Dr.D.Y.

Patil Technical Campus

(Engineering and MCA)
(Approved by AICTE, DTE-Govt of Maharashtra, Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune)
Sr.No.32/1/A/7, Near Talegaon Railway Station, A/P Varale, Talegaon Dabhade
Tal-Maval, Dist-Pune 410507
Engineering Physics Notes
Unit :- V Chapter 02 : Nanotechnology

Q1 What is nanotechnology ?
Defination:- Nanotechnology is a field of science and engineering that focuses on the design and
manufacture of extremely small devices and structure.
- Generally, materials and devices
- On the scale of atoms and molecules.
- A nanometre is one-billionth of a metre:
- Ten times the diameter of a hydrogen atom.
- The diameter of a human hair is, on average, 80,000 nanometres.
- 1 nm is equivalent to 10 H atoms or 5 Si atoms aligned in a line = 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒎
What are nanomaterials?
Nanomaterials are materials that have at least one dimension (height, width, or length) that is less than
100 nanometers. They have unique properties compared to their larger counterparts

Q.2 What is quantum confinement ? How does it affect properties of Nanoparticle?

Quantum Confinement :-
i)The quantum confinement effect is observed when the size of the particle is too small to be
comparable to the wavelength of the electron.
ii)So as the size of a particle decrease till we a reach a nano scale the decrease in confining dimension
makes the energy levels discrete and this increases up the band gap and ultimately the band gap energy
also increases.
iii) Since the band gap and wavelength are inversely related to each other the wavelength decrease with
decrease in size
Effect :-
i)Due to reduction in size , in nanoscale , energy level become Discrete Energy Levels
• Effect: In bulk materials, the energy levels form a continuous band. In confined nanoparticles,
these levels become quantized into discrete states, similar to an atom-like spectrum.
• Implication: This quantization significantly alters the density of states and leads to unique
optical and electronic behaviors.

ii) Due to which increases energy band gap of nanoparticle

. Effect: As the size of the nanoparticle decreases, the bandgap energy increases. This is because
the quantum confinement forces . As energy band gap increases , which changes absorption
properties of nanomaterial ex. Gold appear yellow in color, but gold nanoparticle appear reddish
in color due to quantum confinement.
• Implication: Smaller nanoparticles absorb and emit light at higher energies (shorter
wavelengths), leading to a blue shift in optical properties.

iii) Enhanced Oscillator Strength

• Effect: Quantum confinement enhances the overlap of wavefunctions, increasing the
probability of electron-hole recombination.
• Implication: Nanoparticles often exhibit stronger absorption and emission intensities compared
to their bulk counterparts.
iv)Size-Dependent Optical Properties
• Effect: The color of emitted or absorbed light can be tuned by changing the nanoparticle size
due to the size-dependent bandgap energy.
• Implication: This property is widely used in applications such as quantum dots for display
technologies and biological imaging.
 v). Increased Surface-to-Volume Ratio
• Effect: Smaller nanoparticles have a larger proportion of their atoms at the surface,
significantly affecting their chemical and physical properties.
• Implication: Surface states can influence recombination dynamics, chemical reactivity, and
other phenomena.
Applications Leveraging Quantum Confinement
• Optoelectronics: Quantum dots for LEDs and lasers.
• Solar Cells: Improved light absorption and charge carrier dynamics.
• Biomedicine: Fluorescent labeling and imaging.
• Sensors: Enhanced sensitivity due to tunable properties.

Q.3 What is Surface to volume ratio ? How does it affect properties of Nanoparticle?
When compared to the same mass of material in bulk form, nanoscale materials have a relatively larger
surface area. This can make materials more chemically reactive and affect their strength or electrical
properties.
-Large surface to volume ratio
- High percentage of atoms/molecules on the surface
- Surface forces are very important, while bulk forces are not as important.
Effect :-
i)As the percentage of atoms at the surface increases, the mechanical, optical, electrical, chemical, and
magnetic properties change. – For example optical properties (color) of gold and silver change, when
the spatial dimensions are reduced and the concentration is changed.
ii) Melting point as a function of particle size • Nanoparticles have a lower melting point than their bulk
material as large number atom present on surface
iii) Nanoparticle are highly reactive than bulk materials due to high surface to volume ratio
Q.4. Explain synthesis method of nanomaterial a) Ball Milling Method b) Physical Vapour Deposition

