Aircraft Flight Operations

for Managers

Week 5, Semester 1 2025

1
Quick revision

2
Fuel policy
Ramp Weight
Start up & taxi-out fuel
Take-off Weight
Trip Fuel
- Climb
- Cruise
- Descent Total burn
Contingency fuel: 10% of trip fuel
Total Fuel
Contingency fuel on Board
- Unforeseen factors

Alternate fuel and

Estimated Landing Weight (LW) holding fuel

Fixed Reserve
- 30 minutes of flight time
Zero Fuel Weight

3
Individual assignment Q2
• Wind decomposition
• Information needed:
• Flight track/path: 050 degree
• Wind direction and strength: 110 degree at 20 KT
• What will be the relative bearing of the wind?
• That is 110 – 50 = 60 degree
Headwind component:
10 KT

Crosswind component:
18 KT

4
Individual assignment Q2
• Fuel for sight spotting
• Information needed:
• Altitude: 11,000 FT
• Time: 1 HR
• Engine setup
• Weight: 5,200 LB

• Answer?
• 20 GAL, correct?
• How to convert it into weight?

5
Individual assignment Q2
• Calculation of trip fuel
• Broken down into (i) climb phase, (ii) cruising phase, and (iii) descend phase
• Information needed:
• Cruising altitude (11,000 FT)
• Cruising ground speed

Time to climb = Time to descend =

Fuel for climb = Fuel for descend =

Ground distance = Ground distance =

152 NM 15

6
Individual assignment Q2
• Calculate climb fuel
• We need two points on the chart: start of climb point and top of climb point
• Determine the atmosphere condition through pressure (altitude) and
temperature (don’t forget to convert the airport elevation into pressure altitude)
• Climb fuel will be the difference between start point and end point

End point:
11 minutes
8 GAL
28 NM

As seen, with this method, we can only

Start point:
have approximate values! 2 minutes
2 GAL
5 NM

Please refer to the appendix of the assignment question paper for the elevation of the
airport. Information is obtained from the ERSA published by Airservices Australia.

7
Individual assignment Q2
• Calculate descend fuel
• Do the same again
• Don’t forget to find the pressure altitude
of the destination airport

Start point: End point:

0 minutes 22 minutes
0 GAL 8.4 GAL
0 NM 67 NM

8
 Individual assignment Q2
• Now, look at the cruising phase
• We have the total trip distance and the climb & descend
distance, what will be the cruising distance?
• Then, we need to find the correct cruising table based
on the engine setup.
• Locate the correct position of the table, maybe need
interpolation.
• Fuel flow per engine per hour is 10.75 GAL
• True airspeed is 181.5 KT (so ground speed is 171.5 KT)
• Cruising ground distance = 152 – 23 – 67 = 62 NM
• What is the cruising time? 62 / 171.5 = 0.36 HR correct?
• What will be the total cruising fuel?
• 0.36 * 10.75 * 2 (don’t forget it is twin engine) = 7.74
GAL

9
Individual assignment Q2
• Add up everything to have the trip fuel?
• 6 GAL (climb) + 7.74 GAL (cruising) + 8.4 GAL (descend) = 22.54 GAL
• Based on Part 135, what is the total fuel on board required before
departure?
• Taxi: 4 GAL
• Trip fuel: 22.54 GAL
• Contingency fuel: 22.54 GAL * 10% = 2.254 GAL
• Alternate fuel: ZERO (just need to check the FM phase of the TAF as this is the
relevant timing)
• Holding fuel: 20 GAL
• Final reserve (30 min flight time): FF per hour is 21.5 GAL, so half hour, 10.75 GAL

10
Air density, air pressure,
temperature

Previous weeks, we covered key atmospheric concepts relevant to aviation. We

discussed air density, which affects lift generation, and air pressure, measured in
hectopascals (hPa), noting its one-to-one relationship with pressure altitude in feet. We
also touched on temperature, recognising that it generally decreases with altitude.

11
Review again the lift formula
• Lift = CL ½ ⍴ V2 s

• Air density is the only factor that affects the lift generation.
• Neither air pressure nor temperature have direct impact.

