Chapter

Understanding Adsorption:
Theories, Techniques,
and Applications
Marwah Ahmed Alsharif

Abstract

The chapter topic “Understanding Adsorption: Theories, Techniques, and

Applications” will provide a comprehensive exploration of the fundamental theories,
experimental techniques, and practical applications of adsorption processes. It will
begin by discussing the foundational theories that explain adsorption behaviour,
including physisorption and chemisorption, and their underlying molecular interac-
tions. Key adsorption models, such as Langmuir, Freundlich and BET isotherms, will
be reviewed to offer insights into adsorption dynamics, capacity and surface interac-
tions. The chapter will also cover various experimental techniques used to character-
ise adsorption, such as gravimetric methods, gas adsorption analysis and calorimetry,
which help determine the properties of adsorbents and adsorbates. Furthermore, the
chapter will examine real-world applications of adsorption in diverse fields, including
environmental engineering for water and air purification, gas separation, catalysis
and energy storage systems. The potential of advanced adsorbent materials, such as
porous materials and nanostructures, will be discussed in light of emerging chal-
lenges and technological advancements. This chapter aims to equip readers with both
theoretical knowledge and practical insights into the wide-ranging applications of
adsorption processes.

Keywords: adsorption mechanisms, nanomaterials for adsorption, adsorption

thermodynamics, adsorbate, adsorbent

1. Introduction

The phenomenon of adsorption is defined as the accumulation of molecules,

atoms or ions from a fluid, which could be either a gas or liquid, onto the surface
of a solid material [1]. The concept is different from absorption in that the latter
is based on the bulk penetration of material into the surface. While this process is
different, it has different nonindustrial and environmental applications, which are
based on its ability to interact with specific molecules selectively. This means it allows
purification, separation and catalytic transformation, and these techniques are used
in applications such as water purification, gas separation, energy storage and many
others. An example of this is the use of activated carbons to remove organic pollutants

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Adsorption – Fundamental Mechanisms and Applications

from water and also from volatile organic compounds found in the air [2, 3]. Within
applications related to environmental sustainability, techniques for removing heavy
metals from wastewater are commonly used, but there are numerous applications that
can be adopted using this approach [4, 5]. The broad range of applications that the
approach provides is what makes it ideal for addressing many of the challenges that
are present.

1.1 Historical background and evolution of adsorption science

The concept came into the limelight in the eighteenth century when Carl Wilhelm
Scheele observed that charcoal was able to absorb gases, which was then later further
explored by Michael Faraday with a focus on investigating the concept of absorp-
tion related to solids and gases [6, 7]. Later in the twentieth century, with increasing
interest, Irving Langmuir developed a quantitative theory linked to adsorption,
which focused on monolayer adsorption on homogeneous surfaces, and this theory
is considered the groundwork for modern surface chemistry and is still popular [8].
Building on this theory, the Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET) theory was introduced,
which shifted from homogenous layers and focused on multilayer adsorption, which
provided increased insight into the phenomenon of porous surfaces [9]. The theory
has been used to advance technology and determine adsorbents’ surface area and
porosity. At the end of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first
century, many advancements were observed, and in the twentieth century, the
discovery of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) could be considered a revolutionary
invention. MOFs have been a focus due to their higher surface area and other proper-
ties the material possesses, like tuneable porosity and selectivity, which all make it
ideal for gas adsorption applications [10, 11]. In the twenty-first century, further
advances were observed, and in this, the use of nanotechnology and computational
modelling has allowed for the use of materials like graphene and covalent-organic
frameworks (COFs), which have shown improved capabilities in different applica-
tions like drug delivery and environmental protection [12, 13].

1.2 Scope and objectives

The focus of this particular chapter is to shed light on the concept and science
behind the phenomenon and explore the existing best practices. The objectives
include:

• Defining the concept and the principles behind it, including molecular interac-
tions and thermodynamics.

• Reviewing classical adsorption isotherms like BET to understand surface interac-

tion and adsorption capacity.

• Highlighting experimental methods like gravimetric analysis and gas adsorption

isotherms to measure adsorbent properties.

• Discuss traditional and advanced adsorbents, including activated carbons, COFs

and MOFs.

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• Examining the role of the phenomenon in solving real-world problems.

