INTRODUCTION TO GROUP DYNAMICS Collectives- Some groups come into

existence when people are drawn together

Group by something—an event, an activity, or
Two or more individuals who are even danger—but then the group
connected by and within social dissolves when the experience ends.
relationships
Categories- A social category is a
Two or more individuals collection of individuals who are similar to
Groups come in a staggering assortment one another in some way.
of shapes and sizes, Form:
● Dyads –Two Members Social capital- degree to which
● Triads –Three Members individuals, groups, or larger aggregates
● Mobs, Assemblies – Huge Crowd of people are linked in social relationships
that yield positive, productive benefits;
Who Are Connected analogous to economic capital (fiscal
Definitions of the word group are as varied prosperity), but determined by
as groups themselves, but a commonality extensiveness of social connectedness.
shared by many of these definitions is an
emphasis on social relations that link Social category- A perceptual grouping of
members to one another people who are assumed to be similar to
one another in some ways
By and Within Social Relations
The relations that link the members of Social identity- individual’s sense of self
groups are not of one type. derived from relationships and
memberships in groups; also, those
aspects of the self that are assumed to be
common to most or all of the members of
the same group or social category.

Stereotype- socially shared set of

qualities, characteristics, and behavioral
expectations ascribed to a particular group
or category of people.

Characteristics of Groups

Varieties of Groups Composition: Who Belongs to the

Primary Groups - Sociologist Charles Group? qualities of the individuals who
Horton Cooley (1909) labeled the small, are members of the group.
intimate clusters of close associates, such
as families, good friends, or cliques of Boundaries: Who Does NOT Belong?
peers, primary groups. The relationships that link members to one
another define who is in the group and
Social (Secondary) Groups- Social who is not.
groups are larger and more formally ;those who are included in the group are
organized than primary groups, and recognized as members and those who
memberships tend to be shorter in are not part of the group are excluded
duration and less emotionally involving. outsiders.
Size: How Large Is the Group? Goals: What Is the Group’s Purpose?
A group’s size influences many of its other Humans, as a species, seem to be
features, for a small group will likely have genetically ready to set goals for
different structures, processes, and themselves
patterns of interaction than a larger one.
Structure: How Is the Group Organized?
Interaction: What Do Members Do? Group members are not connected to one
Groups are the setting for an infinite another at random, but in organized and
variety of interpersonal actions. predictable patterns.

Social Network Unity: How Cohesive Is the Group? is the

Social networks are in most respects integrity, solidarity, social integration, unity,
very group-like. Their members are linked and groupiness of a group.
to each other by social relationships,
which can vary from the inconsequential Entitativity: Does the Group Look Like a
and ephemeral to the deeply meaningful Group? Social psychologist Donald
and long-enduring. Networks, however, Campbell (1958a) coined the term
lack clear boundaries that define who is in entitativity to describe the extent to which
the network and who is not. To become a group seems to be a single, unified
part of a social network, an individual entity—a real group.
need only establish a relationship of some
sort with a person who isalready part of What are group dynamics?
the network
Group dynamics are the interpersonal
Task Interaction- The conjointly adjusted processes that occur in and between
actions of group members that pertain to groups over time.
the group’s projects, tasks, and goals.
Formative processes, the need to belong
Relationship Interaction- to and affiliate in groups, contextual
(socioemotional interaction) The conjointly factors, the development of group
adjusted actions of group members that cohesion
relate to or influence the nature and Influence processes, including aspects
strength of the emotional and of group structure (norms, roles,
interpersonal bonds within the group, relationships), conformity and dissent,
including both sustaining (social support, social power, obedience to group
consideration) and undermining actions authority, and leadership
(criticism, conflict). Performance processes group
productivity, social motivation, working in
Interdependence: Do the Members teams, and collaborative decision making
Depend on Each Other? means that Conflict processes within groups—
members depend on one another; their intragroup conflict—and between
outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and groups—intergroup conflict
experiences are partially determined by Contextual processes that are
others in the group. dependent on the group’s physical setting
and specific purpose, including
change-promoting groups and large
collectives.
Why study groups and their dynamics? LESSON 2: STUDYING GROUPS

