1.

0 SERVING AS AN OFFICER ON A TANKER 4 The vessel shall be maintained according to standards of good
By the standards of the working world ashore, any officer position on any housekeeping and cleanliness. All work, living and store spaces shall
ship is a job with unusual duties, responsibilities and obligations. Many be clean, orderly and well secured. Protective coatings will be
people are attracted by the thought of making a living at sea, but few have maintained.
the character, skill or determination to actually do so. In the course of 5 The ship will be run with an atmosphere of good will and
their duties, tanker officers will be solely responsible for the safety of cooperation. Personnel development and self respect will be
ships valued at up to $100 million and cargoes valued up to $50 million. encouraged while retaining authority and discipline. Good
There are few industries where a $150 million investment is in the care of personal habits and hygiene shall be a matter of course.
individuals who have not seen their thirtieth year and it is not surprising 6 Owners must recognise that a competent and motivated crew is their
that there is so much interest in the performance of these special people. most valuable asset in securing and keeping business. The owner's
long term success depends on the creation of trust and confidence
1.1 Duties, responsibilities and obligations of a tanker officer
between their shore and shipboard organisations.
The minimum conduct of a tanker officer is guided by a multitude of
7 The vessel will always be operated in compliance with applicable
requirements established by the vessel's master, owners, technical
international, national and local law and regulation. These take
operators, charterers, international authorities, flag state and local
precedence over company regulations.
officials. Each officer must be aware of these requirements in detail.
1.1.2 Duties: IMO requirements
1.1.1 Duties: company policies
In 1978 the IMO (then IMCO), International Convention on Standards
Every shipping company sets forth the duties of the master, officers and
of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers codified the
crew in their vessel organization manual. These include the duties that
'minimum requirements' for masters, officers, engineers and ratings
apply to keeping a navigation or engine room watch, duties in port,
assigned to tankers. For deck officers the applicable parts of this
emergency duties and collateral duties. While there are as many
important convention are:
variations of the list of duties as there are shipping companies, each
contains a common core of hard professional necessity, a common • Regulation 11/1
denominator of tasks performed on any well-run ship. The following Basic principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch.
basic principles, if carefully implemented, would provide all the guidance • Resolution 1
necessary for a well run tanker: Operational guidance for officers in charge of a navigational watch.

