DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

T.J.R. FAULKNER COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENVIRONMENTAL

STUDIES AND CLIMATE CHANGE
FENDALL CAMPUS, UNIVERSITY OF LIBERIA
MONROVIA LIBERIA

BIOLOGY 105 (GENERAL BIOLOGY) NOTE

SECTION SEVEN ()

Instructor: Kesselebah B. Vesselee, Jr. M.Sc.

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How to Define Life
A. Living Things Are Organized
Organization of living systems begins with atoms, which make up basic building blocks called
elements. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living things. Unicellular
organisms are single-celled organisms that either live independently, or as colonies.
Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells that work together. Different cells combine
to make up tissues (e.g., nerve tissue). Tissues combine to make up an organ (e.g., the brain).
Specific organs work together as an organ system (e.g., the brain, spinal cord, etc.). Multicellular
organisms (each an “individual” within a particular species) contain organ systems. A species in
a particular area (e.g., gray squirrels in a forest) constitutes a population. Interacting populations
in a particular area comprise a community. A community plus its physical environment is an
ecosystem. The biosphere is comprised of regions of the Earth’s crust, waters, and atmosphere
inhabited by organisms. Each level of organization is more complex than the level preceding it.
Each level of organization has emergent properties due to interactions between the parts
making up the whole; all emergent properties follow the laws of physics and chemistry.
B. Living Things Acquire Materials and Energy
Maintaining organization and conducting life-sustaining processes requires an outside source of
energy, which is defined as the capacity to do “work.” Metabolism is all the chemical reactions
that occur in a cell. The ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth is the sun; plants
and certain other organisms convert solar energy into chemical energy by the process of
photosynthesis.
C. Living Things Maintain Homeostasis
All organisms must maintain a state of biological balance, or homeostasis. Temperature,
moisture level, pH, etc. must be maintained within the tolerance range of the organism. In order
to maintain homeostasis, body systems monitor internal conditions and make adjustments when
needed. Organisms have intricate feedback and control mechanisms to maintain homeostatic
balance.
D. Living Things Respond
Living things interact with the environment and with other living things. Response often results
in movement of the organism (e.g., a plant bending toward the sun to capture solar energy, a
turtle
withdrawing into its shell for safety, etc.). Responses help ensure survival of the organism and

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allow the organism to carry out its biological activities. The collective responses of an organism
constitute the behavior of the organism.
E. Living Things Reproduce and Develop
Reproduction is the ability of every organism to give rise to another organism like itself.
Bacteria,
protozoans, and other unicellular organisms can reproduce asexually by splitting in two (binary
fission). Multicellular organisms often reproduce sexually, uniting sperm and egg, each from a
different individual, resulting in an immature individual that develops into the adult. The
instructions for an organism’s organization and development are encoded in genes. Genes are
comprised of long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); DNA is the genetic code in all
living things. Genes are passed on from generation to generation. Methods to ensure genetic
variability include random combination of sperm and egg and mutations.
F. Living Things Have Adaptations
Adaptations are modifications that make organisms better able to function in an environment.
Evolution includes the way in which populations change over the course of generations to
become more suited to their environments.
Evolution, the Unifying Concept of Biology
A. Organizing Diversity
Taxonomy is the discipline of identifying and grouping organisms according to certain rules.
Systematics is the study of the evolutionary relationships between organisms. Taxonomic
classification changes as more is learned about living things, including the evolutionary
relationships between species. From smaller (least inclusive) categories to larger (more
inclusive), the sequence of classification categories is: species, genus, family, order, class,
phylum, kingdom, and domain. The species within one genus share many specific
characteristics and are the most closely related, while species in the same kingdom share only
general characteristics with one another. Biochemical evidence suggests that there are three
domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The domains Bacteria and Archaea contain
unicellular prokaryotes; organisms in the domain Eukarya are eukaryotes that have a
membrane-bound nucleus. The prokaryotes are structurally simple but are metabolically
complex. Archaea can live in water devoid of oxygen, and are able to survive harsh
environmental conditions (temperatures, salinity, pH). Bacteria are adapted to live almost
anywhere (water, soil, atmosphere, in/on the human body, etc.). The domains Archaea and

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Bacteria are not yet categorized into kingdoms. Eukarya contains four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi,
Plantae, and Animalia. Protists (kingdom Protista) range from unicellular forms to multicellular
forms. Plants (kingdom Plantae) are multicellular photosynthetic organisms. Fungi (kingdom
Fungi) are the molds and mushrooms. Animals (kingdom Animalia) are multicellular organisms
that ingest and process their food. Binomial nomenclature refers to a two-part scientific name:
the genus (first word, capitalized) and the specific epithet of a species (second word, not
capitalized). Binomial names are based on Latin and are used universally by biologists.
B. Evolution is Common Decent with Modification
Natural selection is the process by which species become modified over time. In natural
selection, members of a species may inherit a genetic change that makes them better suited to a
particular environment. These members would be more likely to produce higher numbers of
surviving offspring.
How the Biosphere is organized?
The biosphere is the zone of air, land, and water where organisms exist. A population consists
of all members of one species in a particular area. A community consists of all of the local
interacting populations. An ecosystem includes all aspects of a living community and the
physical environment (soil, atmosphere, etc.). Interactions between various food chains make up
a food web. Ecosystems are characterized by chemical cycling and energy flow. Ecosystems stay
in existence because of a constant input of solar energy and the ability of photosynthetic
organisms to absorb it.
A. The Human Population
The human population modifies existing \ecosystems, which can upset their natural nutrient
cycles, causing harm to human populations and disrupting the ecosystem’s natural energy flow.
B. Biodiversity
Two biologically diverse ecosystems, rain forests and coral reefs, are severely threatened by the
human population. Destruction of healthy ecosystems has unintended effects including: loss of
food, medicine, raw materials, and extinction of organisms. Biodiversity is the total number of
species, their variable genes, and their ecosystems. Extinction is the death of a species or larger
group; perhaps 400 species become extinct every day. The continued existence of the human
species is dependent on the preservation of ecosystems and the biosphere.
The Process of Science
Biology is the scientific study of life, and it consists of many disciplines. The scientific process

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differs from other ways of learning in that science follows the scientific method, which is
characterized by observation, development of a hypothesis, experimentation and data collection,
and forming a conclusion.
A. Observation
Scientists believe nature is orderly and measurable, and that natural laws (e.g., gravity) do not
change with time. Natural events, called phenomena, can therefore be understood from
observation. Scientists also use the knowledge and experiences of other scientists to expand
their understanding of phenomena. Chance alone can sometimes help a scientist get an idea (e.g.,
Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin).
B. Hypothesis
Inductive reasoning allows a person to combine isolated facts into a cohesive whole.
A scientist uses inductive reasoning to develop a possible explanation (a hypothesis) for a
natural event; the scientist presents the hypothesis as an actual statement. Scientists only consider
hypotheses that can be tested (i.e., moral and religious beliefs may not be testable by the
scientific method).
C. Experiments, Observations, and Data
1. Testing a hypothesis involves either conducting an experiment or making further
observations.
2. Deductive reasoning involves “if, then” logic to make a prediction based on knowledge
of the factors in the experiment.
3. An experimental design is the manner in which an experiment is conducted.
4. An experiment should include a control group, which goes through all the steps of an
experiment but
lacks (or is not exposed to) the factor being tested.
5. Scientists may use a model (a representation of an actual object) in their experiments.
6. Results obtained from use of a model will remain a hypothesis in need of testing if it is
impossible to test the actual phenomenon.
7. Data are the results of an experiment, and are observable and objective rather than
subjective.
8. Data are often displayed in a graph or table.
9. Results usually include a standard deviation, which is a statistical analysis that is a
measure of how much the data in the experiment varies.