• Addressing challenges in scaling adsorption technologies and exploring innova-

tion in the field for sustainable adsorbent development.

2. The theories of adsorption

Understanding the mechanisms, isotherms, thermodynamics and kinetics of

adsorption is critical in optimising the adsorption processes.

2.1 Fundamental mechanisms

Adsorption mechanisms are mostly categorised into physisorption and chemisorp-

tion. Physisorption has weak van der Waals forces, which would lead to low adsorption
enthalpies, which are between 5 and 40 kJ/mol. The process is generally reversible and
happens at very low temperatures, and it could also occur between multiple layers in
the adsorbent material [14]. On the other hand, the process of chemisorption is based
on the formation of strong chemical bonds between the adsorbate and the surface,
and these are known to have higher enthalpies ranging between 40 and 800 kJ/mol.
Chemisorption is also irreversible, and these are favoured at higher temperatures,
which also require higher activation energy. The difference between the two types is
considered critical for catalysis, where strength and reversibility of adsorption would
impact the catalytic efficiency [14]. It is also important to note that the size, radius,
polarity, shape, molecular weight and other characteristics of the component in the
adsorption impact the interactions between the absorbent sources and the adsorbed
particles [14]. In the case that there is more than one component within the solution, it
would lead to the selective adsorption of one of these components in the solution with-
out using the other. Increasing the molecular weight of the adsorbent is found to help in
the process on the surface as a result of the increase in the possibility of its association
with the surface in more than one site, and the existence of different aromatic rings in
the composition is also said to impact the distribution of the surface when it comes to
their nature of regulatory or homogeneity [15, 16]. Figure 1 provides an overview of
the adsorption approaches and shows the bonding formation in the techniques.

Figure 1.
Adsorption approaches [17].

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Adsorption – Fundamental Mechanisms and Applications

There are several factors that impact the adsorption process, one of which is the
nature of the gases. Elements that are easier to liquefy tend to be more adsorbable,
and adsorption increases with the critical temperature of the gas. The adsorption
process in studies has been shown to increase with the increase in air pressure, and
the trend shown is that there is a rapid increase at first, after which it would gradually
slow down as the surface would then be covered by the gas particles [18]. Another
factor that has an impact is the nature of the surface area, and it is mentioned that
when the surface area is large, the adoption efficiency is also large. Increasing the
temperature is found to increase surface activity, and for coal, it is found to increase
the surface activity when the temperature is raised from 350 to 1000 degrees
celsius [14].
The adsorption mechanism involves interaction between the adsorbate mole-
cules and the surface of the adsorbent, which is ideally represented by the Langmuir
and Freundlich models [19]. According to the Langmuir model, in monolayer
adsorption, within which there are active sites on the adsorbent, the adsorbate
molecule would bind to one of the adsorbate molecules, which emphasises specific

Adsorbate Solvent Adsorption capacity Key influencing factors Gibbs free energy
(mmol/g) change (ΔG) (kJ/mol)

Phenol Water 3.11 Small size and lack of −2/27

bulky substituents enable
better micropore access and
stronger interaction

HCl 1.61 A positive charge on −2.44

adsorbent reduces
interaction

NaOH 1.03 Repulsion Forces due to −6.53

negatively charged adsorbate
and adsorbent

Salicylic Acid HCl 1.49 Ionisation mitigates −3.39

repulsion; hydrogen bonding
improves adsorption

Water 1.44 Carboxylic acid substituent No data

reduces π-stacking
interactions and makes the
process heterogenous

NaOH 0.57 Repulsion Forces dominate −2.49

due to negative charges

Methylparaben Water 1.58 Substituents hinder power −5.26

access but allow moderate
adsorption based on
π-stacking interactions

HCl 1.39 Ester groups cause −7.32

displacement of water from
activated carbon

NaOH 1.41 Stronger interaction with −8.12

basic functional groups on
adsorbent

Table 1.
Adsorption capacities and mechanisms for adsorbates on activated carbon [19].