• So, how air pressure and temperature can determine air density?

12
Ideal gas principle
• PV = nTR
• P = ρTR
• ρ = P/(TR)
where:
• P = Air pressure
• V = volume
• n = number of air molecules
• T = Temperature
• R = Specific gas constant for air

Air density cannot be directly measured, so it is typically determined using air

pressure and temperature based on the ideal gas law

The ideal gas principle is a simple way to describe how gases behave. It assumes gas
particles are tiny, don’t stick to each other, and move freely in all directions. This helps
us predict how a gas will respond to changes in temperature, pressure, or volume.

13
 Air pressure, air density, and temperature
• Considering a closed system of gas with constant
volume:

• Temperature increases  air pressure increase

• But air density doesn’t change

• ρ = P/(RT)
• P and T increase together  ρ remains constant

• This scenario won’t happen in the open

atmosphere

In a closed system with a fixed volume, heating the contained gas with a burner
increases its temperature. The air molecules inside gain energy and start moving faster.
As they move faster, they collide with the walls of the container more frequently and
with greater force. Since the volume remains constant, the pressure rises. However,
despite the pressure increase, the density of the gas remained unchanged when volume
is fixed.

14
 Air pressure, air density, and temperature
• Considering an open system of gas with constant
volume:

• Pump air into the closed container  air density

increase  air pressure increase

• Observation 1: Assuming temperature remain

unchanged, higher air pressure indicates higher air
density.

• PV = nTR
• Only n increases  P increases

• This scenario may happen under high air pressure

system in the atmosphere

When you pump air into a tire, you are increasing the air pressure because more air
molecules are packed inside, colliding with the tire walls more frequently.

15
 Air pressure, air density, and temperature
• Considering an open system of gas with constant pressure:

• Temperature increases  air density decrease

• Air pressure remains the same

• PV = nTR
• P and n remain constant and T increases  V increases,
ρ=n/V decreases.

• This scenario happens under hot temperature weather

So, if two places have the same air pressure (both of them are 1013 hPA), place A is 40
degree C while place B is -5 degree C. Which place is more favourable to flight
performance?

16
Weather scenarios:

• METAR YMML 151230Z AUTO 16010KT 9000 SCT060 OCT120 OCT100 24/14 Q1006
• METAR YMML 151330Z AUTO 16010KT 6000 OCT100 13/09 Q1031
• METAR YMML 151430Z AUTO 16010KT 9999 FEW015 OCT030 OCT100 28/16 Q996
• METAR YMML 151530Z AUTO 16010KT 5000 BKN025 OCT100 22/16 Q1028

• Please ranks these scenarios for aircraft take-off performance?

In general, the lower the temperature, the higher the air pressure, the higher the air
density.

17
Take-off

18
Definition of take-off

• The phase of flight from brake release to the point the aircraft becomes airborne and achieves a safe
climb-out trajectory.
• Ensure the aircraft can safely accelerate to flying speed and achieve lift-off within the available
runway, while also meeting safety margins.
• In particular, when failure happen (e.g., engine failure), the aircraft must be able to either continue
take-off or safely abort.

PilotsEYE tv Zurich Miami SWISS LX64 Airbus A330-300 Taxi and

Takeoff at Zurich Airport - YouTube

Aircraft takeoff is considered a dynamic, fast-paced, and complex phase of flight. Unlike
landing, where the primary goal is to safely touch down or execute a go-around if
necessary, takeoff requires the pilot to make rapid decisions in real-time based on both
the external environment and the aircraft’s condition. At each moment during the
takeoff roll, the pilot must assess whether to continue or abort, especially in the case of
a system malfunction or external threat. These decisions are highly time-critical—often
with only a few seconds to act—and sometimes continuing the takeoff may be safer
than stopping, depending on the situation. This constant need for rapid judgment under
pressure makes takeoff more tense and critical than landing.