a) Ball Milling Method :-

Ball Milling: High energy ball milling is one of the simplest top down approach of making nanopowder
of some metals and alloys. Hardened steel or tungsten carbide balls are used in different size of
containers depending on required quantity.
1. Poweder or flakes ( < 50 micron ) of different materials are put into the container.
2. Generally the mass ratio of balls to material is taken as 2:1 and the container is less than half
filled to enhance efficiency of milling
3. After closing the container or the containers are allowed to rotate at high speed (a few hundreds
of rpm) around their own axis or some central axis and are therefore called as ‘planetary ball
mill’.
4. Heavy milling balls increase the impact energy on collision. The container may be filled with
air or inert gas. Larger balls are used to produce smaller grain size but larger defects in the
particles

Uses and Advantages:

- Some metals and alloys are synthesized using ball mill.
- Few milligrams to several kilograms of nanopowder can be synthesized in a short time.
- This method can also be used to make a variety of carbon-based nanomaterials such as CNT
(carbon nano tube).
Limitation:-
Although this is a very simple method for synthesizing nanoparticles, there are some impurities
arise from rotating balls and the inert gas also.

Fig :-
The working of a ball mill can be understood as follows:
A powder mix is positioned in ball mill and is subjected to high energy collision by the balls
(Figure 1). The ball milling process can be summed up as:
a. It consists of stainless steel chamber and several small iron, silicon carbide, hardened steel, or
tungsten carbide balls to rotate inside the mill.
b. Powder of material is put in the steel chamber. The powder is reduced to nanosize using ball mill. A
magnet is positioned outside the chamber to apply pulling force on the material. This force raises
milling energy as the milling chamber or container rotates the metallic balls. 2
c. The ball and material - mass ratio is generally kept at 2:1.
d. These metallic balls impart very high energy to the powder resulting in crushing of the powder. The
ball milling process generally takes 100 to 150 hrs to give uniformly crushed fine powder.
e. It is mechanical processing technique; consequently the structural as well as chemical changes are
caused by the mechanical energy.
f. The size of the nanopowders produced by this technique depends on the speed of rotation of the balls
and the dimensions of 2 to 20 nm can be achieved.

b) Physical Vapour Deposition Method :-

Physical Vapour Déposition(PVD)
i) Physical vapour deposition (PVD) is fundamentally a
vaporization coating technique,
ii) It involving transfer of material on an atomic level.
iii) It is the method in which the material that is going to be
deposited starts out in solid form, Working Concept PVD
processes are carried out under vacuum conditions.
The process involved four steps:

1.Evaporation
2.Transportation
3.Reaction
4.Deposition

a) Evaporation :- During this stage, a target, consisting of the material to be is

bombarded by a high energy source such as a beam of electrons or ions. This
dislodges atoms from the surface of the target, ‘vaporizing’ them.
 b) Transportation :- This process simply consists of the movement of ‘vaporized’
atoms from the target to the substrate to be coated and will generally be a straight
line affair.
c) Reaction :- In some cases coatings will consist of metal oxides, nitrides, carbides
and other materials. In these cases, the target will consist of the metal. The atoms
of metal will then react with the appropriate gas during the transport stage.
d) Deposition:- This is the process of coating build up on the substrate surface.
Depending on the actual process, some reactions between target materials and the
reactive gases may also take place at the substrate surface simultaneously with the
deposition process.
The component that is to be coated is placed in a vacuum chamber. The coating
material is evaporated by intense heat from, for example, a tungsten filament. An
alternative method is to evaporate the coating material by a complex ion
bombardment technique. The coating is then formed by atoms of the coating
material being deposited onto the surface of the component being treated.

• Thermal evaporation
A material is heated to its melting point, evaporates, and then settles on a substrate as a
thin film.
ELECTRON BEAM PHYSICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION
In which the material to be deposited is heated to a high vapor pressure by electron
bombardment in "high" vacuum.

SPUTTER DEPOSITION :-
In which a glow plasma discharge (usually localized around the "target" by a magnet)
bombards the material sputtering some away as a vapor

• Cathodic Arc deposition Method

An arc of high intensity and low voltage electric current is applied to raise the
temperature until the particles sublimate and evaporate. The ionized particles are then
directed to the substrate.
• P Pulsed laser deposition (PLD)
A laser vaporizes surfaces, and the resulting vapors are ionized by laser radiation. The
vapors are then deposited on a substrate to form a thin film.