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interactions like π-stacking and hydrogen bonding. Phenol is said to show the
highest adsorption capacity at 3.11 mmol/g in water, largely due to the smaller size
and lack of any bulky substituents, which enables better accessibility for micropores
and stronger interaction with activated carbon [19]. Methylparaben, which has an
adsorption capacity of 1.58 mmol/g, is said to show reduced capacities, which are
hindered by the lack of pore access due to substituents and altering the chemical
reactivity [19]. pH levels play a critical role as they modify the surface charge and
ionisation states and, at a basic level, are said to reduce adsorption as a result of the
electrostatic repulsion that is absorbed between the negatively charged adsorbent
and the adsorbate species. Thermodynamically, the process was spontaneous across
conditions that had Gibbs free energy changes that range from −2.27 to −8.12 kJ/
mol, and the immersion enthalpy experiments show that there is a change in the
energy once the interaction leads to displacement of the solvent molecules [19].
Table 1 summarises the information and helps provide clarity on how different
adsorbates react to activated carbon.

2.2 Adsorption isotherms

Adsorption isotherms describe how the amount of adsorbate on the adsorbent

would vary with pressure or concentration at a constant temperature. There are
many adsorption isotherm models, and in this section, three of them are discussed:
Langmuir isotherm, Freundlich isotherm and BET theory.

2.2.1 Langmuir isotherm

This model is based on the assumption that the distribution of the reactive
groups across the surface of the particles is homogenous, as there are no lateral
interactions between the particles [20, 21]. The equation used with the model has
been developed based on the theory of gases and is mostly used to describe the gas
adsorption on solids. The isotherm is applicable in scenarios where solute adsorp-
tion from a solution occurs as a monolayer, characterised by a finite number of
identical sites on the adsorbent and a uniform adsorption mechanism, with no
observed migration of the adsorbate across the surface plane [22]. The nonlinear
equation for the model is:

Q 0 K L Ceq
Qe =
( 1 + K L Ce ) (1)

There is some difference when it comes to the linearised model, and it is repre-
sented as:
Ce 1 C
= + e
Q e K LQ 0 K L (2)

In this, the Q0 represents the maximum amount that is absorbed, while KL is the
Langmuir constant. The monolayer assumption is said to require identical adsorp-
tion sites, and from this, only one molecule would be adsorbed at each site. There is
no more adsorption at a site when a molecule already occupies it. The model is said
to convert the Henry isotherm at very low contents, and the L-shape of the curve,
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Adsorption – Fundamental Mechanisms and Applications

Figure 2.
L-, S- and LS- shape adsorption isotherms [23].

as shown in Figure 2, shows the Langmuir isotherm model having a single plateau.
Another important parameter that is important for the model is the separation factor
or equilibrium parameter, which is denoted as RL and is used for checking if the
adsorption is favourable or unfavourable and it is mathematically represented as:

1
RL =
1 + K L CO (3)

In eq. 3, the Kl and C0 are the Langmuir constant and the highest initial concentra-
tion of the surfactant. In general, a value of this variable, that is RL is less than one
would indicate the adsorption is favourable, and if it is equal to one, it means the
adsorption is linear, and if it is greater than one, then it is unfavourable adsorption
[23]. This model assumes that the adsorption occurs just at one layer or the surface,
which is inaccurate when multilayer adsorption occurs. The theory also assumes that
the sites of adsorption on the surface have the same energy and are equally accessible,
but it fails to understand the heterogeneities that are present with real-world adsor-
bents. It also neglects the lateral interaction between the adsorbed molecule and the
limited applicability in low adsorbate concentrating pressure [22, 23].

2.2.2 Freundlich isotherm

Unlike Langmuir, this empirical model is perfectly capable of being used in

multilayer adsorption within heterogeneous sites [23]. The assumption is that the
adsorption heat distribution, along with affinities towards the heterogenous surface,
is found to be non-uniform, and the model can be represented using the equation:

qe = bCe1/n (4)

In the above equation, b is the adsorption capacity, while 1/n is the intensity or
surface heterogeneity. When the intensity is between zero and one, it is considered
favourable; if it is greater than 1, it is considered unfavourable; and lastly, if it is
one, it is irreversible [23]. The linearised form of the equation is easy, but on the
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other hand, the linearisation process would create more errors, which would create
erroneous predictions. Thus, using nonlinear regression to solve the nonlinear model
is recommended for calculating the model parameters. The isotherm is capable of
describing the multilayer adsorption and also assumes the exponential decay when
it comes to the energy distribution of adsorbed sites, but this is not valid for a large
range of adsorption data [23]. The isotherm is entirely empirical and lacks the theo-
retical basis for the parameters, and it also provides no physical explanation for the
constraints, which makes the interpretation quite challenging. The specific nature of
the adsorption energies or interaction on the surface is not described by the model. In
addition, at high or low pressures or concentrations, there are changes for the model
to fail due to the deviation due to multilayer adsorption or competition for the sites.