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 10. Many studies rely on statistical data which, among other things, determines the
probability of error in the experiment.
D. Conclusion
Whether the data support or reject the hypothesis is the basis for the conclusion. The conclusion
of one experiment can lead to the hypothesis for another experiment. Scientists report their
findings in scientific journals so that their methodology and data are available to other scientists.
The experiments and observations must be repeatable or the research is suspect.
F. Scientific Theory
1. The ultimate goal is to understand the natural world in scientific theories, which are
concepts that join supported, related hypotheses, and are supported by a broad range
of observations, experiments, and data.
2. Some basic theories of biology are:
a. Cell: all organisms are made of cells.
b. Homeostasis: the internal environment of an organism stays relatively constant.
c. Gene: organisms contain coded information that dictates their form, function, and
behavior.
d. Ecosystem: organisms are members of populations which interact with each other
and the physical environment.
e. Evolution: all living things have a common ancestor.
3. A principle or a law is a theory that is generally accepted by most scientists.
Chapter Outline
Chemical Elements
Matter refers to anything that has mass and take up space. Matter can exist as solid, liquid, gas,
plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate.
A. Elements
All matter (both living and non-living) is composed of 92 naturally-occurring elements.
Elements, by definition, cannot be broken down to simpler substances with different chemical or
physical properties. Six elements (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—
acronym CHNOPS) make up 95% of the body weight of organisms.
B. Atoms
Elements consist of tiny particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that
displays the properties of the element. One or two letters (e.g., H, Na) create the atomic symbol
of the element. Atoms contain specific numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons
are positively charged particles; neutrons have no charge; electrons are negatively charged
particles.

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Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus of an atom; electrons move in orbitals around the nucleus
in an electron shell.

C. Atomic Number and Mass Number

The atomic number equals the number of protons of an element. Each element has a different
atomic number. The mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Protons
and neutrons have one atomic mass unit (amu) of weight; electrons have zero.
D. The Periodic Table
The periodic table groups elements according to certain chemical and physical characteristics.
The atomic mass is the average of the AMU for all the isotopes of that atom. Groups are the
vertical columns in the table and periods are the horizontal rows. Atomic mass increases as you
move down a group or across a period.
E. Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons (and therefore have
different atomic masses). For example, carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons; carbon-14 has 6
protons and 8 neutrons. A carbon atom with 8 rather than 6 neutrons is unstable; it releases
energy and subatomic particles and is thus a radioactive isotope. Because the chemical behavior
of a radioactive isotope is the same as a stable isotope of a particular element, low levels of the
radioactive isotope (e.g., radioactive iodine or glucose) allow researchers to trace the location
and activity of the element in living tissues; these isotopes are called tracers. High levels of
radiation can destroy cells and cause cancer; careful use of radiation can sterilize products and
kill cancer cells.
F. Electrons and Energy
In an electrically neutral atom, the positively charged protons are balanced by the negatively
charged electrons (remember that neutrons are electrically neutral). Since electrons are found
outside the nucleus and occupy orbitals around the nucleus, many scientists have tried to create
models to show the exact location of the electrons. The Bohr model (named after physicist Niels
Bohr) is a helpful way to visualize electron location in an element. According to the Bohr model,
electrons occupy orbitals within various energy levels (or electron shells) near or distant from the
nucleus of the atom. The farther the orbital from the nucleus, the higher the energy level. When

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atoms absorb energy during photosynthesis, electrons are boosted to higher energy levels. When
the electrons return to their original energy level, the released energy is converted into chemical
energy. This chemical energy supports all life on Earth. The innermost shell of an atom is
complete with 2 electrons; all other shells are complete with 8 electrons. This is called the octet
rule. The outermost electron shell is called the valence shell, and determines the atom’s chemical
properties; atoms will give up, accept, or share electrons in order to have 8 electrons in its
valence shell.
Molecules and Compounds
When atoms of two or more elements bond together, they form a molecule, which is the smallest
part of a compound that has the properties of the compound. A compound is a molecule that
contains at least two different elements (ex. H2O). A formula tells you the number of each kind
of atom in a molecule (ex. Glucose, C6H12O6). Electrons possess energy, therefore bonds that
exist between atoms in molecules contain energy.
A. Ionic Bonding
An ionic bond forms when electrons are transferred from one atom to another atom. By losing or
gaining electrons, atoms fill outer shells, and are more stable (the octet rule). Example: sodium
loses an electron and therefore has a positive charge; chlorine gains an electron to give it a
negative charge. Such charged particles are called ions. Attraction of oppositely charged ions
holds the two atoms together in an ionic bond. A salt (e.g., NaCl) is an example of an ionically-
bonded compound.
B. Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds result when two atoms share electrons so each atom has an octet of electrons in
the outer shell (or, in the case of hydrogen, 2 electrons). Hydrogen can give up an electron to
become a hydrogen ion (H+) or share an electron with another atom to complete its shell with 2
electrons. The structural formula of a compound indicates a shared pair of electrons by a line
between the two atoms; e.g., single covalent bond (H–H), double covalent bond (O=O), and
triple covalent bond (N ≡ N). Each line between the atoms represents a pair of electrons. There
are two types of covalent bonds: nonpolar covalent bonds and polar covalent bonds. In nonpolar
covalent bonds, sharing of electrons is equal, i.e., the electrons are not attracted to either atom to
a greater degree. With polar covalent bonds, the sharing of electrons is unequal. In a water
molecule (H2O), sharing of electrons by oxygen and hydrogen is not equal; O with more protons