Fig. Sputtering Fig :- Cathodic Arc

Fig :- PULSED LASER DEPOSITION

Advantages :-
- High purity of deposited materials.
- Precise control over film thickness and composition.
- Ability to synthesize various nanostructures.

Limitations :-
- High cost of vacuum systems.
- Limited scalability for large-area deposition.

Applications :-
- Thin film coatings for optoelectronic devices.
- Nanostructured layers for sensors and catalysts.
- Protective and decorative coatings.

Explain i) Mechanical ii) Optical and iii) Electrical properties of nanomaterials

i) Mechanical properties:
The mechanical properties of materials like hardness, ductility, plasticity, elasticity depends upon the
composition and bond between the atoms. The presence of impurities and imperfections in crystalline
form change these properties. The nanoparticles are free from impurities and imperfections.
For bulk material the hardness increases linearly with increase in grain size. But in nanoparticles,
hardness decreases linearly with increase in size. It is shown in following figures a and b.

Fig a: hardness curve for bulk Fig b: hardness curve for nanoparticles

i) Optical Properties :-
 The colour of nanoparticle is different from the bulk material . when bulk material is
reduced in size to a few hundred atom, the energy band structure of the bulk material changes to set
of discret energy levels. Atomic clusters of different size having different energy level . as cluster of
different size having different energy level separation i.e. colour of cluster is depends on size . so
due to transition from bulk size to nano size colour of bulk material get ultered or changed . eg.
Gold in bulk form appears yellow in colour. But gold nano particle appears red in colour. Coloured
glasses are produced by dissolving metal nanoparticle like gold, silver, cobalt, iron etc. due to these
metal nano particle glass appeared as coloured.
Nano zink oxide particle have ability to block superior Ultra Violet light. As compared to bulk
particle so, zink oxide used in cosmetic or in sunscreen lotions.

ii) Electrical properties :-

a) Nanoparticle have very high surface area to voloume ratio. This provide a themselves driving
force for diffusion, especially at elevated tempratures.
b) In nanosize resistivity is due to scattering by boundaries of nanoparticles when particle size less
than mean fre path between collision . thus smaller particle size increase resistivity.
c) Various type of defects increase resistivity but in nanosize due to less effect resistivity get
reduced .
d) If we confined all three dimensions then particle is said to be quantum dots. And which leads to
quantization of energy level . Due to quantum dots which results in the phenomenon of single
electron tunneling and coulomb blocked. The conduction is due to tunneling of electron through
quantum dot. The I-V characteristics is called as coulomb staircase.

Electrical properties of Nanoparticles are like

1. High current density per area cross section . 2. Variable electrical conductivity
3 high heat conductivity 4. Anisotropic thermal conductivity 5. Superconductivity under
certain conditions
6. field emission properties.

Q.4. Explain application of nanomaterials in i) Medical or drug delivery ii) Electronics iii) Space iv)
Defence v) Automobile
i) Medical or drug delivery :-
Due to the smaller particle size , nanoparticle are used in drug delivery for cancer or tumor
therapies. Because they can be easily injected and targeted towards the specific portion of body.
Nanotechnology based research is going on to help diebetic and HIV affects patients. Applying
nanotechnology to drug delivery should achieve the following benefits:
-Improve the ability to deliver drugs that are poorly water
soluble.
-Provide site-specific targeting to reduce drug accumulation
within healthy tissue.
-Help retain the drug in the body long enough for effective
treatment.
-Allow for the transportation of drugs across epithelial and
endothelial barriers.
Treatment and faster recovery of injuries is possible
through nanotech.
iii) Space :-
Nanotechnology is an area of science and technology that holds highly promising prospects for military
applications, considering its wide applicability in defensive as well as offensive operations.
-Less vulnerable corrosive material is helpful in satellite manufacturing as well.
-The life of satellites, to a large extent, is determined by the amount of fuel they can carry on board.
-Onboard ignitors wear out quickly and cease to perform effectively.
-Apart from onboard fuel, satellites in outer space use solar power as a power source for various
activities.
-Satellite designers are continuously working on finding the means to reduce the weight of such solar
cells.
-Lighter nanoporous materials like aerogels are found to have wider applicability in spacecraft
manufacturing.
-Even some special lightweight suits, jackets etc. could be made using aerogels.

