UNIT 6: PERPETUATION OF LIFE

PREPARED BY:
JOVEN A. PEDRERA, LPT, MSc.
TOPICS:

1. PLANT REPRODUCTION
2. ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
3. HOW GENE WORKS
COURSE OUTCOMES:

 Describethe different ways of how plants

reproduce.
 Illustratethe relationships among structures of
flowers, fruits, and seeds.
 Describe the different ways of how representative
animals reproduce.
 Explain how the information in the DNA allows the
transfer of genetic information and synthesis of
proteins.
REPRODUCTION

 Life is maintained through time.

 Since, individual’s lifespan is short and
organisms die, they reproduce offspring
for the next generations to come; life is
therefore perpetuated as long as
organisms reproduce.
 Two types:
Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
REPRODUCTION: SEXUAL

 The formation of offspring by the fusion

of gametes.
 Male parent = sperm cells with half of its
DNA inside the cell.
 Female parent = egg cell with half of its
DNA inside the egg.
 Since the sperm and egg cells contain
only one half of the original DNA of the
producer, they are called haploid cells.
REPRODUCTION: SEXUAL

 The sperm and egg will combine in a

process called fertilization,
producing a new organism with two
sets of DNAs, one set from the
father and another set from the
mother.
 Since the fertilized egg has now a
paired set of DNAs, it is now called
a diploid cell.
REPRODUCTION: ASEXUAL

 Formation of offspring without the

fusion of gametes.
 A cell or a part of the organism may
bud off and grow to produce a new
organism.
 Since there are no combinations and
segregations involved, the genes of the
offspring are identical to the parent.
 One advantage of asexual reproduction
is that it is fast and allows selection of
favorable traits.
TOPIC 1: PLANTS REPRODUCTION
PLANT SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 In sexual reproduction,
plants exhibit the complex
cycle called alternation of
generations.
 In this cycle, a plant
undergoes two phases, or
generations: a haploid
generation called
gametophyte; and a
diploid called sporophyte.
FLOWERING PLANTS
➢ Flowering plants make use of
flowers for sexual
reproduction.
➢ Sexual reproduction in plants takes
place in flowers. The complete flower
typically consists of four parts:
1. Petals
2. Sepals
3. Stamen (male reproductive part)
4. Pistil/Carpel (female reproductive
part)
➢ Imperfect flower bears only one sexual Complete flower
reproductive organ – either male or female.
FLOWERING PLANTS

➢ Stamen (male reproductive part)

consists of anther and filament.

▪ Anther - sac-like structure that

produces and stores pollen.

▪ Filament supports the anther.

FLOWERING PLANTS
➢ The pistil (female reproductive
part) comprises three parts-
stigma, style, and ovary.

▪ Stigma - topmost part of a

flower.
▪ Style - long tube which
connects the stigma to the
ovary.
▪ Ovary - contains a lot of
ovules. It is the part of the
plant where the seed
formation takes place.
Complete flower
FLOWERING PLANTS
➢ A flower may consist of either stamen or pistil or both.
Based on this, a flower can be either unisexual or bisexual.
➢ A bisexual flower is composed of all the four parts.
➢ A plants like papaya and cucumber produce only unisexual
flowers.
Cucumber flower
Pollination and Fertilization
➢ In order to form a zygote, male gametes in pollen grains
have to fuse with egg in the ovule. This is achieved by the
process called POLLINATION. POLLINATION is the process
of transferring pollen grains from the anther – male part
of a flower, to the stigma – female part of a flower.

 Two types:
 Self-pollination

 Cross-pollination
SELF-POLLINATION
➢ A pollination where the pollen
transfer takes place between the
anther and stigma of the same
flower.

➢ Pollen from the anther is

deposited on the stigma of the
same flower, or another flower
on the same plant.
CROSS-POLLINATION
➢ A pollination where the pollen
transfer takes place between the
anther and the stigma of different
flowers of the same plant or
different plants of the same
species.

➢ the transfer of pollen from the

anther of one flower to the stigma
of another flower on a different
individual of the same species.
FERTILIZATION
➢ Pollination takes place with the help of certain
agents so-called pollinators.
➢ Insects, water, birds, wind, etc.

➢ Once pollen gets transferred to the stigma the

male gametes from pollen grains release and
fuses with egg in the ovule to form a zygote.