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attracts the electrons closer to it. Attraction of an atom for electrons in a covalent bond is called
the electronegativity of the atom; an oxygen atom is more electronegative than a hydrogen atom.
The protons in the oxygen in a water molecule attracts the electrons, giving that side of the
molecule a more negative charge and the side of the molecule with the two hydrogen atoms a
more positive charge. The polarity of molecules affects how they interact with other molecules.
Chemistry of Water
The shape of water and of all organic molecules is necessary to the structural and functional roles
they play in living things. A hydrogen bond is the attraction of a slightly positive hydrogen
atom to a slightly negative atom in the vicinity.
A. Hydrogen Bonding
A hydrogen bond is a weak attractive force between the slightly positive charge of the hydrogen
atom of one molecule and slightly negative charge of another atom (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen) in
another or the same molecule. Many hydrogen bonds together are relatively strong. Hydrogen
bonds between and within complex biological molecules (e.g., DNA, proteins) help maintain
their proper structure and function.
B. Properties of Water
1. Water has a high heat capacity
a. The temperature of liquid water rises and falls more slowly than that of most other
liquids.
b. A calorie is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one gram
of water 1°C.
c. Because the hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold more heat, water
temperature falls more slowly than other liquids; this protects organisms from rapid
temperature changes and helps them maintain homeostatic temperature.
2. Water has a high heat of evaporation
a. When water boils, it evaporates, or vaporizes into the environment.
b. Hydrogen bonds between water molecules require a relatively large amount of heat
to break.
a. This property moderates Earth’s surface temperature and permits living systems to
exist.
b. When animals sweat, evaporation of the sweat removes body heat, thus cooling the
animal.
2. Water is a solvent
a. Water dissolves a great number of substances (e.g., salts, large polar molecules).
b. A solution contains dissolved substances called solutes.
c. Ionized or polar molecules attracted to water are hydrophilic (“water loving”).
d. Non ionized and nonpolar molecules that cannot attract water are hydrophobic
(“water fearing”).
3. Water molecules are cohesive and adhesive

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 a. Cohesion allows water to flow freely without molecules separating.
b. Adhesion is the ability to adhere to polar surfaces; water molecules have positive and
negative poles.
c. Water rises up a tree from roots to leaves through small tubes.
d. Adhesion of water to walls of vessels prevents the water column from breaking apart.
e. Cohesion allows evaporation from leaves to pull water column from roots.
f. Water has a high surface tension and is relatively difficult to break through at its
surface.
g. This property permits a rock to be shipped across a pond surface, and supports insects
walking on the surface.
4. Frozen water (ice) is less dense than liquid water
a. Unlike most substances, frozen water (ice) is less dense than liquid water.
b. Below 4°C, hydrogen bonding becomes more rigid but more open, causing
expansion.
c. Because ice is less dense, it floats; therefore, bodies of water freeze from the top
down.
d. If ice was heavier than water, ice would sink and bodies of water would freeze solid.
e. This property allows ice to act as an insulator on bodies of water, thereby protecting
aquatic organisms during the winter.
Acids and Bases
When water ionizes or dissociates, it releases a small (1 x 10-7 moles/liter) but equal number
of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-); H2O → H+ + OH- . Acid molecules
dissociate in water, releasing hydrogen (H+) ions: HCl → H+ + Cl-. Bases are molecules that
take up hydrogen ions or release hydroxide ions. NaOH → Na+ + OH-.
1. The pH scale indicates acidity and basicity (alkalinity) of a solution.
a. pH is the measurement of free hydrogen ions, expressed as a negative logarithm of
the H+ concentration (-log [H+]).
b. pH values range from 0 (1 x 100 moles/liter; most acidic) to 14 (1 x 10-14 moles/liter;
most basic).
c. One mole of water has 1 x 10-7 moles/liter of hydrogen ions; therefore, it has a neutral
pH of 7.
d. An acid is a substance with pH less than 7; a base is a substance with pH greater than
7.
e. Because it is a logarithmic scale, each lower unit has 10 times the amount of
hydrogen ions as the next higher pH unit; moving up the pH scale, each unit has 10
times the basicity of the previous unit.
2. Buffers keep pH steady and within normal limits in living organisms.
a. Buffers stabilize the pH of a solution by taking up excess hydrogen (H+) or hydroxide
(OH-) ions.
b. Carbonic acid helps keep blood pH within normal limits.
Organic Molecules
Organic molecules contain carbon and hydrogen atoms bonded to other atoms. Four types of
organic molecules (biomolecules) exist in organisms: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic

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acids. Organic molecules are a diverse group; even a simple bacterial cell contains some 5,000
organic molecules.
A. The Carbon Atom
The chemistry of the carbon atom allows it to form covalent bonds with as many as four other
elements (generally with the CHNOPS elements). Hydrocarbons are chains of carbon atoms
bonded exclusively to hydrogen atoms; hydrocarbons can be branched and they can form ringed
(cyclic) compounds. Carbon atoms can form double or triple bonds with certain atoms (carbon,
nitrogen).
B. The Carbon Skeleton and Functional Groups
1. The carbon chain of an organic molecule is called its skeleton or backbone.
2. Functional groups are clusters of specific atoms bonded to the carbon skeleton with
characteristic structure and functions.
a. For example, the addition of an –OH (hydroxyl group) to a carbon skeleton turns the
molecule into an alcohol.
b. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is hydrophilic (dissolves in water) because the hydroxyl group
is polar.
c. Nonpolar organic molecules are hydrophobic (cannot dissolve in water) unless they
contain a polar functional group (ex., ethane), while hydrophilic compounds (such as
ethanol) can dissolve in water because the –OH functional group is polar.
d. Depending on its functional groups, an organic molecule may be both acidic and
hydrophilic. For example, a hydrocarbon that contains a carboxyl group; carboxyl
groups ionize in solution by releasing hydrogen ions, becoming both polar and acidic.
e. Because cells are 70–90% water, the degree to which an organic molecule interacts
with water affects its function.
3. Isomers are molecules with identical molecular formulas but different arrangements of
their atoms (e.g., glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone).
a. Isomers have different chemical properties and react differently with other molecules.
C. The Biomolecules of Cells
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are biomolecules; certain foods are known to
be rich in them. The largest biomolecules are called polymers, constructed by linking many of
the same type of small subunits, called monomers. Examples: amino acids (monomers) are
linked to form a protein (polymer); many nucleotides (monomers) are linked to form a nucleic
acid (polymer). Cellular enzymes carry out dehydration reactions to synthesize biomolecules.
In a dehydration reaction, a water molecule is removed and a covalent bond is made between two
atoms of the monomers. In a dehydration reaction, a hydroxyl (— OH) group is removed from
one monomer and a hydrogen (— H) is removed from the other. This produces water, and,
because the water is leaving the monomers, it is a dehydration reaction. Hydrolysis (“water
breaking”) reactions break down polymers in reverse of dehydration. A hydroxyl (— OH) group