iv) Defence :-
a) Bio-Defence
-Nanotubes is fast emerging as a new frontier in bio-defence. being used in the development of bio-
sensors.
-Some countries are working on extremely small machines and tools that can enter the human body.
-By using a person’s saliva, body fluids, or blood, nanobiosensors can be created to reliably work with
pathogens such as viruses.
-Drug and virus development costs can be reduced by using nanochips to test various medications or a
combination of chemicals and vaccines.
b) Chemical defence
-In the arena of chemical weapons terrorism, NT offers solutions against the usage of chemical
agents like VX, HD, GD, and GB.
-Some nanoparticle oxides like CaO, Al2O3, and MgO interact with such chemicals much
faster than microparticles and are ideally suited for fast decomposition of such chemicals.
-A sensing device for detection of nerve-gas agents in the atmosphere has been developed
based on NT applications.
c) Conventional Weapons/Ammunition
-Nanotube based stronger and lighter materials would allow the building of conventional barrel-type
weapons with reduced mass.
-It is conceivable that small arms and light weapons could use barrels, locks etc. made of nanofibre
composites.
-Even in respect of ballistic and air-breathing missiles, the reduced mass could translate into a marked
increase in speed, range, or payload as well as a reduction in carrier size.
v) Automobiles:
The body of the vehicles is fabricated by steel and some alloys. The body structure should be strong
and deformable. The nano tube composites have mechanical strength mechanical strength than steel.
Hence they can replace steel. Nano particles provide smooth, thin and attractive coatings.
By using nano particles light and less rubber consuming thinner tires can be made, this will increase
mileage of the vehicle as weight is reduced.
Nanoparticles can be used as a catalyst to convert harmful gases into relatively less harmful gases
which may reduce.
Nano fluids use as lubricant that last for long time with reduction in cost and improve performance
 Dr.D.Y.Patil Technical Campus
(Engineering and MCA)
(Approved by AICTE, DTE-Govt of Maharashtra, Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune)
Sr.No.32/1/A/7, Near Talegaon Railway Station, A/P Varale, Talegaon Dabhade
Tal-Maval, Dist-Pune 410507
Department of Engineering Science
SUBJECT :- ENGINEERING PHYSICS .
UNIT- V NOTES BY :- PROF. ABHIRAJE SHINDE
UNIT V : CHAPTER 1 – SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Q.1. Explain Superconductivity & State its properties.[4 Marks]

Superconductivity :- The some metal and alloys shows
remarkable behavior when they are cooled to a sufficiently low
temperature near absolute zero . when their temp. is reduced their
electrical resistivity decreases but reaching temperature a few
degree above absolute zero then Electrical resistivity falls and
become zero . then they are said to be have passed into
superconducting state.

Defination :- “The phenomenon of sudden disappearance of of electrical resistivity at very low

temperature near absolute zero is called Superconductivity.”
Material that exhibit this property in superconducting state is called superconducting materials.
The transition from normal state to superconducting state occur at very low temperature which is
characteristic of material is called critical temperature.
PROPERTIES OF SUPERCONDUCTOR
i) Current in superconductor persist for long time
ii) Magnetic field does not penetrate in superconductor body.
iii) When current through superconductor is increased beyond the critical value (Ic) then
Superconductor become normal conductor.
iv) When field strength of Magnetic field exceeds the value of field (Hc) called critical
field then superconductor become normal conductor.
v) Superconductivity occurs in material having normal registivity.

Q2. Explain Following properties of Super Conductor . [2 Marks]

a) Zero Electrical Resistance [=0] :-
Superconducting state of material occurs when at certain temperature near to absolute zero temp.
at that temperature the registivity suddenly drops to the zero . means that matrial passed into
Superconducting state. Superconductor having zero electrical resistance.
 =0

b) Critical Temperature [Tc]:-

The some metal and alloys shows remarkable behavior when
they are cooled to a sufficiently low temperature near absolute
zero . when their temperature is reduced their electrical resistivity
decreases but reaching temperature a few degree above absolute
zero then Electrical resistivity falls and become zero . then they
are said to be have passed into superconducting state. The
transition from normal state to superconducting state occur at very
low temperature which is characteristic of material is called
critical temperature
Defination :- “ The temperature at which material undergoes into superconducting state in
absence of Magnetic field i.e. From normal conductor to Superconductor is called Critical
temperature (Tc)”
Critical Temperature is characteristic of superconductor.

