Lecture Outcomes

 Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.

 Define the concept of work and heat and the terminology associated with
energy transfer by heat.
 Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and mechanisms
of energy transfer to or from a system.
 Determine that a fluid flowing across a control surface of a control volume
carries energy across the control surface in addition to any energy transfer
across the control surface that may be in the form of heat and/or work.
 Define energy conversion efficiencies.
 Forms of Energy
 Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential,
electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy, E of
a system.
 Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
 Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole with respect to
some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential energies.
• Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its motion
relative to some reference frame.

• Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of its
elevation in a gravitational field.

 Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of a system and
the degree of the molecular activity.
 Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
 Kinetic energy per unit mass
Kinetic energy
(specific KE)

Potential energy Potential energy per unit

mass (specific PE)

Total energy of a system

Energy of a system per unit mass

• Stationary phase : close system whose velocity and elevation of the

centre of gravity remain constant during a process

Mass and energy flow rates within

a flow of steam in pipe
Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy
Sensible energy: The portion of the internal energy
of a system associated with the kinetic energies of
the molecules.
Latent energy: The internal energy associated with
the phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal energy associated
with the atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The tremendous amount of energy
associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus
of the atom itself.

Thermal = Sensible + Latent

Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
• The total energy of a system, can be contained or
stored in a system, and thus can be viewed as the
static forms of energy.
• The forms of energy not stored in a system can be
viewed as the dynamic forms of energy or as
energy interactions.
• The dynamic forms of energy are recognized at the
system boundary as they cross it, and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a system during a
process.
• The only two forms of energy interactions associated
with a closed system are heat transfer and work.

• The difference between heat transfer and work:

An energy interaction is heat transfer if its driving
force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is
work.
 Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work completely and
directly by an ideal mechanical device such as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.

Flow energy due to

pressure
Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit
mass

Rate (power) of mechanical energy of

a flowing fluid

Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy change (power) of a fluid during incompressible flow

 Energy Transfer by Heat
Heat: The form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or
a system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.

Heat transfer mechanisms:

• Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction
between particles.
• Convection: The transfer of energy between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
• Radiation: The transfer of energy due to the emission of electromagnetic
waves (or photons).

Heat transfer per unit mass

Amount of heat transfer when

heat transfer rate is constant
 Energy Transfer by Work
• Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
• A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system boundaries are all
associated with work interactions

• There are two requirements for a work interaction between a system and
its surroundings to exist:
• there must be a force acting on the boundary.
• the boundary must move.
Work done per unit mass;
Work = Force × Distance

Spring Work
When the length of the spring changes by a differential amount dx under the
influence of a force F, the work done is;

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is proportional to the force applied;
k: spring constant (kN/m)
 Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
1. The work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to the change in the
potential energy of the body.
2. The work transfer needed to accelerate a body is equal to the change in the
kinetic energy of the body.

Nonmechanical Forms of Work

Electrical work: The generalized force is the voltage (the
electrical potential) and the generalized displacement is the
electrical charge.
Magnetic work: The generalized force is the magnetic field
strength and the generalized displacement is the total
magnetic dipole moment.
Electrical polarization work: The generalized force is the
electric field strength and the generalized displacement is
the polarization of the medium.
 Heat vs. Work
• Both are recognized at the boundaries of a system as
they cross the boundaries. That is, both heat and
work are boundary phenomena.
• Systems possess energy, but not heat or work.
• Both are associated with a process, not a state.
• Unlike properties, heat or work has no meaning at a
state.
• Both are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend
on the path followed during a process as well as the
end states).
Properties are point functions
have exact differentials (d ).

Path functions have

inexact differentials (δ )
Example
Consider a 1200-kg car cruising steadily on a level road at 90 km/h. Now the car starts
climbing a hill that is sloped 30º from the horizontal. If the velocity of the car is to
remain constant during climbing, determine the additional power that must be
delivered by the engine.
Example
 Determine the power required to accelerate a 900-kg car from rest to a velocity
of 80 km/h in 20s on a level road.
First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy
principle) provides a sound basis for studying the relationships
among the various forms of energy and energy interactions.

• The first law states that energy can be converted from one form to
another with the interaction of heat, work and internal energy, but
it cannot be created nor destroyed, under any circumstances.

Mathematically, this is represented as; Refer as ΔQ, ΔW

Change of heat – change of work
ΔU=Q-W
ΔU is the total change in internal energy of a system,
Q is the heat exchanged between a system and its surroundings
W is the work done by or on the system. (use –Δw for in, + Δ w for out)
Energy Balance & Change of a System, ΔEsystem

Internal, kinetic, and potential energy changes:

Mechanisms of energy transfer:
Thus, from previous
• Heat transfer, Work transfer, Mass flow
From previous

=
(15-3)+ (6 – 0) =

Energy balance when sign convention is used: Heat transfer to a system and
work done by a system are positive; heat transfer from a system and
work done on a system are negative.

From 1st Law of Thermodynamic Eq: Q-W = ΔU

12-(-6) = ΔU
 Example
A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the
internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and the
paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid. Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.
Neglect the energy stored in the paddle wheel.
 Assumptions/ Analysis :
 The tank is stationary and thus the kinetic and potential energy changes are zero, △KE =
△PE = 0. Therefore, △E = △U and internal energy is the only form of the system’s energy that
may change during this process.
- This is a closed system since no mass crosses the boundary during the process.
- The volume of a rigid tank is constant, and thus there is no moving boundary work (W =P. V =0)
- Heat is lost from the system and shaft work is done on the system.
 Energy Conversion Efficiencies
Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in
thermodynamics, and it indicates how well an energy conversion
or transfer process is accomplished.

• Using energy-efficient appliances conserve

energy. Efficiency of a water heater: The
• It helps the environment by reducing the ratio of the energy delivered to the
house by hot water to the energy
amount of pollutants emitted to the
supplied to the water heater.
atmosphere during the combustion of fuel.
 Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
Mechanical efficiency (general):

The effectiveness of the conversion process between the mechanical

work supplied or extracted and the mechanical energy of the fluid is
expressed by the pump efficiency and turbine efficiency,
 motor efficiency

Pump efficiency

Motor-pump
overall efficiency

Turbine efficiency

Generator efficiency

Turbine-Generator overall efficiency: Combine Eq of Turbine & Generator efficiency

Where;
Power or
Can the combined motor-pump efficiency = Pressure x Volumetric flowrate
Work per unit time
be greater than either the motor efficiency
or pump efficiency?
Example
Electric power is to be generated by installing a hydraulic turbine–generator at a site 70 m below the free surface
of a large water reservoir that can supply water at a rate of 1500 kg/s steadily. If the mechanical power output of
the turbine is 800 kW and the electric power generation is 750 kW, determine the turbine efficiency and the
combined turbine–generator efficiency of this plant. Neglect losses in the pipes.
Assumptions & Analysis
- The water elevation in the reservoir remains constant
- The mechanical energy of water at the turbine exit is negligible.
- We take the free surface of water in the reservoir to be point 1 and the turbine exit to be point.
- We also take the turbine exit as the reference level (Z2=0) so that the potential energies at 1 and 2
are pe1=gz1 and pe2=0.
- The flow energy P /⍴ at both points is zero since both 1 and 2 are open to the atmosphere
(P1=P2=Patm).
- The kinetic energy at both points is zero (Ke1=Ke2=0) since the water at point 1 is essentially
motionless, and the kinetic energy of water at turbine exit is assumed to be negligible.
Solution;
The potential energy of water at point 1 is :
Wturbine
 The End of Chapter 2
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