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from water attaches to one monomer and hydrogen (— H) attaches to the other. Enzymes are
molecules that speed up chemical reactions by bringing reactants together; an enzyme may even
participate in the reaction but is not changed by the reaction.
Carbohydrates
A. Monosaccharides: Ready Energy
1. Monosaccharides are simple sugars with a backbone of three to seven carbon atoms.
a. Most monosaccharides of organisms have six carbons (hexose).
b. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are hexoses, but are isomers of one another; each has
the same molecular formula (C6H12O6 ) but they differ in arrangement of the atoms.
c. Glucose is found in the blood of animals; it is the source of biochemical energy (ATP)
in nearly all organisms.
2. Ribose and deoxyribose are five-carbon sugars (pentose); they contribute to the
backbones of RNA and DNA, respectively.
B. Disaccharides: Varied Uses
1. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharides joined by a dehydration reaction.
2. Maltose is composed of two glucose molecules; it forms in the digestive tract of humans
during starch digestion.
3. Sucrose (table sugar) is composed of glucose and fructose; it is used to sweeten food for
human consumption.
4. Lactose is composed of galactose and glucose and is found in milk.
C. Polysaccharides: Energy Storage Molecules
1. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides. They are not soluble in water and do
not pass through the plasma membrane of the cell.
2. Starch, found in many plants, is a straight chain of glucose molecules with relatively few
side branches. Amylose and amylopectin are the two forms of starch found in plants.
3. Glycogen is a highly branched polymer of glucose with many side branches. It is the
storage form of glucose in animals.
D. Polysaccharides: Structural Molecules
1. Cellulose is a polymer of glucose which forms microfibrils, the primary constituent of
plant cell walls.
a. Cotton is nearly pure cellulose.
b. Cellulose is indigestible by humans due to the unique bond between glucose
molecules.
c. Grazing animals can digest cellulose due to special stomachs and bacteria.
d. Cellulose is the most abundant organic molecule on Earth.
2. Chitin is a polymer of glucose with an amino group attached to each glucose molecule.
a. Chitin is the primary constituent of the exoskeleton of crabs and related animals
(lobsters, insects, etc.).
b. Chitin is not digestible by humans.
3. Peptidoglycan is a polymer of glucose derivatives and is found in bacteria.
Lipids
1. Lipids are varied in structure.
a. Lipids are hydrocarbons that are insoluble in water because they lack polar groups.
b. Fat provides insulation and energy storage in animals.
c. Phospholipids form plasma membranes and steroids are important cell messengers.

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 d. Waxes have protective functions in many organisms.
A. Triglycerides: Long-Term Energy Storage
1. Fats and oils contain two molecular units: glycerol and fatty acids.
2. A fatty acid is a long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl (acid) group at one end.
a. Most fatty acids in cells contain 16 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule.
b. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between their carbon atoms.
c. Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds in the carbon chain where there are less
than two hydrogens per carbon atom.
i. The double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids may have chemical groups arranged
on the same side (cis configuration) or on opposite sides (trans configuration).
These two configurations affect the unsaturated fatty acids biological activity.
3. Glycerol is a water-soluble compound with three hydroxyl groups.
4. Triglycerides are glycerol joined to three fatty acids by dehydration reactions.
5. Fats contain saturated fatty acids and are solid at room temperature (e.g., butter).
6. Oils contain unsaturated fatty acids and are liquid at room temperature.
7. Animals use fat rather than glycogen for long-term energy storage; fat stores more
energy.
B. Phospholipids: Membrane Components
Phospholipids are constructed like neutral fats except that the third fatty acid is replaced by a
polar (hydrophilic) phosphate group; the phosphate group usually bonds to another organic group
(designated by R). The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids become the nonpolar (hydrophobic)
tails. Phospholipids arrange themselves in a double layer in water, so the polar heads face toward
water molecules and nonpolar tails face toward one other, away from water molecules. This
property enables phospholipids to form an interface or separation between two solutions (e.g.,
the interior and exterior of a cell); the plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer.
C. Steroids: Four Fused Rings
Steroids have skeletons of four fused carbon rings and vary according to attached functional
groups; these functional groups determine the biological functions of the various steroid
molecules. Cholesterol is a component of an animal cell’s plasma membrane, and is the
precursor of several other steroids (aldosterone, testosterone, estrogen, calcitriol, etc.). A diet
high in saturated fats and cholesterol can lead to circulatory disorders.
D. Waxes
Waxes are long-chain fatty acids bonded to long-chain alcohols. Waxes have a high melting
point, are waterproof, and resist degradation. Waxes form a protective covering in plants that
prevents water loss in leaves and fruits. In animals, waxes maintain animal skin and fur, trap dust
and dirt, and form the honeycomb.
Proteins

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 1. Proteins are of primary importance to the structure and function of cells:
a. Metabolism Enzyme proteins act as organic catalysts to accelerate chemical reactions
within cells.
b. Support Some proteins have a structural function, examples are keratin, which makes
up hair and nails, and collagen fibers, which support many of the body’s structures
(e.g., ligaments, tendons, skin).
c. Transport Channel and carrier proteins in the plasma membrane regulate what
substances enter and exit cells. Hemoglobin transports oxygen in red blood cells.
d. Defense Antibodies are proteins that prevent infection.
e. Regulation Some hormones are regulatory proteins that influence the metabolism of
cells. For example, insulin regulates glucose content of blood and within cells.
f. Motion The contractile proteins actin and myosin allow parts of cells to move and
cause muscles to contract.
A. Peptides
1. A peptide bond is a covalent bond between two amino acids.
2. Atoms of a peptide bond share electrons unevenly (oxygen is more electronegative than
nitrogen).
3. The polarity of the peptide bond permits hydrogen bonding between different amino
acids in a polypeptide.
4. A peptide is two or more amino acids bonded together.
5. Polypeptides are chains of many amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
6. A protein may contain more than one polypeptide chain; it can thus have a very large
number of amino acids.
a. The three-dimensional shape of a protein is critical; an abnormal sequence will have
the wrong shape and will not function normally.
b. Frederick Sanger determined the first protein sequence (of the hormone insulin) in
1953.
B. Amino Acids: Protein Monomers
Amino acids contain an acidic group (— COOH) and an amino group (—NH2). Amino acids
differ according to their particular R group, ranging from single hydrogen to complicated ring
compounds. The R group of the amino acid cystine ends with a sulfhydryl (— SH) that serves to
connect one chain of amino acids to another by a disulfide bond (— S— S—). There are 20
different amino acids commonly found in cells.
C. Shape of Proteins
1. Protein shape determines the function of the protein in the organism; proteins can have up
to four levels of structure (but not all proteins have four levels).
2. The primary structure is the protein’s own particular sequence of amino acids.
a. Just as the English alphabet contains 26 letters, 20 amino acids can join to form a
huge variety of “words.”
3. The secondary structure results when a polypeptide coils or folds in a particular way.
a. The  (alpha) helix was the first pattern discovered.
i. In a peptide bond, oxygen is partially negative, hydrogen is partially positive.
ii. This allows for hydrogen bonding between the C=O of one amino acid and the