2.2.3 Bernauer-Emmett-Teller theory (BET)

The BET theory is a refinement of the Langmuir model where the focus shifts from
monolayer to multilayer adsorption, especially near the critical pressure for gas-liquid
phase transitions. The BET theory states that absorption would happen in different
areas when the critical pressure for liquefaction is low, and this is favoured energeti-
cally when compared to the formation of phase-separated droplets. The energy
from direct surface binding within the first layer would compensate for the surface
exposure costs associated with the liquid droplets [24, 25]. Unlike the phase-separate
clusters, the successive layers would have minimal surface tension once the initial
layer is formed. The theory does not account for cooperative bonding effects and the
surface tension of the multilayer adsorbates, which could lead to wetting or dewetting
[25]. Figure 3 provides an overview of the BET-based binding isotherm, showcasing
the different processes or stages involved.
The BET equation is:
p 1 ( c - 1) p
= +
v ( p0 - p) vm c vm cpo (5)

Figure 3.
Hypothetical BET-based binding isotherm [25].

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Adsorption – Fundamental Mechanisms and Applications

In this equation, p is the equilibrium pressure, while p0 is the saturation pressure,

v is the volume of gas adsorbed and vm is the monolayer volume of gas adsorbed, with
c being the content linked to the adsorption. The theory is widely used for determin-
ing the surface area of porous materials [26].

2.3 Thermodynamics of adsorption

The thermodynamics of adsorption would involve the changes in energy,

enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy. The adsorption energy quantifies the
strength of the interaction that exists between the adsorbate and adsorbent. The
exothermic process is found to release energy, which leads to a negative enthalpy
change, while physisorption does have lower enthalpy values compared to chemi-
sorption, which is a reflection of weakened interactions. Adsorption generally leads
to a decrease in entropy as a result of the restrictions of the adsorbate molecules on
the surface, and the change in Gibbs free energy helps determine the spontaneity
of adsorption. A negative Gibbs free energy change would indicate a spontaneous
process, which is said to happen more likely with the exothermic enthalpy changes
and minimal entropy loss.

2.4 Kinetics of adsorption

The kinetics of adoption are used to describe the rate at which the process occurs,
along with the mechanisms that are involved. The pseudo-first-order model makes
the assumption that the rate of occupation of adsorption sites would be proportional
to the number of unoccupied sites [27–29]. This model is said to be used under the
physisorption process, where the adsorption makes use of weak van der Wals forces,
and the linear form of the pseudo-first-order is represented as:
k1
log ( qe - qt ) = log qe - t (6)
2.303

In this, q represents the amount of adsorbate that has been adsorbed at time t and
equilibrium, followed by k, which is the rate constant of pseudo-first-order adsorp-
tion. This model, though, often fails to accurately predict adsorption kinetics over
extended periods, especially in situations where the process does not conform to
first-order behaviour.
The second-order model was developed by Ho and McKay, and it assumes that the
rate of adsorption is proportional to the square of the number of unoccupied sites,
which indicates that chemisorption in the rate-limiting step [28, 29]. Based on this,
we have the following equation:
t 1 t
= +
qt k2 qe2 qe (7)

This model is said to be effective in describing the adsorption where there are
chemical interactions and often is a better fit for experimental data across the entire
adsorption period compared to the previous first-order model. The choice between
the models depends on the specific system under study.