19
Definition of take-off

• Takeoff rolling refers to the initial phase of the takeoff where the
aircraft begins accelerating along the runway from a standstill. This
phase continues until the aircraft reaches rotation speed (Vr)—the
speed at which the pilot initiates nose-up pitch to lift off.
• Takeoff is the entire process of becoming airborne, starting from the
initial movement on the runway (takeoff roll), rotation, lift-off, and the
initial climb phase until reaching 35 ft (for multi-engine transport
aircraft) or 50 ft (for GA aircraft) AGL.

20
Runway for take-off

During takeoff, several critical runway markings and features guide pilots and ensure
safe operations. At the start of the runway, the runway threshold, often called the
"piano keys", consists of broad white rectangular stripes that mark the beginning of the
runway available for landing and takeoff. Just beyond the threshold lies the runway
centreline, a dashed white line that provides directional guidance, helping pilots align
precisely during the takeoff roll. Along each side of the runway are the runway edge
lines, solid white lines that define the lateral boundaries of the usable runway surface.
Beyond the runway’s end, a stopway may be present—a paved area marked with
chevrons (yellow V-shapes) which can support an aircraft in the event of an aborted
takeoff but is not intended for normal operations. Similarly, a clearway extends beyond
the runway as an obstacle-free area, allowing aircraft to accelerate and gain altitude; it is
not paved but must be free of obstructions.

21
Runway for take-off

Engineered Material Arrestor System (EMAS)

The Engineered Material Arrestor System (EMAS) is a safety system installed at the end
of airport runways to prevent aircraft overruns. It consists of high-energy-absorbing
materials, typically lightweight crushable concrete blocks, designed to slow down and
stop an aircraft that cannot stop on the runway.

In late 2024, the 737 from Jeju Airways crashed at Muan airport during an emergency
landing at an airport following a complete loss of engine power. The aircraft attempted a
gear-up landing, but unfortunately struck a concrete barrier at the end of the runway,
resulting in a fatal explosion. A key question that arose was why the EMAS did not stop
the aircraft. The answer lies in the physics of the situation: without the landing gear
deployed, the aircraft's weight was not concentrated enough to compress and sink into
the EMAS bed. As a result, insufficient resistance was generated, and the aircraft skidded
across the surface like a boat, showing little to no deceleration before impact.

22
 Runway for take-off

TORA: Take Off Runway Available

Stopway (SWY): Rectangular area on the ground that an aircraft can use for stopping in case of an interrupted take-off

ASDA: Acceleration Stop Distance Available = TORA + Stopway

Clearway: Rectangular area on the ground or water that an aircraft can use to climb to 35 ft

TODA: Take Off Distance Available = TORA + Clearway (Stopway covers the beginning part of the Clearway)

TODR: Take Off Distance Required Distance from standing start with all engines operating to achieve height of 35 ft

23
Take-off speed (VR, VLO, V2)

PASSENGER AIRCRAFT FAILS TO TAKEOFF! BOEING 737 NEAR

TAIL STRIKE & STALL ON TAKEOFF

Rotation Speed (VR)

At this point the aircraft has sufficient speed for the pilot to commence applying back
pressure to the control column, which will cause the load on the nose-wheel to diminish
and eventually lift off the runway surface.
Lift-off Speed (VLO)
The aircraft becomes airborne at this speed. All wheels are lifted off the ground.
Take Off Safety Speed (V2)
The take off safety speed which must be attained at the 35 feet height at the end of the
required runway distance. This is essentially the best one-engine inoperative angle of
climb speed for the airplane and should be held until clearing obstacles after take off, or
until at least 400 feet above the ground.

Now, you may have a question: it seems that all the aircraft lift off much earlier than the
picture above. It seems that the take off shown in this picture is so dangerous. Indeed,
this is the worst of the worst scenario, when the aircraft losses one engine. If under
normal operation, the aircraft is estimated to reach 35ft at the end of the clearway, the
performance requirement is not met, because you can image what will happen if engine
failure occurs.

Engine failure is always considered in takeoff performance because it’s the most critical
and limiting failure that can realistically occur at the worst time — right before lift off. At

24
that moment, the aircraft is heavy, slow but too fast to stop. Losing an engine means a
50% thrust loss and potentially much more than 50% performance loss.