Lewin (1951) first used the phrase group THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF GROUPS -
dynamics to describe the powerful The scientific field devoted to the study of
processes that take place in groups, group groups and their dynamics—was not
dynamics also refers to the scientific study established by a single theorist or
of groups (Cartwright & Zander, 1968). researcher
Individuals are commonly members of
groups rather than isolated from them, so PARADIGM- Scientists’ shared
to understand people one must assumptions about the phenomena they
understand groups. study. Thomas S. Kuhn (1970)
●​ Due to the fundamental
attribution error, the influence of The Individual And The Group
groups on individuals is often Psychology of Crowds by Gustave Le
underestimated (individualistic, Bon (1985): “Individuals are transformed
Western cultures.) when they join a group.”
●​ Groups alter their members’ Völkerpsychologie by Wilhelm Wundt
attitudes, values, and (1916): Combined elements of
perceptions. Triplett’s (1898) anthropology and psychology by
demonstrated the impact of one examining the conditions and changes
person on another, but some displayed by social aggregates and how
groups (primary groups, cults, etc.) groups influence members’ cognitive and
influence members in perceptual processes.
substantial and enduring ways.
●​ A review of 25,000 studies Level of analysis - The focus of study
indicated that hypotheses about when examining a multilevel process or
groups yielded clearer findings phenomenon.
than studies of other social
psychological topics. Group-level analysis- individuals are the
Groups influence society. constitutive elements of groups and that
●​ Groups mediate the connection groups and their processes have a
between individuals and society at profound impact on their members.
large (Fine, 2012).
●​ Hofstede’s theory identifies the Individual-level analysis- focused on the
key dimensions of variation that person in the group.
influence groups and their
members, including power Sociologist Émile Durkheim believed
distance, individualism, that widely shared beliefs—what he called
masculinity, and uncertainty representations—are the cornerstone of
avoidance (Hofstede et al., 2010). society.
Applied studies of groups and their dynamics Psychologist Floyd Allport (1924) chose
yield solutions to a number of practical the individual in the group, and not the
problems making the study of groups relevant group itself, as his unit of analysis when
to many professional and scientific fields of he wrote that “nervous systems are
study (Hare et al., 1955). Despite the many
possessed by individuals; but there is no
problems caused by groups (competition,
nervous system of the crowd.”
conflict, poor decisions), humans could not
survive without groups
Group fallacy - Explaining social ●​ Group members interaction
phenomena in terms of the group as a ●​ Task performance
whole instead of basing the explanation ●​ Decision making Conflict in and
on the individual-level processes within with other groups
the group. ●​ Member recruitment and
expulsion
The Group Mind- Many have noted that ●​ Focus on observable actions and
group members often act together, avoid making inferences about
particularly when the majority of the what group members are thinking
members share the same views, attitudes, or feeling.
intentions, and so on. Types:
Overt observation- Openly watching and
The Reality of Groups- Only when recording information with no attempt to
members agree on a particular standard conceal one’s research purposes.
does it function as a norm. Covert observation- Watching and
recording information on the activities of
Lewin and Interactionism- Lewin’s individuals and groups without their
(1951) field theory is premised on the knowledge.
principle of interactionism, which assumes Participant observation- Watching and
that the actions, processes, and recording group activities as a member of
responses of people in groups (“behavior”) the group or participant in the social
are determined by the interaction of the process.
person and the environment.