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2.5 Intraparticle diffusion and rate-controlling steps

Adsorption processes are often finetuned by multiple transport mechanisms

like film diffusion, intraparticle diffusion and surface reactions. Film diffusion or
external mass transfer would involve the movement of adsorbate molecules from the
bulk solution towards the external sauces of the adsorbent, which moves across the
boundary layer. The rate of this process would depend on factors like concentration
gradient, fluid velocity and overall thickness of the boundary layers [30]. Once the
adsorbate molecules reach the external surface, they need to diffuse into the internal
pores of the adsorbent in order to access the available sites. This intraparticle diffu-
sion could be divided into macropore and micropore diffusion, which depends on
the pore size. The rate of intraparticle diffusion is influenced by the structure, size
distribution and tortuosity of the adsorbent material. This is also considered to be the
rate-limiting step for porous materials that have complex internal structures [30].
The rate-controlling step is required to optimise the adsorption system, and the
Boyd model is commonly used to distinguish between film and intraparticle diffu-
sion control. If a poly of the Boyd function versus time leads to a linear relationship
that applies through the origin, then intraparticle diffusion is the rate-controlling
step [30]. Deviation from the linearity of intercepts indicates that film diffusion or
another process could be the limiting rate. In addition, the Weisz-Prater criterion
could be applied to assess the significance of internal diffusion resistance within
porous crystals, which would help evaluate the provided diffusion limitation [31, 32].
Thus, understanding and defining the rate-controlling step in the process helps to
tailor the system parameters effectively, which improves the overall performance.

3. Techniques for studying adsorption

To optimise the adsorption processes and develop advanced adsorbents, research-

ers are able to use different techniques to characterise adsorbents, measure adsorption
properties and simulate the adsorption mechanisms.

3.1 Characterisation of adsorbents

Characterisation refers to the analysis and understanding of the special and

chemical properties of the adsorbent materials that are said to have an impact on
their adsorption capacity as well as efficiency. Proper characterisation would involve
determining the surface area, pore size distribution, structural integrity and surface
functionality. These are the properties that would be given how effective an adsorbent
is and can capture and retain adsorbates, which makes characterisation very critical
when it comes to material design and application.

3.1.1 Surface and pore size analysis

The surface area and position of the adsorbent are very critical, and the
Brunauerr-Emmett-Teller (BET) method is often used for identifying the specific area
of porous material, which is through analysing the nitrogen gas adoption isotherms
[33, 34]. This also provides the required information on the total surface area, which

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Adsorption – Fundamental Mechanisms and Applications

would be available for adsorption. The Barrett-Joyner Halenda (BJH) is also a method
that works well with BET and provides a detailed analysis of the pore size distribu-
tion, especially when the material is mesoporous [35, 36]. These techniques are
critical in the valuation of materials like activated carbon, metal-organic frameworks
(MOF) and zeolites.

3.1.2 Microscopic and spectroscopic techniques

Microscopic techniques like scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and trans-

mission electron microscopy (TEM) help visualise adsorbent surface morphology
and pore structures. SEM is used to help provide detailed images of the surface
textures, while TEM is found to provide high-resolution imaging of the internal
pore arrangements [37, 38]. Other spectroscopic methods like X-ray diffraction
help in the identification of the crystalline phases, which helps to better under-
stand the structure stability. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is
capable of detecting function groups on the surface of the adsorbent, which offers
more insight into the chemical nature of the interaction that happens between the
adsorbate and adsorbent [38].

3.2 Measurement techniques

To evaluate the adsorption efficiency, different measurement techniques are used,

which quantify how much and how fast the adsorbate is captured.

3.2.1 Gravimetric and volumetric methods

Gravimetric methods are used to measure the mass change of adsorbent during
the adsorption process, while the volumetric method helps monitor the change in
liquid or gas concentration [39, 40]. These techniques help construct the adsorp-
tion isotherm, which is then used to illustrate the relationship between the absent
and adsorbate concentrations in the equilibrium stage. There is a need to ensure
accuracy when both techniques are used, but the extraction of complex and reliable
kinetic information from the transient response is more challenging, considering the
observed rate could be influenced and controlled by other effects [40].

3.2.2 Calorimetry for heat of adsorption

Calorimetric methods measure the heat that is released or absorbed during

the process, which offers thermodynamic insight like enthalpy changes. These
measurements are critical in identifying and differentiating between physisorp-
tion and chemisorption and measure the number of molecules that interact with
the surface, and this provided information could help to understand the binding
energy, which helps to describe the adsorbate-adsorbent bonds that are formed
theoretically [41, 42].