24
Take-off speed (V1)

Lufthansa A320 Engine Explodes On Takeoff - YouTube

As we’ve discussed, during the takeoff roll, the captain is constantly making a decision—
whether to continue the takeoff or to abort. This decision process is especially critical
because various failures can occur, with an engine failure being the most significant. If an
engine fails shortly after brake release at a very low speed, common sense—and
safety—dictate that the aircraft should be brought to a stop. However, if the engine
failure happens just before lift-off, the aircraft may already be moving at such a high
speed that attempting to stop could result in overrunning the runway. In such a
situation, it is often safer to continue the takeoff. This is why it is essential to establish a
specific decision speed, known as V1. V1 is the speed by which the pilot must decide to
either abort or commit to the takeoff—beyond this point, the takeoff must continue,
even in the event of an engine failure.

In the first scenario, the engine failure occurs just before reaching V1. According to
procedure, the pilot must reject the takeoff. However, at this point, the aircraft is already
traveling at a high speed, making it a critical situation. The pilot must ensure that the
aircraft can be brought to a complete stop before reaching the end of the runway. The
latest point at which the aircraft must come to a full stop is the end of the stopway.

In the second scenario, the engine failure occurs just after passing V1. In this case,
procedure dictates that the takeoff must continue, even with one engine inoperative.
However, with only one engine operating, the aircraft’s acceleration and climb

25
performance are significantly reduced. The aircraft must still reach VR and V2 speed (the
safe takeoff climb speed with one engine inoperative) and achieve at least 35 feet of
height by the end of the clearway. This represents the worst-case continued takeoff
scenario—lifting off just before the stopway ends and reaching 35 feet at V2 right at the
end of the clearway.

25
Take-off speed (V1)
V1 must satisfy:

When engine failure happens

exactly at V1:

TODR = ASDR with 1 engine inop

This TODR = ASDR is called Balanced

Field Length

Balanced Field Length represents

the minimum runway length
required for safe takeoff
operations under specific
conditions.

Can I set the V1 very close to VR? You may end up not being able to stop within the
ASDA, resulting in runway excursion (ASDR too long).
So, can I set the V1 very low to play safe? Well, for sure in this case, you are completely
stop the aircraft within ASDA. But there will be another problem. You may not be able to
safely take off in case engine failure happen after V1 (TODR too long).

The V1 we decide should satisfy the following conditions:

At the marginal point (when engine failure happens exactly at V1, it is the worst of the
worst scenario), Acceleration Stop Distance Required (ASDR) = Take Off Distance
Required (TODR)

Balanced Field Length (BFL) is the runway length at which the distance required to abort
the take off (accelerate-stop distance) equals the distance required to continue the take
off (accelerate-go distance) in the event of an engine failure occurring at V1 (decision
speed). It represents the minimum runway length required for safe takeoff operations
under specific conditions.

The runway length required for an aircraft to either abort a takeoff and stop safely or
continue the takeoff with one engine inoperative, with both distances being equal.

Pilots and dispatchers use BFL to determine the minimum runway length required for

26
safe takeoff. This is because in reality, we never know in advance which scenario happen,
STOP or GO with one engine inop. So, we must ensure both the ASDR<=ASDA, and
TODR<=TODA. For simplicity, we require ASDR=TODR for engine failure.

When BFL = runway length, any adverse condition will make adjustment of v1 solely no
room.

26
 Some critical speed (VMU)

• VMU – Minimum Unstick Speed

• It is the slowest speed at which the aircraft can safely become airborne.
• At VMU, the aircraft has just enough lift to leave the ground in a controlled
manner, but it may be near a high angle of attack, close to stall conditions.
Vmu Test A350

Nice to know! Not directly involved in daily operation, only in aircraft design stage.

27
Some critical speed (VMCG)
• VMCG: Minimum Control Speed on the Ground
• It is the slowest speed at which the aircraft can maintain directional
control on the runway with one engine inoperative and without relying
on nose wheel steering.