➢ This process of fusion of gametes is called

fertilization. The zygote thus formed, divides
and develops into an embryo, and later into a
seed. The ovary develops into a fruit.
 Angiosperm Life Cycle
Pollination and Fertilization
 Angiosperm Life Cycle
Pollination and Fertilization
PLANT ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 Propagate themselves using asexual
reproduction.
 This method does not require the
investment required to produce a flower,
attract pollinators, or find a means of
seed dispersal.
 Genetically identical to the parent plant
because no mixing of male and female
gametes takes place..
 Two main types:
 VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION
 APOMIXIS
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

 Any form of asexual reproduction occurring in plants in which

a new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant or
grows from a specialized reproductive structure such as:
▪ Stolon
▪ Rhizome
▪ Tuber
▪ Corm
▪ Bulb
 Results in new plant individuals without the production of
seeds or spores.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION: TUBER

 Tubers, such as potatoes, are fleshy

underground storage structures
composed of enlarged parts of the
stem.
 A tuber functions in asexual
propagation as a result of the tiny
scale leaves equipped with buds that
grow on its surface. Each of these
buds can form a new plant, genetically
identical to the parent.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION: STOLON
RUNNERS

 Runners, such as those found on

strawberry plants, are slender
horizontal stems that spread
outward from the main plant .
Entirely new plants can develop
from nodes located at intervals on
the runners; each node can give rise
to new roots and shoots.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION: BULBS

 Bulbs, such as onions and tulips, are roughly spherical

underground buds with fleshy leaves extending from their
short stems. Each bulb contains several other buds which
can give rise to new plants.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION: RHIZOMES
 Rhizomes are root-like stems that grow horizontally under
the ground. New roots and shoots form at the nodes with
shoots growing upwards to form new plantlets. Lateral buds
grow out to form new rhizomes. Examples include iris and root
ginger.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION: CORM
 corm is a vertical underground
section of the stem that stores
starches.
 Corms look like bulbs but they lack
the layered scales that exist within a
bulb. Corms are sometimes referred
to as ''solid bulbs'' or ''bulbo-tubers,''
but they are different from both
bulbs and tubers.
 Plants that are described
as cormous are plants that grow or
are produced from a corm.
APOMIXIS

 Apomixis in flowering plants is defined

as the asexual formation of a seed from
the maternal tissues of the ovule,
avoiding the processes of meiosis and
fertilization, leading to embryo
development.
 Some plants can produce seeds without
fertilization. Either the ovule or part of
the ovary, which is diploid in nature,
gives rise to a new seed.
ARTIFICIAL ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 In asexual reproduction, part of the parent plant

is used to generate a new plant.

1. GRAFTING - artificial method of

asexual reproduction used to
produce plants combining favorable
stem characteristics with favorable
root characteristics
ARTIFICIAL ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

2. CUTTING - A cutting is a section of plant

such as a modified stem, leaf, or root used
for vegetative propagation that forms
either adventitious shoots, adventitious
roots (stem and single node cuttings), or
both (root and leaf cuttings).
ARTIFICIAL ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

3. LAYERING - Layering is a method in which a stem attached to the plant is bent

and covered with soil.
ARTIFICIAL ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

4. MICROPROPAGATION -
(also called plant tissue culture) is a
method of propagating a large
number of plants from a single plant
in a short time under laboratory
conditions. This method allows
propagation of rare, endangered
species that may be difficult to grow
under natural conditions, are
economically important, or are in
demand as disease-free plants
TOPIC 2: ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

 Reproduction is the process of

producing individuals of the same kind.
 Most of the organisms reproduce by
mating that increases the genetic
variability of the organism.
 The males and females have separate
reproductive organs known as gonads.
 These gonads produce gametes that fuse
together to form a single cell called the
zygote.
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

 Few animals such as earthworms, snails, CLOWN FISH

slugs, etc. are hermaphrodites and possess
male and female reproductive organs in the
same organism.
 MODES OF REPRODUCTION:
EARTHWORM
 SEXUAL

 ASEXUAL

SLUG
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

 The process in which the male and female gametes

fuse together to form a new individual is called
sexual reproduction. Let us have a brief account of
the human reproductive organs and their role in
reproduction.
Reproductive Organs

 The male reproductive

organs comprise a pair of
testes, sperm ducts, and a
penis. The sperms are
produced by the testes. The
sperms are very small in size
with a head, a middle piece,
and a tail.
Reproductive Organs

 The female reproductive

organs comprise a pair of
ovaries, oviducts, and the
uterus. The eggs (ova) are
produced by the ovaries.
The development of the
baby takes place in the
uterus. A mature egg is
released into the oviduct
every month.
FERTILIZATION

 The semen contains millions of sperm. A single sperm fuses

with the ova during fertilization. The nuclei of the egg and the
sperm fuse together to form a single nucleus. Thus, a zygote is
formed.

 TWO TYPES:
 INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
 EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
 The fertilization that takes place inside the body of the female.
 This method is more prevalent in terrestrial animals. Some
aquatic animals also adopt this method.
 There are three ways:
 OVIPARITY - fertilized eggs are laid outside, where they
receive nourishment from the yolk
 OVOVIVIPARITY - The fertilized eggs are retained in the
female’s body where they receive nourishment from the yolk.
The eggs are laid right before they are hatched.
 VIVIPARITY - offspring are born directly instead of hatching
from the eggs. They receive nutrition from the mother. This
can be seen in mammals.
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
 The fertilization that takes place outside the female. Eggs shed by
female are fertilized by sperm of male in external environment.
 Most fertilization takes place during the process of spawning.
Environmental signals such as water temperature trigger spawning.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
 This type of reproduction is mostly observed in lower organisms
and unicellular microbes.
 It is the process in which a new individual is formed by the
involvement of a single parent without the involvement of the
gamete formation.
 The individuals produced are genetically and morphologically
similar.
 It occurs in unicellular organisms.
 The cells divide by mitotic division and no fertilization takes
place.
 The division occurs very rapidly.
 TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. FISSION - also called binary fission,

occurs in prokaryotic
microorganisms and in some
invertebrate, multi-celled
organisms.
After a period of growth, an
organism splits into two separate
organisms. Some unicellular
eukaryotic organisms undergo
binary fission by mitosis. In other
organisms, part of the individual
separates, forming a second
individual.
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