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 N—H of another.
iii. Hydrogen bonding between every fourth amino acid holds the spiral shape of an 
helix.
b. The  (beta) sheet was the second pattern discovered.
i. Pleated  sheet polypeptides turn back upon themselves.
ii. Hydrogen bonding occurs between extended lengths.
c. Fibrous proteins (e.g., keratin) are structural proteins with helices and/or pleated
sheets that hydrogen bond to one another.
4. Tertiary structure results when proteins are folded, giving rise to the final three-
dimensional shape of the protein. This is due to interactions among the R groups of the
constituent amino acids.
a. Globular proteins tend to ball up into rounded shapes.
b. Strong disulfide linkages maintain the tertiary shape; hydrogen, ionic, and covalent
bonds also contribute.
c. Enzymes are globular proteins and have specific conditions for optimal functionality.
There are conditions in which the enzyme, or protein, will lose its natural shape (i.e.
high temperatures). This is called denaturation.
5. Quaternary structure results when two or more polypeptides combine.
a. Hemoglobin is a globular protein with a quaternary structure of four polypeptides;
each polypeptide has a primary, secondary, and tertiary structure.
D. Protein-Folding Diseases
As proteins are synthesized, chaperone proteins help them fold into their correct shapes;
chaperone proteins may also correct misfolding of a new protein and prevent them from making
incorrect shapes. Certain diseases (e.g., the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, or TSEs)
are likely due to misfolded proteins, called prions.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides, which store information in cells. DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) stores the genetic code for its own replication and for the amino acid
sequences in proteins. RNA (ribonucleic acid) allows for translation of the genetic code of
DNA into the amino acid sequence of proteins; other functions for RNA in the cell exist. Some
nucleotides have independent metabolic functions in cells. Coenzymes are molecules which
facilitate enzymatic reactions. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide used to supply
energy for synthetic reactions and other energy-requiring metabolic activities in the cell.
A. Structure of DNA and RNA
1. Nucleotides are a molecular complex of three types of molecules: a phosphate
(phosphoric acid), a pentose sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base.
2. DNA and RNA differ in the following ways:
a. Nucleotides of DNA contain deoxyribose sugar; nucleotides of RNA contain ribose.
b. In RNA, the base uracil occurs instead of the base thymine. Both RNA and DNA

14
 contain adenine, guanine, and cytosine.
c. DNA is double-stranded with complementary base pairing; RNA is single-stranded.
i. Complementary base pairing occurs when two strands of DNA are held
together by hydrogen bonds between purine and pyrimidine bases.
ii. The number of purine bases always equals the number of pyrimidine bases.
iii. In DNA, thymine is always paired with adenine; cytosine is always paired with
guanine. Thus, in DNA: A + G = C + T.
d. Two strands of DNA twist to form a double helix; RNA does not form a helix.
B. ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide in which adenosine is composed of ribose and
adenine. Triphosphate derives its name from three phosphate groups attached together and to the
ribose. ATP is a high-energy molecule because the last two phosphate bonds release energy
when broken. In cells, the terminal phosphate bond is hydrolyzed, leaving ADP (adenosine
diphosphate); energy is released when this occurs. The energy released from ATP breakdown is
used in the energy-requiring processes of the cell, such as synthetic reactions, muscle
contraction, and the transmission of nerve impulses.
C. Everyone Needs a Little Fat, Right? (Nature of Science reading)
1. Dietary fat provides energy, builds and maintains cell membranes, and provides padding
for internal organs.
2. Saturated fats, which are from animals and solid at room temperature, stick together and
have been associated with coronary heart disease (CHD).
3. Unsaturated fats, which are from plants and liquid at room temperature, do not stick
together and do not clog arteries
4. A Food Revolution
a. Although unsaturated fat is thought to be healthier than saturated fat, plant oils can go
bad and since they are liquid at room temperature, are difficult to use in solid food
products.
b. To solve this problem, food manufacturers hydrogenated unsaturated fatty acids.
c. The hydrogenation process involves heating and exposing oil to hydrogen gas.
d. A consequence of the hydrogenation process is the formation of trans-fats, which
increase LDL (“bad”) cholesterol and lower HDL (“good”) cholesterol, and increases
the risk of CHD.
5. Scientific Evidence Changes our Perceptions
a. Since there has been scientific evidence to support the health risks associated with
intake of trans-fat, the food service industry has clear labeling of trans-fats on food
products, and many restaurants use trans-fat-free oil.
Cellular Level of Organization
Cells are the basic unit of life. Detailed study of the cell began in the 1830s; some of the
scientists contributing to the understanding of cell structure and function were Robert Brown,
Matthias Schleiden, Theodor Schwann, and Rudolph Virchow.
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  The cell theory states that:
 All organisms are composed of cells,
 That cells are the basic units of structure and function in organisms, and
 That cells come only from preexisting cells because cells are self-reproducing
(„Omnis cellula e cellula“).
A. Cell Size
Cells range in size from one millimeter down to one micrometer. Cells need a surface area large
enough to adequately exchange materials. The surface-area-to-volume ratio requires that cells
be small. As cells get larger in volume, surface area relative to volume decreases. Size limits
how large the actively metabolizing cells can become. Cells needing greater surface area utilize
membrane modifications such as folding and microvilli.
B. Microscopy Today (Nature of Science reading)
1. Compound light microscopes use light rays focused by glass lenses.
2. Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) use electrons passing through a specimen
and focused by electromagnetic lenses.
3. Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) use electrons scanned across metal-coated
specimen; secondary electrons given off by metal are collected by a detector.
4. Magnification is a function of wavelength; the shorter wavelengths of electrons allow
greater magnification than the longer wavelengths of light rays.
5. Resolution is the minimum distance between two objects at which they can still be seen
as separate objects.
6. Contrast is the difference in the shading of an object compared to its background.
7. Phase contrast and differential interface contrast microscopy uses fluorescent
antibodies to reveal proteins in cells.
8. Confocal microscopy uses laser beam to focus on a shallow plane within the cell; this
forms a series of optical sections from which a computer creates a three dimensional
image.
9. Video-enhanced contrast microscopy accentuates the light and dark regions and may
use a computer to contrast regions with false colors.
10. Bright-field, phase contrast, differential interference, and dark-field are different
types of light microscopes.