MULTI-LEVEL PERSPECTIVE
The view that recognizes that a complete
explanation of group processes and
phenomena including;
Micro- individual qualities, characteristics,
and actions.
Meso - group qualities of the groups
themselves, such as their cohesiveness,
their size and their composition.
Macro - their structure, and organizational Structuring Observation
or societal level. Qualitative Study
research procedure that collects and
MEASUREMENT analyzes nonnumeric, unquantified types
Good science requires good of data, such as verbal descriptions, text,
measurement. As the natural sciences images, or objects. Describes general
developed, improved telescopes, qualities and characteristics. Can be
microscopes, scales, meters, and gauges influenced by observer’s/researcher’s bias
all contributed to better data, which in turn
led to more precise descriptions and more Quantitative Study A research procedure
comprehensive theory. that collects and analyzes numeric data,
such as frequencies, proportions, or
Observation amounts. Describes frequency and
●​ Watch and record the actions amount of particular actions or activities
taken by group members the group or individuals engaged in.
Reliability and Validity of Observations • Cliques – Smaller, tightly connected
Structured observation systems, because subgroups within the larger group.
they can be used to record the number of • Couples (Pairs) – Two members who
times a particular type of behavior has consistently choose each other.
occurred, • Gatekeeper – A central figure who
Reliability: Consistency of results when controls the flow of information within the
measuring something repeatedly. group.
Interrater Reliability: Consistency of
results between two or more raters. Reliability and Validity of Self-Reports:
Validity: Accuracy of the measurement —
it measures what it’s supposed to Strengths Provide insight into individual
measure. thoughts, emotions, and relationships that
may not be observable.
Self-report measures involve asking Weaknesses: Unreliable responses –
individuals to describe their own thoughts, Answers may change based on mood.
feelings, attitudes, or behaviors. Social desirability bias – Participants
• Questionnaires: Written surveys where may answer in a way they think is more
participants answer predefined questions. acceptable.
• Tests: Standardized assessments Lack of awareness – People may not
measuring specific traits or abilities. fully understand or be able to express
• Interviews: Direct conversations where their feelings.
researchers record responses.
Case Studies A case study is an in-depth
Sociometry Developed by Jacob Moreno investigation of a single group,
(1934). A technique used to study the organization, or event.
structure of social relationships within a • Observations
group. Sociometry asks group members to • Interviews
express their preferences about others in • Personal writings (journals, letters)
the group. •Documents and historical records

Sociograms Sociometry uses Advantages of Case Studies:

sociograms, which are visual diagrams • Rich detail – Provide deep insights into
mapping out relationships within a group. group behavior.
• Useful for real-world groups – Often
Group Roles in Sociometry focus on bona fide groups (naturally
occurring groups like workplaces, sports
• Neglected (Isolate) – Rarely chosen by teams, and social clubs).
others, often left out.
• Rejected (Unpopular) – Disliked by Disadvantages of Case Studies:
many members. • Subjectivity – Findings may be
• Popular (Star) – Well-liked and influenced by researcher bias.
frequently chosen by others. • Limited generalizability – Results from
• Controversial – Both liked and disliked one group may not apply to others.
by many. • Difficulty confirming causation
• Sociable (Amiable) – Actively selects – Group behaviors may be influenced by
many others as friends. unseen factors.
• Unsociable (Negative) – Selects very
few people as friends.
 The Bennington Study +1: Perfect positive correlation (both
Famous longitudinal study in social variables increase or decrease together).
psychology that examined political and 0: No correlation (no relationship between
social attitude changes among college variables).
students. Conducted at Bennington -1: Perfect negative correlation (one
College, an all-women’s liberal arts variable increases while the other
college in Vermont, from the 1930s to the decreases).
1950s
John Clapp decided to study this unique
Theodore Newcomb (1943) Social type of group, he assembled a team of
Psychologist noticed that when his observers and interviewers and trained
students first entered school, most of them them to enter parties and collect data.
were conservative, but by the time they
graduated, they had shifted to become Disadvantages
more liberal. When coupled with valid measures,
correlational studies clearly describe these
Reference Group relationships without disrupting or
group or collective that individuals use as manipulating any aspect of the group.
a standard or frame of reference when It only yields limited information about the
selecting and appraising their abilities, causal relationship between variables
attitudes, or beliefs; includes groups that because the researcher does not directly
individuals identify with and admire and manipulate any variables.
categories of non-interacting individuals
relations with the fellow community Experimental Studies
members. Any group that plays a Autocratic Leader makes all decisions
significant role in one’s life, such as family, worked harder but were more hostile
a friendship clique, colleagues at work, or Democratic Group makes decisions
even a group one admires but is not a together. Were collaborative but less
member of, can function as a reference efficient
group. Laissez-Faire Leader provides little
guidance. Groups had low motivation
(1) both capable and desirous
(2) more frequently chosen by others as PRODUCTIVITY LEVEL BEHAVIOR
friendly Autocratic: 74%
(3) a more cohesive subgroup than the Democratic: 50%
conservative students Laissez-Faire: 33%