2. Budding - results from the

outgrowth of a part of a cell or
body region leading to a separation
from the original organism into two
individuals. Budding occurs
commonly in some invertebrate
animals such as hydras.
In hydras, a bud forms that
develops into an adult, which breaks
away from the main body; whereas in
coral budding, the bud does not
detach and multiplies as part of a
new colony.
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

3. Fragmentation - the breaking of

the body into two parts with
subsequent regeneration. If the
animal is capable of fragmentation,
and the part is big enough, a
separate individual will regrow.
Many sea stars reproduce asexually
by fragmentation. For example, if
the arm of an individual sea star is
broken off it will regenerate a new
sea star.
TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
4. Parthenogenesis - an egg
develops into a complete individual
without being fertilized.
Parthenogenesis occurs in
invertebrates such as aphids, stick
insects, some ants, wasps, and
bees. Bees use parthenogenesis to
produce male (drones) and female
(workers) bees. If an egg is
fertilized, a queen is produced. The
queen bee controls the reproduction
of the hive bees to regulate the type
of bee produced.
TOPIC 3: HOW GENES WORK
Introduction

 A GENE is the basic physical and

functional unit of heredity.

 Genes are small segments of DNA that

gives instructions for certain traits.

 Genes are transcribe and transmitted by

the cell to make proteins.

 Ex. One gene might code for eye color.

Introduction
 Some genes act as instructions to make molecules called
PROTEINS.
 Proteins are the building blocks for every organism
and make up bones, teeth, hair, muscle, enzymes,
antibodies etc.
 Proteinsare used in the body for structure, function
and regulation. These large, complex molecules are
made up of long chains of smaller units called amino
acids.
 There are around 20 different types of amino acids that
can be used to make a protein, with the order of amino
acids determining the proteins structure and function.
How are Proteins Made?

 DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is found in all known living

things and act like a set of biological instructions.
 These instructions are stored as a type of code that is made up
of units called BASES.
 There are four different bases found in DNA and these are
named Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine(C) and Thymine(T).
How are Proteins Made?

 Each base unit is linked to a sugar molecule and a phosphate

molecule, which allows a string of bases to form.
 A base on one of the strings that makes up DNA is chemically
bonded to a base on the other chain.
 This bonding that holds the two strings together forms a double
helix structure.
How are Proteins Made?

 Additionally, there are base pairing rules that determine which

bases can bond with each other.
 Adenine and thymine form base pairs that are held together
by two bonds, while cytosine and guanine form base pairs
that are held together by three bonds.
 Bases that bond together are known as complementary.
Base pairing rules that determine which bases can
bond with each other
Why are two steps required to make a
protein?
 DNA is stored in every single cell (apart from red blood
cells) and is kept in the nucleus, the core of each cell, to
prevent it from being damaged. Proteins are made in a
thick solution, called the cytoplasm, which is outside of,
and surrounds, the nucleus.
 Two stages, known as transcription and translation, are
needed in order to get the information held in the DNA out
of the nucleus and converted into a protein in the
cytoplasm.
What is transcription?

 This is the first step in decoding DNA’s code. In the cell’s

nucleus, a copy of the code is made in order to transport it
out of the nucleus and in to the cytoplasm.
 To initiate this process, the DNA molecule unwinds and
separates. An enzyme (RNA polymerases) travels along the
unwound DNA and builds a new complementary version of
the code, called RNA (ribonucleic acid).
What is transcription?

 RNA is similar to DNA apart from

 A) it is single stranded;
 B) the sugar molecule has different chemical properties (RNA is
made up of ribose instead of deoxyribose);
 C) It uses the base uracil instead of thymine; and
 D) because RNA is single stranded, it does not form a helix.
 The particular type of RNA that is made is called
messenger RNA (or mRNA) because it carries the
information, or message, from the DNA in the nucleus into
the cytoplasm.
Transcription
What is translation?

 This step occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell where the

mRNA interacts with a ribosome. This is a structure that
translates the base sequences of the mRNA into amino
acids, the building blocks of a protein.
 Three bases in a row create a unit called a codon. One
codon creates one amino acid. Another type of RNA, known
as transfer RNA (tRNA), helps to construct the protein, one
amino acid at a time until the ribosome comes across a
specific codon which tells it to stop.
Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to Protein
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