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Prokaryotic Cells
Three different types of cells exist in nature: Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and are smaller
and simpler than eukaryotic cells (which have a nucleus). Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and
organelles. Archaea have qualities of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes are
structurally less complicated than eukaryotes, but their metabolic capabilities exceed the
eukaryotes. The functions of bacteria vary: some cause serious diseases, while others are a major
component to ecosystems because they decay dead organisms.
A. The Structure of Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are extremely small; average size is 1–1.5 μm wide and 2–6 μm long. Prokaryotes
occur in three basic shapes: spherical coccus, rod-shaped bacillus, and spiral spirillum (if rigid)
or spirochete (if flexible).
1. Cell Envelope
a. In bacteria, the cell envelope includes the plasma membrane, the cell wall, and the
glycocalyx. The plasma membrane is a lipid bilayer with imbedded and peripheral
proteins; it regulates the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
b. The plasma membrane can form internal pouches called mesosomes, which increase
the internal surface area of the membrane for enzyme attachment.
c. The cell wall maintains the shape of the cell and is strengthened by peptidoglycan.
d. The glycocalyx is a layer of polysaccharides on the outside of the cell wall; it is
called a capsule if organized and not easily removed or a slime layer if it is not well-
organized and is easily removed.
2. Cytoplasm
a. The cytoplasm is a semifluid solution containing water, inorganic and organic
molecules, and enzymes.
b. The nucleoid is a region that contains the single, circular DNA molecule.
c. Plasmids are small accessory (extrachromosomal) rings of DNA; they are not part of
the bacterial genetic material.
d. Ribosomes are particles that synthesize proteins; they contain RNA and protein in
two subunits.
e. Inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm are granules of stored substances.
f. Cyanobacteria (also called blue-green bacteria) are bacteria that photosynthesize;
they lack chloroplasts but have thylakoids containing chlorophyll and other
pigments.
3. Appendages
a. Motile bacteria usually have flagella; the filament, hook, and basal body work to
rotate the flagellum like a propeller to move through fluid medium.
b. Fimbriae are small, bristle-like fibers that attach bacteria to an appropriate surface.
c. Conjugation pili are tubes used by bacteria to pass DNA from cell to cell.
Introducing Eukaryotic Cells
A. Origin of the Eukaryotic cell

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According to the end symbiotic theory, energy-related organelles, such as mitochondria and
chloroplasts, arose when a eukaryotic cell engulfed prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are
members of the domain Eukarya, which includes the protists, fungi, plants, and animals. A
membrane-bound nucleus houses DNA; the nucleus may have originated as an invagination of
the plasma membrane. Eukaryotic cells are much larger than prokaryotic cells, and therefore
have less surface area per volume.
B. Structure of Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized; they contain small structures called organelles that
perform specific functions. Organelles in the cell work together to metabolize, regulate, and
conduct life processes. The organelles of the endomembrane system communicate with one
another; each organelle contains its own set of enzymes and produces its own products, which
move from one organelle to another by transport vesicles. The cytoskeleton is a lattice of protein
fibers that maintains the shape of the cell and assists in movement of the organelles. Plant, fungi,
and many protist cells contain a cell wall along with a plasma membrane.
C. Separating the Contents of Cells (Nature of Science reading)
Cell fractionation allows the researcher to isolate and individually study the organelles of a cell.
Differential centrifugation separates the cellular components by size and density. Using these
two techniques, researchers can obtain pure preparations of any cell component.
The Nucleus and Ribosomes
A. Nucleus
The nucleus has a diameter of about 5 μm. Chromatin is a threadlike material that coils into
chromosomes just before cell division occurs; contains DNA, protein, and some RNA.
Nucleoplasm is the semifluid medium of the nucleus. Chromosomes are rod-like structures
formed during cell division; composed of coiled or folded chromatin. The nucleolus is a dark
region of chromatin inside the nucleus; it is the site where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) joins with
proteins to form ribosomes. The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear
envelope, which contains nuclear pores to permit passage of substances (e.g., ribosomal
subunits, messenger RNA, proteins, etc.) in and out of the nucleus
B. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in the cell. In eukaryotic cells, ribosomes may occur
freely or in groups called polyribosomes. Some ribosomes are attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) if the protein being synthesized by the ribosome begins with a sequence of amino

18
acids called a signal peptide. The central dogma of molecular biology refers to the universality
of the sequence of DNA being transcribed into mRNA and then being translated into a protein.
The Endomembrane System
A. The endomembrane system is a series of intracellular membranes that compartmentalize the
cell. It consists of the nuclear envelope, the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi
apparatus, and several types of vesicles.
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of membrane channels and saccules (flattened
vesicles) continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. Rough ER is studded
with ribosomes on the cytoplasm side; it is the site where proteins are synthesized and enter the
ER interior for processing and modification. Smooth ER is continuous with rough ER but lacks
ribosomes; it is a site of various synthetic processes, detoxification, and storage; smooth ER
forms transport vesicles.
2. The Golgi Apparatus
It is named for Camillo Golgi, who discovered it in 1898. The Golgi apparatus consists of a
stack of slightly curved saccules. The cis face is directed towards the ER, and the trans face is
directed toward the plasma membrane. The Golgi apparatus receives protein-filled vesicles that
bud from the rough ER and lipid-filled vesicles from the smooth ER.
Enzymes within the Golgi apparatus modify the carbohydrates that were placed on proteins in
the ER; proteins and lipids are sorted and packaged. Vesicles formed from the membrane of the
outer face of the Golgi apparatus move to different locations in a cell; at the plasma membrane
they discharge their contents as secretions, a process called exocytosis because substances exit
the cell.
3. Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bounded vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes
contain powerful digestive enzymes and are highly acidic. Macromolecules enter a cell by
vesicle formation; lysosomes fuse with vesicles and digest the contents of the vesicle. White
blood cells that engulf bacteria use lysosomes to digest the bacteria. Tay-Sachs disease is a
lysosomal storage disease. The enzyme that is missing in these individuals digests a fatty
substance that helps insulate nerve cells. Therefore, the fatty substance accumulates and causes
nerve cells to die.
Other Vesicles and Vacuoles
A. Peroxisomes

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Peroxisomes are membrane-bounded vesicles that contain specific enzymes. Peroxisome action
results in production of hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is broken down to water
and oxygen by catalase. Peroxisomes in the liver produce bile salts from cholesterol and also
break down fats. Peroxisomes also occur in germinating seeds where they convert oils into
sugars used as nutrients by the growing plant.
B. Vacuoles
Vacuoles are membranous sacs and are larger than vesicles. Contractile vacuoles in some
protists rid the cell of excess water. Digestive vacuoles digest nutrients. Vacuoles generally store
substances, e.g., plant vacuoles contain water, sugars, salts, pigments, and toxic molecules. The
central vacuole of a plant cell maintains turgor pressure within the cell, stores nutrients and
wastes, and degrades organelles as the cell ages.
The Energy-Related Organelles
A. Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are membranous organelles (a type of plastid) that serve as the site of
photosynthesis.
1. Photosynthesis is represented by the equation:
6CO2 + 6H2O Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2
Chlorophyll