C) Critical Field [Hc] :-

The existence of superconducting state of material in magnetic field
depends on strength of the magnetic field in which it is placed and also on
temperature .
Superconducting state exist in metal is due to some combination of
temperature and field strength should less than critical value if this value
exceeds then superconductor become normal conductor.

Defination :- “ The minimum value of applied

magnetic field when the material losses its
superconductivity is called Criticle field” .It is
Given by

Hc :- Criticle field at temp.= T

Hc(0)- Max. field strength at absolute zero
Tc- Critical Temparature

d) Meissner Effect :-
Q.3. State & Explain Meissner Effect and show that Superconductor are Diamagnetic in In
Superconducting state . [ 6 Marks]
Meissner Effect :-
Meissner found that if superconductor is cooled in Magnetic Field then above the transition
temperature , magnetic flux pass through the specimen but below the critical temperature
magnetic flux push out of specimen in superconducting state. i.e. in superconducting state
material become perfect diamagnetic.
Defination :- “ The phenomenon of exclusion or
ejection of magnetic flux from interior of bulk of
superconductor when they cooled below the
transition temperature is called Meissner Effect”
If we cooled specimen below transition
temperature and then placed in magnetic field
then also Meissner effect is observed means
converse of Meissner effect also satisfied.

We know that,
B=0(M+H)
But in superconducting state inside material Mag. Field = 0 i.e. B=0
0(M+H)=0  M= -H
𝑀
Magnetic Succeptibility = 𝐻 but  M= -H
 = -1
Thus in superconducting state is perfect diamagnetic.

Contradiction of Meissner Effect :-

According to Ohm’s law
 J =E where, J- Current Density, - Conductivity, E – Srength of Electric field.
E= J where - Resistivity of Material
As in superconducting state i.e. resistivity of material =0
 E=0
According to Maxwells Equation
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵
 𝜕𝑡 = - Curl E  𝜕𝑡 = 0 Means  B= Constant
Its means that magnetic flux density in the interior of superconductor can not change when
cooling at or certain below transition temperature

e) Critical Current[Ic] :-
The minimum current that can be flowing through in superconductor in superconducting state
without destroying its supeconducting state is called Critical Current (Ic).
If current exceeds critical current value then superconductor become normal conductor.

f) Persistence Current :-
The current in superconductor persist for long time mean electric current set up
in a perfect superconductor. It can persist for very long time without any
application of e.m.f
A current can be induced in superconductor material by cooling it in a
magnetic field below transition temperature. When field is switched off the
magnetic field outside the material is disappear but inside ring some magnetic
field trapped. Collapse of magnetic field outside the ring induces a persistant
current inside the ring itself and maintain the trap flux.
Once the current is setup it will persist for long time that is more than 105 years.
g) Isotope Effect:-
Effect :- “The transition temperature(Tc) of superconductor is varies with the isotopic mass(M) of
superconductor.”
𝟏 𝟏
 Tc  𝑴−𝟐 i.e.  Tc 𝑴𝟐 = Constant
Thus larger the isotopic mass, lower the transition temperature.
Now we know that, mean square amplitude of atomic lattice vibration at low temperature is
𝟏
proportional to 𝑴−𝟐 and Debye temperature(d)
Which indicate that,lattice vibration are involved in causing supercounductivity i.e. electron
phonon reaction might be playing an important role for occurance of superconductivity.

Q. 4 . Explain BCS theory of Superconductor . [ 6 Marks ]

BCS THEORY :-
Superconductivity was explained by Bardin,cooper and Schrieffer on the basis of quantum
theory.