3.2.3 Chromatography for dynamic studies

Chromatography in an adsorption study is mainly used to help measure dynamic

parameters like the adsorption capacity, mass transfer kinetics and breakthrough
time. The measure evaluates how the adsorbate would flow through a column that
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Figure 4.
Dynamic adsorption setup [43].

is packed with an adsorbent when it is put under controlled conditions [43–45]. The
output is a breakthrough curve that reflects the concentration of adsorbate as a func-
tion of time, and the point indicates when the adsorbents become saturated, while
the shape of the curve provides insight into the adsorption efficiency, kinetics and
rate-limiting steps. This data are critical in designing and optimising the performance
of the adsorbent. Figure 4 provides an overview of the dynamic adsorption setup that
is commonly used in research.

3.3 Modelling and simulation

Computational modelling is said to help in providing atomic-level insights into the

mechanism, and there are two popular approaches. The first is the molecular dynam-
ics simulation model, which focuses on the dynamic behaviour of the adsorbates
on adsorbents, while the Monte Carlo simulations explore equilibrium adsorption
properties in different conditions. Both of these techniques are capable of predicting
the behaviour and optimising the design based on requirements [46, 47]. Predictive
modelling is another approach that uses adsorption isotherms like Langmuir,
Freundlich and other isotherms to predict the adsorption activity and behaviour,
which would aid in developing efficient systems [48].

4. Advanced adsorbent materials

Adsorbent materials play a critical role in the adoption process and in applications
like water purification, gas separation and catalysis. Advanced adsorbents could be
classified as emerging and traditional materials, with most of the research focused on
enhancing or improving the materials for specific applications.
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Adsorption – Fundamental Mechanisms and Applications

4.1 Traditional materials

4.1.1 Activated carbon

This is one of the most widely used adsorbents due to the high surface area it
possesses, its cost-effectiveness, and its large pore volume. This could be derived from
natural sources like wood, coal and coconut shells and find themselves to be sued for
different applications like water treatment, air purification and chemical separation.
The overall microporous structure is quite effective for adsorbing small molecules like
organic contaminants and gases.

4.1.2 Zeolites

These are crystalline structures of aluminosilicates found to possess intricate

porous architectures, which make them suitable for several applications involving
molecular sieving [49, 50]. The ion exchangeability and the thermal stability are quite
favourable for catalytic reactions, water softening and gas separations and they are
also found to be more effective in eliminating ammonia or other heavy metals from
aster water as they possess cation-exchange properties.

4.1.3 Silica gels

These materials are amorphous, porous materials that have a hydrophilic

nature and high thermal stability and are used as a desiccant and also for chro-
matography, which is attributed to their table pore sizes and ability to adsorb
moisture [51, 52]. Their surface could be chemically altered to target specific
adsorbates, which would also improve their selectivity for various industrial and
environmental applications.

4.2 Emerging materials

4.2.1 Metal-Organic frameworks (MOFs)

They are porous crystalline materials made of metal nodes that are linked
to organic compounds and show high surface areas, tunable pore structure and
chemical versatility, which makes them ideal for gas storage, carbon dioxide
computer and catalysis applications [53–55]. Advances in material design have
also allowed for functionalisation to target specific molecules like hydrocarbons or
heavy metals.

4.2.2 Covalent-organic frameworks (COFs)

Here, unlike MOFs, covalent bonds are formed between organic compounds
that lead to a crystalline material that is lightweight. The high porosity, thermal
stability and chemical resistance make them ideal for gas storage, and they
have also been used for water purification and energy storage. COFs are also func-
tionalised like MOFs, which further improves their selectivity and incorporation
of anime groups, for example, allowing for application in carbon dioxide
capture [56–58].
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4.2.3 Graphene-based materials

These materials and their derivatives, like graphene oxide (GO) or rGO, have
gained a lot of focus in research due to their high surface area, mechanical strength
and electronic properties and also their ability to work and improve properties by
functionalised with other elements, including MOFs and COFs [59–62]. They are
quite effective in adsorbing heavy metals, dyes and organic pollutants, and the
conductivity of the material makes them promising for energy storage and catalytic
applications.