Only plants, algae, and certain bacteria are capable of conducting photosynthesis. The chloroplast
is bound by a double membrane and is organized into flattened disc-like sacs called thylakoids formed
from a third membrane; a stack of thylakoids is a granum. Chlorophyll and other pigments capture solar
energy, and the enzymes which synthesize carbohydrates are located in the chloroplasts. Chloroplasts
have both their own chromosome and ribosomes, supporting the endosymbiosis theory. Other types of
plastids, which differ in color, form, and function from chloroplasts, include chloroplasts and
leucoplasts.
B. Mitochondria
Mitochondria are surrounded by a double membrane: the inner membrane surrounds the matrix
and is convoluted to form cristae. Mitochondria are smaller than chloroplasts, and often vary
their shape. Mitochondria also can be fixed in one location or form long, moving chains.
Mitochondria contain ribosomes and their own DNA. The matrix of the mitochondria is
concentrated with enzymes that break down carbohydrates. ATP production occurs on the
cristae. More than forty different diseases involving mitochondria have been identified.
The Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of connected filaments and tubules; it extends from the nucleus to

20
the plasma membrane in eukaryotes. The function of the cytoskeleton is to maintain the cell
shape and allow cells and organelles to move. Elements of the cytoskeleton include: actin
filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
A. Actin Filaments
Actin filaments are long, thin fibers (about 7 nm in diameter) that occur in bundles or mesh-like
networks. The actin filament consists of two chains of globular actin monomers twisted to form a
helix. Actin filaments play a structural role, forming a dense complex web just under the plasma
membrane; this accounts for the formation of pseudopods in amoeboid movement. Actin
filaments in microvilli of intestinal cells lengthen and shorten into the space were food is
processed. In plant cells, they form tracks along which chloroplasts circulate, called cytoplasmic
streaming. Actin filaments move by interacting with motor molecules, which are proteins that
can attach, detach, and reattach farther along an actin filament. For example, myosin combines
with and splits ATP, binding to actin and changing configuration to pull the actin filament
forward. Similar action accounts for pinching off cells during cell division.
B. Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are 8–11 nm in diameter, between actin filaments and microtubules in
size. They form a rope-like assembly of fibrous polypeptides. Some support the nuclear
envelope; others support plasma membrane and form cell-to-cell junctions.
C. Microtubules
Microtubules are small hollow cylinders (25 nm in diameter and from 0.2–25 μm in length).
Microtubules are composed of a globular protein called tubulin that occurs as α tubulin and β
tubulin. Assembly brings α and β tubulin together as dimers and the dimers arrange themselves
in rows. Regulation of microtubule assembly is under control of a microtubule organizing center
(MTOC): the main MTOC is called a centrosome. Microtubules radiate from the MTOC,
helping maintain the shape of cells and acting as tracks along which organelles move. Similar to
actin and myosin, the motor molecules kinesin and dynein are associated with microtubules.
Different kinds of kinesin proteins specialize to move one kind of vesicle or cell organelle.
Cytoplasmic dynein is closely related to the molecule dynein found in flagella. During cellular
division, microtubules disassemble and reassemble to form spindle fibers.
D. Centrioles
Centrioles are short cylinders with a 9 + 0 pattern of microtubule triplets. In animal cells and
most protists, centrosomes contain two centrioles lying at right angles to each other.

21
During cellular division, centrioles replicate and become part of a centrosome and function to
organize the mitotic spindle. Plant and fungal cells have the equivalent of a centrosome, but they
do not contain centrioles. Centrioles serve as basal bodies for cilia and flagella.
E. Cilia and Flagella
Cilia are short, usually numerous hairlike projections that can move in an undulating fashion
(e.g., Paramecium). Flagella are longer, usually fewer, projections that move in whip-like
fashion (e.g., sperm cells). Both have similar construction, but differ from prokaryotic flagella.
Membrane-bounded cylinders enclose a matrix containing a cylinder of nine pairs of
microtubules encircling two single microtubules (9 + 2 pattern of microtubules). Cilia and
flagella move when the microtubules slide past one another. Cilia and flagella have a basal body
at their base with the same arrangement of microtubule triples as centrioles. Cilia and flagella
grow by the addition of tubulin dimers to their tips.
Plasma Membrane Structure and Function
A. Components of the Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins and cholesterol.
Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules, having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions;
nonpolar tails (hydrophobic) are directed inward, polar heads (hydrophilic) are directed outward
to face both extracellular and intracellular fluid. Proteins in the plasma membrane can be
peripheral (on one side of the membrane), or integral (embedded in the plasma membrane).
Integral proteins are usually found in the membrane and are held in place by the cytoskeleton and
the extracellular matrix (ECM). The ECM is only found in animals and its function includes
supporting the plasma membrane and communicating between cells.
B. Fluid-Mosaic Model
The fluid-mosaic model describes the plasma membrane. The fluid component refers to the
phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane. Fluidity of the plasma membrane allows cells to
be pliable. Fluidity is affected by cholesterol molecules in the plasma membrane.
The mosaic component refers to the protein content in the plasma membrane. Proteins bond to
the ECM and/or cytoskeleton to prevent movement in the fluid phospholipid bilayer.
C. Carbohydrate Chains
Glycolipids have a structure similar to phospholipids except the hydrophilic head is a variety of
sugar; they are protective and assist in various functions. Glycoproteins have an attached
carbohydrate chain of sugar that projects externally. In animal cells, the glycocalyx is a “sugar

22
coat” of carbohydrate chains and has several functions. Cells are unique in that they have highly
varied carbohydrate chains (a “fingerprint”). The immune system recognizes foreign tissues that
have inappropriate carbohydrate chains. Carbohydrate chains are the basis for A, B, and O blood
groups in humans.
D. The Functions of the Proteins
Channel proteins allow a particular molecule to cross a membrane freely (e.g., Cl - channels).
Carrier proteins selectively interact with a specific molecule so it can cross the plasma
membrane (e.g., Na+-K+ pump). Cell recognition proteins are glycoproteins that allow the
body’s immune system to distinguish between foreign invaders and body cells.
Receptor proteins are shaped so a specific molecule (e.g., hormone) can bind to it. Enzymatic
proteins carry out specific metabolic reactions. Junction proteins join animal cells so tissues
can function.
E. Permeability of the Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable; only certain molecules can pass through. Small
non-polar molecules (carbon dioxide, oxygen, glycerol and alcohol) pass through the membrane
freely. Small molecules (carbon dioxide, oxygen) move “down” a concentration gradient, i.e.,
from high to low concentration. Cells have channel proteins called aquaporins that allow water
to cross a plasma membrane more quickly than expected. Ions and charged molecules cannot
readily pass through the hydrophobic component of the bilayer and usually combine with carrier
proteins. Large particles enter or exit a cell through bulk transport.
F. How Do Cells Talk to One Another? (Biological Systems reading)
1. Cell Signaling
Signaling molecules, or chemical messengers, “talk” to other cells and may change cells, tissues,
or organs. These cells do not respond to all molecules. They require binding to a receptor
protein. Once the signaling molecule is bound to a receptor, the signal follows through a
transduction pathway. The cell’s response to the transduction pathway can change the shape or
movement of the cell, alter the metabolism or function of the cell, or alter the gene expression
and amount of a cell protein.
Passive Transport Across a Membrane
A. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from higher to lower concentration (i.e., “down” the
concentration gradient). A solution contains a solute, usually a solid, and a solvent, usually a
liquid. In the case of a dye diffusing in water, the dye is a solute and water is the solvent. Once a
solute is evenly distributed, random movement continues but with no net change. The chemical