• Why VMCG matters:

• Ensures the aircraft can still be controlled on the ground if an engine
fails during take off.
• Helps in V1 (decision speed) determination—V1 must not be below
VMCG.
• Affected by rudder effectiveness, aircraft weight, and aerodynamic
design.

Nice to know! Not directly involved in daily operation, only in aircraft design stage.

28
Some Critical Speed (VMCA)
• VMCA (Minimum Control Speed in the Air) is the slowest speed at
which the aircraft can maintain directional control in flight after an
engine failure, using rudder and a maximum bank angle of 5°.

• Why VMCA Matters:

• Ensures the aircraft can maintain control if an engine fails after take off.
• Used to determine the safe V2 (take off safety speed)—V2 must always
be above VMCA.
• Critical for multi-engine aircraft where asymmetric thrust can cause
yawing moments.

Nice to know! Not directly involved in daily operation, only in aircraft design stage.

29
Key factors affecting take-off performance

• Aircraft weight: Heavier aircraft

require higher VR and VLO
speed, and also more runway to
accelerate to VR and VLO.
Reducing payload/fuel can
improve take-off performance if
runway length is critical.

30
Key factors affecting take-off performance
Atmosphere conditions
• Air density is the key atmosphere factor for
generating lift
• Temperature: Under the same air pressure,
higher temperature → lower air density
• Air pressure: Under the same temperature,
lower air pressure → lower air density
• Density altitude: A combined effect of altitude
and temperature that indicates how the
aircraft “feels” the air. Higher density altitude
→ longer takeoff roll.

Remember that it is always the air density that determines the aerodynamic features of
the take off. Think about the lift formula. The only element related to the atmosphere
condition is the pho (air density). Sometimes, it’s important to look at density altitude
when evaluating aircraft performance. While pressure altitude gives us a reference
based on atmospheric pressure at the airport, it's the air density that directly affects lift,
as seen in the lift equation. Air pressure alone doesn’t give the full picture because
temperature also plays a crucial role in determining air density. Both temperature and
pressure together define the actual density of the air. However, since working with
actual density values isn’t very convenient in day-to-day operations, we use density
altitude instead. Density altitude is a concept that tells us how the aircraft would
perform as if it were flying at a certain altitude in the standard atmosphere—assuming
that higher altitude means lower air density. By using density altitude, we don’t need to
separately consider the temperature and pressure, because they’re already factored in.
Knowing the density altitude gives us a quick and effective way to assess aircraft
performance under current atmospheric conditions.

31
Pressure altitude = density altitude under ISA

When air pressure=301 hPa and

temperature=-45C
air density=460gm/m3, pressure
altitude=density altitude

When air pressure=697 hPa and

temperature=-5C
air density=905gm/m3, pressure
altitude=density altitude

As we’ve seen, there is a one-to-one relationship between pressure altitude and air
pressure, expressed in hPa. Following the same logic, we can also use the concept of
altitude to represent air density. Since air density is typically measured in gm/m³, we
define a corresponding density altitude — an altitude that directly reflects a specific air
density value. There is a one-to-one relationship between density altitude and air
density in gm/m³. Under International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) conditions, where the
temperature profile at each level of pressure altitude is fixed, density altitude and
pressure altitude become equal.

32
Pressure altitude > density altitude

When air pressure=466 hPa and

temperature=-45C
air density>653gm/m3, pressure
altitude>density altitude

When air pressure=697 hPa and

temperature=-25C
air density>905gm/m3, pressure
altitude>density altitude

When the air temperature is generally colder than the International Standard
Atmosphere conditions, a discrepancy arises between pressure altitude and density
altitude. In the graph, you can see that at each level of air pressure (in hPa), or pressure
altitude, the actual temperature is lower than that defined by ISA. In such a situation,
the air density becomes higher than expected under ISA. This increased air density
improves aircraft performance. Since there is a one-to-one relationship between density
altitude and air density (measured in gm/m³), we can conclude that the density altitude
is lower than the pressure altitude under colder-than-standard conditions.