4.2.4 Bioadsorbents

These are those adsorbent materials derived from renewable sources like agri-
cultural waste or biopolymers that are sustainable alternatives, which makes them
attractive in the current situation where there is an increased push for environmen-
tally friendly products. Materials like cellulose have shown that they are capable of
removing elements like dyes, heavy metals and other pollutants from wastewater, and
their eco-friendly nature and abundance make them very attractive options.
These materials could be mixed and matched to improve the design and modified
for specific purposes, which would ensure efficiency and sustainable solutions in
different fields.

5. A
 pplication of adsorption

Adsorption is really versatile, and depending on the material, it can be used in

different sections or for different applications, which are explored in this section.

5.1 Environmental applications

5.1.1 Wastewater treatment

The adsorption process plays a critical role in the purification of water and waste-
water treatment, which helps to remove organic pollutants and other elements and
make the water pure. Traditional adsorbents like activated carbon and emerging mate-
rials like bio adsorbents would make use of different techniques but provide affordable
and efficient solutions [63, 64]. Materials like graphene oxide and MOFs have higher
selectivity and adsorption capacities, which allow them to be used as tools to remove
contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and pesticides from wastewater [65, 66]. The
adoption process ensures the recovery of valuable resources like nutrients and natural
materials from wastewater, which supports the UN’s sustainable goals.

5.1.2 Air pollution control

Activated carbon, for example, is often used for air filters, which helps to remove
carbon compounds in air like toluene and other elements that are generated in the
industrial exhaust streams. The process would begin with the polluted air passing
through the column or filter bed that is packed with the material, and as the molecules
diffuse through the air, it would adore into the surface of the activated carbon due to
the higher surface area and porous structure. The adsorption process is very effective
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Adsorption – Fundamental Mechanisms and Applications

in removing nearly 95% of the carbon compounds, helps to ensure compliance with
environmental regulations, and also improves air quality [67, 68]. This is also scalable
and can be used in industries such as petrochemicals, paints and others where emis-
sions are highly prevalent.

5.2 Industrial applications

Zeolites are often used for separating nitrogen from the air in oxygen concentra-
tors, and the process involves feeding compressed air into a column packed with
zeolites they adsorb nitrogen due to their molecular sieving property and also affinity
towards nitrogen, while oxygen is less adsorbed and exists within the space [69, 70].
After saturation, the zeolite with nitrogen adsorbed would be regenerated by reduc-
ing the pressure, which frees the nitrogen atoms, and this process ensures a continu-
ous supply of oxygen for medical and industrial use.

5.3 Catalysis and chemical synthesis

Zeolites are used as catalysts in the production of gasoline through the fluid
catalytic cracking (FCC) process, where hydrocarbon feedstock is introduced into a
reactor containing zeolite catalysts. The adsorption of hydrocarbon into the surface of
the zeolite occurs, and this is where the active acidic sites would catalyse the cracking
of the long hydrocarbon chains into smaller, more valuable molecules like gasoline
[71, 72]. The products would desorb and be collected while the spent catalyst would
be regenerated by a bruin of carbon deposits.

5.4 Biomedical applications

The MOFs are often used in drug delivery for cancer treatment through the use
of doxorubicin as the drug, and it begins with loading the molecules into the porous
structure of the MOF using adsorption, and then this is administered to the patient,
where the acidic environment of cancerous tissues would trigger the release of the
medicine [73, 74]. The adsorption and controlled release ensure targeted delivery and
help to minimise the side effects while maximising therapeutic efficacy.
This shows that adsorbents have many uses and different adsorbents have different
applications, but they can also be created based on requirements.