23
and physical properties of a membrane allow only a few types of molecules to cross by diffusion.
Gases readily diffuse through the lipid bilayer; e.g., the movement of oxygen from air sacs
(alveoli) to the blood in lung capillaries depends on the concentration of oxygen in alveoli.
Temperature, pressure, electrical currents, and molecular size influence the rate of diffusion.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a differentially (selectively) permeable membrane.
Osmosis is illustrated by the thistle tube example: A differentially permeable membrane
separates two solutions. The beaker has more water (lower percentage of solute) and the thistle
tube has less water (higher percentage of solute). The membrane does not permit passage of the
solute; water enters but the solute does not exit the membrane. The membrane permits passage of
water with a net movement of water from the beaker to the inside of the thistle tube. Osmotic
pressure is the pressure that develops in a system due to osmosis. Osmotic pressure results in
water being absorbed by the kidneys and water being taken up from tissue fluid. Isotonic
solutions are solutions where the solute concentration and the water concentrations inside and
outside the cell are equal. Tonicity refers to the strength of the solution A 0.9% salt solution is
used in injections because it is isotonic to red blood cells (RBCs). A hypotonic solution has a
solute concentration that is less than another solution; when a cell is placed in a hypotonic
solution, water enters the cell and it may undergo cytolysis (“cell bursting”). Swelling of a plant
cell in a hypotonic solution creates turgor pressure; this is how plants maintain an erect
position. A hypertonic solution has a solute concentration that is higher than another solution;
when a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water leaves the cell and it shrivels (a condition
called crenation). Plasmolysis is shrinking of the cytoplasm due to osmosis in a hypertonic
solution; as the central vacuole loses water, the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall.
B. Facilitated Transport
Facilitated transport is the transport of a specific solute “down” or “with” its concentration
gradient (from high to low), facilitated by a carrier protein; glucose and amino acids move across
the membrane in this way.
Active Transport Across a Membrane
Active transport is transport of a specific solute across plasma membranes “up” or “against”
(from low to high) its concentration gradient through use of cellular energy (ATP). Iodine is
concentrated in cells of the thyroid gland, glucose is completely absorbed into the lining of the
digestive tract, and sodium is mostly reabsorbed by the kidney tubule lining. Active transport
requires both carrier proteins and ATP; therefore, cells must have a high number of mitochondria

24
near membranes where active transport occurs. Proteins involved in active transport are often
called “pumps”; the sodium-potassium pump is an important carrier protein in nerve and
muscle cells. Salt (NaCl) crosses a plasma membrane because Na+ are pumped across, and the
Cl- is attracted to Na+ and simply diffuses across specific channels in the membrane. Cystic
fibrosis results from a faulty chloride channel protein, causing thick mucus in bronchial tubes
and pancreatic ducts.

A. Bulk Transport
In exocytosis, a vesicle formed by the Golgi body fuses with the plasma membrane as secretion
occurs; insulin leaves insulin-secreting cells by this method. During endocytosis, cells take in
substances by vesicle formation as plasma membrane pinches off by phagocytosis, pinocytosis,
or receptor-mediated endocytosis. In phagocytosis, cells engulf large particles (e.g., bacteria,
food particles), forming an endocytic vesicle. Phagocytosis is commonly performed by
amoeboid-type cells (e.g., amoebas and macrophages). When the endocytic vesicle fuses with a
lysosome, digestion of the internalized substance occurs.
Pinocytosis occurs when vesicles form around a liquid or very small particles; this is only visible
with electron microscopy. Cells that use pinocytosis to ingest substances are: blood cells, cells
that line the kidney tubules or the intestinal wall, and plant root cells. Receptor-mediated
endocytosis, a form of pinocytosis, occurs when specific macromolecules bind to plasma
membrane receptors. The receptor proteins are shaped to fit with specific substances (vitamin,
hormone, lipoprotein molecule, etc.), and are found at one location in the plasma membrane.
This location is a coated pit with a layer of protein on the cytoplasmic side. Once formed, the
vesicle is uncoated and may fuse with a lysosome. Pits are associated with exchange of
substances between cells (e.g., maternal and fetal blood). This system is selective and more
efficient than pinocytosis; it is important in moving substances from maternal to fetal blood.
Cholesterol (transported in a molecule called a low-density lipoprotein, LDL) enters a cell from
the bloodstream via receptors in coated pits; in familial hypocholesterolemia, the LDL receptor
cannot bind to the coated pit and the excess cholesterol accumulates in the circulatory system.
Modification of Cell Surfaces
A. Cell Surfaces in Animals
The extracellular matrix is a meshwork of polysaccharides and proteins in animal cells.
Collagen gives the matrix strength and elastin gives it resilience. Fibronectins and integrins bind

25
to membrane receptors and permit communication between matrix and cytoplasm; these proteins
also form “highways” that direct the migration of cells during development.
Proteoglycans are glycoproteins that provide a packing gel that joins the various proteins in
matrix and most likely regulate signaling proteins that bind to receptors in the plasma protein.
Junctions Between Cells are points of contact between cells that allow them to behave in a
coordinated manner. Adhesion junctions mechanically attach adjacent cells.
In desmosomes, internal cytoplasmic plaques, firmly attached to cytoskeleton within each cell,
are joined by integral membrane proteins; they hold cells together where tissues stretch (e.g., in
heart, stomach, bladder). In tight junctions, plasma membrane proteins attach in zipper-like
fastenings; they hold cells together so tightly that the tissues are barriers (e.g., epithelial lining of
stomach, kidney tubules, blood-brain barrier). A gap junction allows cells to communicate;
formed when two identical plasma membrane channels join. They provide strength to the cells
involved and allow the movement of small molecules and ions from the cytoplasm of one cell to
the cytoplasm of the other cell. Gap junctions permit flow of ions for heart muscle and smooth
muscle cells to contract.
B. Plant Cell Walls
Plant cells are surrounded by a porous cell wall; it varies in thickness, depending on the function
of the cell. Plant cells have a primary cell wall composed of cellulose polymers united into
threadlike microfibrils that form fibrils. Cellulose fibrils form a framework whose spaces are
filled by non-cellulose molecules. Pectins allow the cell wall to stretch and are abundant in the
middle lamella that holds cells together. Non-cellulose polysaccharides harden the wall of
mature cells. Lignin adds strength and is a common ingredient of secondary cell walls in woody
plants. Plasmodesmata are narrow membrane-lined channels that pass through cell walls of
neighboring cells and connect their cytoplasms, allowing direct exchange of some molecules and
ions between neighboring plant cells.

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