The superconducting state of metal may be considered as cooperative bahavier of electron.such a

cooperation takes place when number of electron occupy same quantum state.basicaly electron
occupy quantum state singly and other repulsive force among them takes electron away from
each other.
According to BCS theory both this difficulties are overcome under some circumstances, in such a
case electron attract each other and forms pair and occupy the same quantum state.so coherence
or cooperation takes place among the electrons
1) Electron Phonon interaction:-
a.Electrons could attracts each other via distortion of lattice.
b.When electron move through a crystal, it produce lattice
distortion of the lattice.During this it produce lattice vibration
and sets the heavier ions into slow force oscillation.since
electron are fast moving,they leaves this region much before the
oscillation can die off.
c.If another electron passed through this region it experience a force of attraction. This attractive
force lower the energy of 2nd electron.
d. Repulsive force between electron is too small so, the attraction caused by even weak lattice
distortion can overcome a strong columbic force of repulsion.
e. Thus net effect is the attraction of two electron via lattice distortion (or phonon) to form a pair
of electron called as cooper pair.
2) Cooper pair :-
a. The 1st electron of wave vector k1 create a virtual
phonon ‘q’ and losses momentum while 2nd electron
of wave vector k2 acquire this momentum during its
collision with virtual phonon so, that overall
momentum remains constant.
b. This electron interaction depends on elative
magnitude of the electron energy and phonon energy.
If phonon energy exceeds the electronic energy then
interaction is attractive. Also its stronger when two
electron have equal and opposite momentum and spin
k1=-k2 and s1=-s2. Such pair of electron is called as
cooper pair.
c.Cooper pair is formed when the phonon mediated
attractive interaction between two electrons dominates
the repulsive force. The energy of such pair in bound
state is less than two unbound state of electron .

d. The energy of system is lowest when total momentum of each pair is same and is zero. This is
the single quantum mechanical state into which electron pair condense. The flow of cooper pair
constitute the supercurrents in superconductor.

Q. 5. Explain application of superconductor in the following . [ Each 2 Marks]

1.Superconducting Electromagnet:-
A superconducting magnet is an electromagnet made from coils of superconducting wire. They
must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures during operation. In its superconducting state the wire
can conduct much larger electric currents than ordinary wire, creating intense magnetic fields.
Superconducting magnets can produce greater magnetic fields than all but the
strongest electromagnets and can be cheaper to operate because no energy is dissipated as heat in
the windings. They are used in MRI machines in hospitals, and in scientific equipment such
as NMR spectrometers, mass spectrometers and particle accelerators
2.Bearing :-
Flywheels have long been used to store energy in the form of rotational kinetic energy. While
past applications of the conventional mechanical bearings that had relatively high losses due to
friction, the development of magnetic bearings constructed using High Temperature
Superconductors (HTSC) has greatly decreased the losses due to friction and increased efficiency
immensely. While even modern application of magnetic bearings face the same safety problems
that were faced at the turn of the century, the increased efficiency of magnetic bearings as well as
their limited environmental harm make flywheels a promising modern energy storage device. [1]
Further continued developments in HTSC and design improvements in hybrid bearings may see
the development of economical bearing systems for various applications in the near future.

3. Magnetic-levitation Train :-

Magnetic-levitation is an application where superconductors perform extremely well. Transport

vehicles such as trains can be made to "float" on strong superconducting magnets, virtually
eliminating friction between the train and its tracks. Not only would conventional electromagnets
waste much of the electrical energy as heat, they would have to be physically much larger than
superconducting magnets. A landmark for the commercial use of MAGLEV technology occurred
in 1990 when it gained the status of a nationally-funded project in Japan.. In April 2015, the
MLX01 test vehicle (shown above) attained an incredible speed of 374 mph (603 kph).

Although the technology has now been proven, the wider use of MAGLEV vehicles has been
constrained by political and environmental concerns (strong magnetic fields can create a bio-
hazard).
4. Josephson effect :-
In the superconducting state , electrons are attracted by each oter and form bound pairs, called as
Cooper pair. The josephson effect occurs when these pair of electrons tunneled through a thin
insulating barrier placed between two superconductors, the whole arrangement being called
Josephson Junction and this phenomenon is called as Josephson Effect.
There are two types of Josephson Effect.
1. DC Josephson Effect :-
When no voltage is applied across the junction a direct current flows through the junction upto
critical value Ic . due to tunneling of cooper pair through the junction.
“ Flow of current through the Josephson junction even though there is no any voltage applied
across the Junction is called as DC Josephson Effect.”
2. AC Josephson Effect :-
When a direct voltage is applied across the junction , a small oscillating current states flowing
back and fourth through the junction which depends on applied voltage . This phenomenon is
known as AC Josephson Effect
“ Generation of AC currents by using DC current across Josephson junction is called as AC
Josephson Effect “