6. C
 hallenges and future perspectives

6.1 Limitations

Even though existing techniques and materials have made significant advance-
ments, they face several limitations. The first of these is that most of the adsorbents
are known to lose their efficiency after repeated use, which is due to structural
degradation, fouling or difficulty for the material to regenerate [75, 76]. For example,
we have activated carbons that are known to be widely used and require energy-
intensive thermal regeneration, which is very costly and hard to use in different
applications. It is also reported that magnetic adsorbents are capable of overcoming
some of the limitations, as they allow for easy separation using the application of an
external magnetic field, which would reduce the overall energy consumption and also
14
Understanding Adsorption: Theories, Techniques, and Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1008865

minimise the adsorbent loss during the recovery process. That said, to achieve this, it
is important to overcome practical application of magnetic adsorbent in wastewater
treatment, which would include the stability of materials under different environ-
mental conditions [77].
Another challenge for the use is the high selectivity for the specific adsorbates
within complex mixtures, and one example of this would be the difficulty of the con-
ventional adsorbents in differentiating between chemically similar molecules during
the gas separation process [77, 78]. This would mean that contaminants could often
be added to the mixture, which could cause difficulties or issues with the application.
In addition to these, the adsorbents are known to have very low adsorption capacity
when it comes to removing contaminants, and this is seen to be more prominent when
the application requires high concentration or diverse mixtures [79]. The higher cost
of materials like MOF and COF makes them expensive to produce and also limits
their scalability for large-scale applications. Often, the synthesis of the materials
would require costly reagents along with time-consuming procedures, which makes
them impractical for widespread use [80]. The spent adsorbents need to be disposed
of properly, and if they are not, then they could lead to environmental pollution and
cause more damage.

6.2 Future trends

There has been significant progress made when it comes to improving the absorp-
tion capacity by using nanostructured materials like carbon nanotubes, MFs and
graphene, as these materials possess very high surface area and also customisable
pore structures that allow for efficient binding and removal of diverse contaminants.
The unique properties of these materials are not just limited to the surface area, but
they help with chemical interaction and confinement effects that would help to boost
the adsorption process, and this interaction provides new avenues for capturing
and removing contaminants that were previously challenging to address [81, 82].
There has also been a rise in functionalisation techniques which has allowed for the
introduction of specific function groups for different applications, and this would
allow for the targeted removal of specific contaminants and thus enhance the overall
efficiency and selectivity [83]. There have also been innovations that are focused on
enhancing the specificity and efficiency of adsorbents using different approaches,
and one of the innovations in this would be the Molecularly Imprinted Polymers
(MIPs), which are engineered to replicate the molecular recognition that is found
within the natural system [84, 85]. Recent research in the field has shown that novel
adsorbents that are more resistant to a broad spectrum of physical-chemical stresses
are being developed [77]. CNTs and GOs are known to enhance the use of functional-
isation and reduction approaches that ensure the presentation of adsorption efficacy.

7. Conclusion

Adsorption is said to be the accumulation of molecules, atoms, or ions on the

solid surface, and this is a fundamental process that is different from absorption and
is governed by specific molecular interactions, and has different applications. The
historical development of science begins with the foundational work of Scheele and
Fardat to the advanced theories like BET theory and Langmuir theory that highlight
how the process and approach have changed. The research also explored the different
15
Adsorption – Fundamental Mechanisms and Applications

mechanisms like physisorption and chemisorption, and this mechanism was found
to be influenced by factors like surface area, pore structure and molecular properties,
which are critical in optimising the process and adsorbent. The paper also explores
the thermodynamic and kinetic analyses that offer insight into the spontaneity,
energy changes and rate of adsorption while exploring the isotherms, which helped
provide the mathematical framework used to understand the adsorption behaviour
under different conditions. Characterisation techniques like BET analysis and mea-
surement models like gravimetric and calorimetric models are also explored, and it
shows these methods could be used as a tools to help refine the design and application
of an adsorption system.
Over the years, adsorption technologies have made headway in addressing some
significant challenges across different industries. Water treatment, air pollution con-
trol, gas separation, catalysis and biomedical technologies are among the many appli-
cations that demonstrate the efficacy of adsorption – be it with traditional adsorbents
like activated carbon and zeolites or with modern MOFs, COFs and graphene-based
adsorbents. At the same time, there are many adsorbent technologies that have yet to
be fully explored, and hurdles like cost, selectivity and scalability need to be over-
come. Further, the regeneration and reusability challenges make the usage of these
technologies more difficult on a larger scale. Although progress is already underway
in green synthesis, hybrid materials and functionalisation work together to optimise
efficiency and drive innovation.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Author details

Marwah Ahmed Alsharif

Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk, Tabouk,
Saudi Arabia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2025 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
16
Understanding Adsorption: Theories, Techniques, and Applications
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1008865

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