33
Pressure altitude < density altitude

When air pressure=466 hPa and

temperature=-5C
air density<653gm/m3, pressure
altitude<density altitude

When air pressure=697 hPa and

temperature=+15C
air density<905gm/m3, pressure
altitude<density altitude

Vice versa.

34
Key factors affecting take-off performance

Airport elevation
• Actually, it is still related to air
density……
• Higher airport elevation  lower air
density and lower air pressure
(higher density altitude and higher
pressure altitude)

35
Key factors affecting take-off performance
Wind
• Headwind: Reduces ground speed needed for take off, improves take
off performance, shortens take off distance.
• Tailwind: Increases ground speed for take off, degrades performance,
lengthens required runway.

36
Key factors affecting take-off performance
• Runway condition and slope
• Surface condition: Wet or contaminated runway decreases rolling
friction and may reduce braking effectiveness for a rejected take off.
• Slope: An uphill runway increases take-off distance, while a downhill
runway decreases it.

37
Key factors affecting take-off performance
• Aircraft configuration
• Flap setting: More flaps increase lift but also increase drag; typically
used to achieve lower take-off speeds and shorter ground rolls.
• Engine thrust: High thrust setting (e.g., take-off thrust) used for
maximum acceleration.

Flexible takeoff temperature, also known as Assumed Temperature Method, is a thrust

reduction technique used in aircraft operations to extend engine life and reduce
maintenance costs. Instead of using maximum thrust for every takeoff, pilots can
"assume" a higher ambient temperature than the actual one, which reduces engine
power output while still ensuring safe takeoff performance. This method is effective
when the runway is long enough, and aircraft weight and environmental conditions
allow for reduced thrust. By lowering engine stress, airlines improve fuel efficiency and
operational sustainability without compromising safety.

38
Take off performance chart for GA aircraft

Temp=14C
PA=5000ft

A normal take off performance chart for a GA aircraft is divided into four parts.
From left to right:
The first part determines the air density, which is portrayed by air temperature and air
pressure (translated into pressure altitude under ISA). So, airport elevation must be
transferred into pressure altitude based on the atmosphere condition on that day.
The second part determines the weight of the aircraft at take off.
The third part determines the wind component. As seen, lines for headwind goes down,
indicating reduced take off distance, and vice versa. Up to now, Take Off Roll Required
(TORR) has been found out.
The fourth part determines the Take Off Distance Required (TODR), which is influenced
by the obstacle.

39
Conversion of airport elevation into pressure altitude

QNH = 1001

Pressure value of 1013 hPa

Pressure altitude=1346ft+(1013hPa-1001hPa)*30ft/hPa=1706ft
If you are unsure whether to add or minus, always draw a graph and find the position of
the 1013hPa.

40
Landing

41
What is landing?
• Landing generally consists of the following
phases:
• Approach: The aircraft descends along a
stabilised path towards the runway.
• Flare: The pilot increases pitch to reduce
descent rate and prepare for touchdown.
• Touchdown: The aircraft makes contact
with the runway, ideally with the main
landing gear first.
• Rollout: The aircraft decelerates using
braking, reverse thrust, and aerodynamic
drag.

Pilotseye.tv - Swiss A330 Descent and Landing -

Zurich - YouTube

Aircraft landing is a critical phase of flight that involves transitioning from the air to the
ground safely. It requires precise control of speed, altitude, and descent rate while
considering environmental and operational factors.

42
Landing Distance Required
Landing Distance Required
(LDR):
• Distance from 50 ft over
runway threshold to a
complete stop

50ft

43
Runway for landing

Even though pilots aim to touch down within the touchdown zone, often marked by the
large rectangular aiming point markings on the runway, the calculation of landing
distance available (LDA) or landing distance required (LDR) begins from the point where
the aircraft crosses the runway threshold at approximately 50 feet above ground level.
The LDA does not begin at the aiming point markings but rather at the threshold, and
the aircraft is expected to touch down and come to a complete stop within this declared
landing distance to ensure a safe landing under both normal and regulatory conditions.