Correlational Studies Studying Groups: Issues and

Examines the relationship between two Implications
variables without manipulating them. It Challenges in Studying Groups
helps researchers determine whether an •Group dynamics (like leadership,
association exists and how strong that communication, and influence) are hard to
relationship is measure objectively.
Correlation Coefficient A standardized •Traditional research tools often lack
statistic that measures the strength and sufficient detail
direction of a relationship between two • Long-term, complex nature of real-world
variables. Symbolized by r, correlations groups
can range from–1 to +1
Methods for Studying Groups Motivational Perspectives
Qualitative Methods - Observing groups Motivation: Refers to psychological
and analyzing behaviors. processes (needs, desires, wants) that
Quantitative methods - Using controlled energize and direct behavior.
experiments and numerical data.
Field studies - Studying real groups in Emotion: A subjective feeling (positive or
natural settings. negative) that often accompanies
Laboratory studies - Creating groups in a motivation and influences actions in group
controlled environment. settings.
Simulations & role-playing - Using
virtual technologies to mimic real groups. Why People Join Groups
Mixed-methods approach - Combining People join groups to fulfill essential
different techniques to get a complete psychological needs such as
picture Basic Needs: Groups provide
physiological needs (food, shelter) and
Strengths & Weaknesses of Methods safety.
Case studies provide deep insights but Social Needs: Groups offer a sense of
can't be generalized. belonging and social support.
Correlational studies show relationships Esteem Needs: Groups provide a
but don't prove cause and effect. platform for recognition, respect, and
Experiments can prove causation but validation
may not reflect real-world scenarios.
Solution - Researchers use multiple The Role of Emotions in Group
methods for balance. Behavior

Ethical Issues in Group Research Positive Emotions: Joy, contentment,

Humphreys' study (1975) Secretly love, and gratitude are often felt when
observed men in public restrooms and people are part of a group.
later visited their homes. Negative Emotions: Loneliness, sadness,
Jury recordings (1991) Researchers and shame can arise if people feel
secretly recorded jury deliberations, rejected or excluded by a group
leading to legal bans.
Milgram's obedience study (1963)- Why Groups Matter
Made participants believe they were giving Happiness: People who report positive
real electric shocks, causing emotional social relationships are generally happier.
distress. Support: Groups offer emotional and
practical support during tough times.
Ethical Safeguards Today Esteem: Being part of a group can elevate
•Researchers must get Institutional one's sense of self worth and prestige.
Review Board (IRB) approval.
•Key ethical principles: •Behavioral Perspectives•
Informed consent The behavioral perspective on group
Minimizing harm behavior, influenced by B.F. Skinner,
Fair & respectful treatment focuses on observable actions. It suggests
behavior is shaped by consequences:
positive outcomes (rewards) encourage
repetition, while negative outcomes
(punishments) reduce behavior.
B.F. Skinner's Behaviorism: Focuses on group, they also had better memory
observable behavior, not internal retention.
psychological processes.
Biological Perspective
Social Exchange Theory This perspective explores how
Group Membership as Exchange: physiological and genetic factors affect
People join groups expecting rewards in group behavior.
return for their contributions. • Testosterone is linked to social status.
Tangible: Money, goods, or services. Studies show that men with higher
Socioemotional: Status, admiration, and testosterone levels are more likely to seek
emotional support. leadership roles in groups.
• Oxytocin, a hormone produced in the
Factors That Strengthen Group brain, increases prosocial behavior within
Relationships groups, making members more
Valued Rewards: People stay in groups cooperative. However, it can also increase
when rewards are meaningful and costs rejection of outsiders.
are minimized.
Trust: Relationships are stronger when Selecting Theoretical Perspective
members trust each other to fulfill Group dynamics includes many theories
responsibilities. that explain how groups work. Some
Fairness: Mutual respect and fairness in theories focus on individual psychology,
give-and-take strengthen group ties. like people’s motivations, thoughts, and
Commitment: Emotional attachment and instincts. Others look at groups as part of
loyalty keep members engaged. society, studying how they interact with the
larger community.
Maintaining Group Membership Excessive
Demands: Groups that require too much
time, effort, or personal sacrifice may lose
members.
Balance of Cost and Reward: People
stay in groups when the benefits

Systems Perspective
Views groups as systems, meaning
different members work together
dynamically to maintain balance.

Cognitive Perspectives
focuses on how individuals think and
process information in a group. It studies
decision-making, perception, and memory,
showing how group members influence
each other's thinking
Self-reference effect shows that people
remember information better when it
relates to themselves.
Group-reference effect when people
were asked whether words described their