- Consider a segment of the beam subjected to a +ve bending moment at a given section
as shown below
M M
max

y = max dA
c
y y/c

Unit length  (c) beam x-section

(b) Stress distribution
(a) Strain distribution

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- Two equilibrium equations can be considered for the segment:
Force Equilibrium Equation
y  max
F = 0 
A
y dA  
A
max
c
dA 
c A
y dA  0

- In a stressed beam neither C nor  max can be zero , and it follows that  ydA  0
A


But by definition  ydA 
A
yA0

_
For non zero Area A , it seen, that y  0
 The distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of the beam x – section is zero. This
implies that the neutral axis passes through the centroid.

Moment Equilibrium Equation

y  max
M = 0  M   dF y
A
 
A
max
c
dA y 
c A  y 2 dA

But the term  A y 2 dA depends purely on the geometry of the beam x-section and
represent its moment of inertia designated I. Substituting I in the above equation
 max M y
M  I   max  c ;  max  c
c I y
M
y  y ; the flexure formula
I

Introducing another section property S =I/c, referred as section modulus, the maximum
flexural stress which always occurs at extreme fiber distance from the neutral axis, can
quickly be computed as:
M
 max 
S
Where: max = Maximum flexural stress
M = bending moment
S = Section modulus

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Moments of Inertia
Defn.
The moments of inertia of a plane area with respect to the x and y axes,
respectively are defined by the integrals:

 y  x
2 2
IX dA ; Iy dA

Y
A

x
dA
y

Shearing Stresses in Beams.

In all of previous derivations of the stress distribution in a member, the same sequence of
reasoning was followed . First a strain distribution was assumed across the section; next,
properties of the material were brought in to relate these strains to stresses; and finally the
equations of equilibrium in terms of stress resultant were used to establish the desired
relations.

The development of expressions for shear stress on beam x-section resulting from direct
shear force V follows a different approach from the usual procedure. Here, an indirect
approach is used. The stress distribution caused by flexure is assumed over a differential
segment of a beam, which together with the equilibrium requirements, resolves the
problem of the shearing stresses.

Shear Flow:

Consider a differential segment length dx of a beam subjected to moment M A & VA at

section A and MB & VB at section B which is dx distance apart from section A. If the
segment bounded by the two section is small differential length, the internal shear force

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and bending moment are expected to change by differential amount such that VB = VA +
dV and MB = MA +dM.

A dx B
FA FB Plan
dF

MA
 YA  y MB
I MA MB  YB  y
I
max,A max,B
FA <
<
FB dA
c
VA  VB yO y

dx
(b) beam x-section
(a) differential segment

Let’s consider the horizontal forces on the portion of a beam above level Yo from the
neutral axis and bounded by the two sections A and B which are apart a differential
distance dx.
MA MA
FA  
A
I
y dA 
I A
y dA

MB MB
FB  
A
I
y dA 
I A
y dA

The magnitude of differential longitudinal force dF over a differential length dx will be.
MB MA MB  M A dM
dF  FB  FA 
I  y dA
A

I A
y dA 
I  y dA
A

I  y dA
A

But the term  y dA

A
purely depends on the beam x-section and represent the first

moment of the beam cross-sectional area above the level at which the shear flow/stress is
to be computed about the neutral axis. Designating this first moment of area by Q, the
above relation reduces to:
dM
dF  Q
I
The horizontal force per unit length is called shear flow, designated by q and can be
obtained by dividing the horizontal force dF by the length dx over which it is generated.

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 dF dM Q dM
q   ; But  V
dx dx I dx
VQ
q 
I
Where: q = shear flow
V= shear force
Q= first moment of area of the beam x –section above the level at which
the shear flow is to be determined about the centroid
I = moment of Inertia of the beam x -section

Shearing Stress:

The shear flow represents the total force per unit longitudinal length acting on the entire
width of the beam. If this force is further assumed to be uniformly distributed across the
width of the beam, its intensity can easily be determined by dividing the shear flow by
the width of the beam at the corresponding level at which the shear stress is to be
computed.

q VQ
Thus:   
b Ib

Where:
 = shearing stress
V = vertical shear
Q&I = as defined earlier
b = width of the beam x-section at the level considered

* Contrary to the flexural stress distribution, the maximum shear stress occurs at the
neutral axis where Q is expected to get its maximum value

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