44
Runway for landing
Landing Distance Available (LDA) is the length of
runway declared suitable and available for the
ground run of an aircraft during landing.
Effect of displaced threshold
• Landing Distance Available (LDA) reduced
Aircraft must land beyond the displaced
threshold, shortening the available runway for
stopping.
• Take-off distance unaffected
Aircraft can still use the displaced portion for
the take off roll.
• Rollout after landing allowed Displaced Threshold
The displaced section is available for
deceleration after touchdown for opposite
traffic.
Once upon a time in Kai Tak: Where It All
Began 啟德往事：航空故事的起點

The Landing Distance Available (LDA) is the length of runway declared suitable and
available for the ground run of an aircraft during landing. It begins at the threshold of
the runway and extends to the end of the designated landing portion. The LDA is a
critical parameter for pilots when assessing whether a runway is adequate for a safe
landing, especially under varying aircraft weights, weather conditions, and runway
surface states.

A displaced threshold is a portion of a runway that is not available for landing but can be
used for taxiing, takeoff, and landing rollout. It is marked by white arrows leading up to
the beginning of the landing threshold. Displaced thresholds are often used to provide
obstacle clearance on approach or to protect pavement from landing impact. While
aircraft cannot land on the displaced area, they may roll over it after touchdown or use it
for takeoff operations.

45
Landing runway available
What is the earliest place a landing aircraft can touch?
What is the latest place the aircraft can touch?
What is the last place by which the aircraft must stop?
Which part is the Landing Distance Available (LDA)?

Please refer to slide 13 for the meaning of runway markings related to landing.

46
 Factors affecting landing distance
Approach and landing speed
• The approach is the speed specified not less than 30%
higher than the stall speed. It is affected by the
following factors:
 Aircraft weight
 Wind condition (tail wind landing involves high ground speed)
 Air pressure and temperature (thin air indicates high ground speed)
 Pilot technique

Approach speed for

jet airlines are
determined by a
series of computation
done by the flight
management
computer

47
 Factors affecting landing distance
Approach and landing speed
• The approach is the speed specified not less than 30%
higher than the stall speed. It is affected by the
following factors:
 Aircraft weight
 Wind condition (tail wind landing involves high ground speed)
 Air pressure and temperature (thin air indicates high ground speed)
 Pilot technique

Approach speed for

jet airlines are
determined by a
series of computation
done by the flight
management
computer

48
Factors affecting landing distance
Deceleration performance
affected by:
• Brake strength
• Aircraft weight
• Runway surface (dry, wet…) Reverse thrust Ground spoilers

• Runway slope
• Wind
• Air pressure and temperature

Jet airliners have three types of

braking but GA aircraft only has wheel
brake
Wheel brake

49
Landing distance chart for GA aircraft

Steps to use a Landing distance chart:

1. Correct for air density through pressure altitude and temperature. Don’t forget to
convert airport elevation into pressure altitude.
• Higher density altitude (high temperature, high elevation, low air pressure) results in
higher approach speeds, increasing the landing distance.
2. Adjust for aircraft weight
• Landing distance increases with higher landing weight due to greater momentum.
3. Apply wind corrections
• Headwind reduces landing distance, while tailwind increases it.
4. If calculating landing roll required, finished. If calculating landing distance required,
need to start from the aircraft reaching 50ft. In other words, also consider the extra
small airborne part.

50
Margins for take-off and landing performance
calculation
Part 135 operations
• 1.15 for aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight of 2000kg or less;
• 1.43 for aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight of 4500kg or more;
Part 121 operations
Pre-flight landing requirements
• For jet engine aircraft LDR can’t be greater than 60% of the LDA
In flight landing requirements
• LDA has to be at least 115% of LDR.

For Part 135 operations, applying a margin factor when calculating landing distance
required is essential to ensure an added level of safety. This margin, typically 1.xx times
the actual landing distance, accounts for under less-than-ideal conditions, there is
adequate runway remaining to bring the aircraft to a complete stop safely, reducing the
risk of runway overruns.

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