1 Safety shall be the foremost consideration in the conduct of all • Resolution^

Principles and operational guidance for deck officers in charge of a
operations, with priority order of: crew, vessel, cargo and the marine
watch in port.
environment. Savings of time or distance and other 'economies' are
only genuine savings when achieved within the required standards of These recommendations constitute less than 12 pages in total. It would
safety. not be too much to suggest that every officer should be required to
2 The master has supreme command of the vessel at all times and has memorise them (just as they memorise many of the Collision Rules),
full legal authority over all phases of vessel operations, including all during their period of training, nor would it seem a bad idea for every
persons on board his ship. He represents the owners, and is master to require his officers, (as one American admiral did with the
responsible to them for the efficient use of their assets and personnel. 'rules of the road'), to read them before beginning a voyage. The
3 A well-planned preventive maintenance schedule shall be followed, requirements are simple and plainly written. Every officer can understand
including maintenance of cargo loading and discharge equipment, them. If every officer complied with these recommendations shipping
navigation aids and deck and engine machinery. casualties would be significantly reduced. The recommendations of
Resolution 1 are included in section 4.1.2 of this handbook.
1.1.3 Duties: flag state and port state competence or in removing those who prove incompetent. Since he will
IMO treaties and conventions have no force until enacted. Enaction is be held culpable for any default or omission by any member of his crew,
usually in the form of laws promulgated by the legislative bodies of the it is in his own best interests to give his closest attention to improving
nations which have ratified the treaty. The laws are implemented in the crew competence.
form of regulations issued by the ministry for maritime affairs. These
1.1.5 Responsibilities
rules may impose many duties additional to the IMO requirements.
An officer can strictly perform all of the duties enumerated for him by
The national regulations determine how mariners are to be qualified
the IMO, flag state regulations, and company policies without attaining a
for the documents and licenses required by each ship, how the ships will
level of true professionalism. The various lists of duties constitute the
be inspected, and the ways in which they must be operated. When a
minimum performance expected of any officer. True achievement as a
shipping casualty occurs it is the investigation and enforcement branch of
seafaring professional is shown by the degree to which an officer exceeds
the national authority which examines the causes of the incident and
the minimum requirements. A professional officer develops habits and
determines the punitive action to be taken against the owners, officers or
practices which minimise errors in his own work and maximises the
crew members of the vessel found negligent. Flag states are responsible
cooperation he gives and receives in working with the other officers and
for issuing certificates of compliance with international conventions, but
crew of his ship. He becomes aware of the limitations of his shipmates,
they may appoint other agencies to do so on their behalf.
but uses this knowledge to find ways to support them rather than
Port state authorities may board a tanker whenever it is within their
criticise. He becomes familiar with the various bridge watch modes and
waters to verify compliance with SOLAS, MARPOL, and other IMO and
strives to achieve proficiency in his role as a watch team member.
ILO conventions. Local regulations (harbour rules), may also apply and
A professional officer ensures that the personnel on his watch are
are enforceable by local authorities. A tanker officer must be aware of all
vigilant and attentive to their duties. He involves them in the planning
of the duties required of him by port state and local rules. The owner must
and execution of the voyage or cargo plan. Above all he checks and re-
make the necessary information available to his crew.
checks the safety of those situations which expose the crew or the ship to
1.1.4 Master's orders and instructions danger. A navigation fix determined by two lines of position is not good
The Master is responsible for ensuring that clear lines of communication enough for his watch, nor is an hourly tour of the deck sufficient during
exist within the shipboard organization, and that all personnel understand his cargo watch on a non-automated tanker.
their duties and responsibilities. He must see that full written instructions The watch officer is always aware that while in charge, the safety of
for all routine operations, or any operation representing a potential risk, the vessel is entirely in his hands.
are provided to the chief officer and to the officer in charge of the
1.1.6 Obligations
operation. The master assigns emergency duties, issues standing orders as
required and personally instructs crew members in the proper Along with the trust of being a ship's officer come certain obligations.
performance of their duties. He is responsible for verifying that the duties Many of these are 'moral obligations', not found on any list of standing
of each crew member have been and are being properly executed and for orders. In fact, these responsibilities belong more in the category of
taking disciplinary action wherever an omission occurs. 'ethics' than duties.
The master is responsible for implementing and enforcing appropriate An officer has an obligation to see that his shipmates are fairly
safety regulations and operating procedures as directed by the vessel treated. This may include dealing forcefully with incompetence by one
owners and applicable regulations. crew member in order to protect others from harm. It means treating the
Recent reductions in vessel crew numbers requires that the master be crew like fellow professionals, insuring that they are properly trained and
even more diligent in developing crew members to the limit of their informed regarding their duties. It means cooperating with other officers
and the master. A true professional is able to work
 with almost any man he sails with because his professionalism places detailed and the list of duties which his added knowledge must address is
getting the job done ahead of any personal feelings he has about his considerably longer. Some have described the job as a purgatory to be
shipmates. endured in order to merit the paradise of command at some future time.
An officer has an obligation to the company employing him to see that For the professional officer who is dedicated to his job, this should not be
their resources are used as efficiently as possible. While the master is the case. It can be a time of strong professional development and great
principally responsible for protecting the interests of the owners, every personal satisfaction. But the chief officer can certainly count on getting
officer should feel obliged to insure that the ship is operated with less sleep than he did as a second or third officer!
minimum waste, loss and exposure to the owners.
1.2.1 Cargo duties
Protection of the environment is rapidly gaining as a primary duty and
The most demanding responsibility of the chief officer is oversight of all
responsibility of the ship's crew. But even when operating within the letter
cargo operations. This includes cargo planning, tank preparation, loading,
of environmental regulation there are opportunities (for the chief officer in
care, discharging, measurement, sampling and reporting responsibilities.
particular), to minimise the environmental impact the ship's operations
Plans prepared for loading cargo are reviewed with the master to insure
have on the seas. It is a crew obligation to take advantage of those
fullest compliance with company policies and best use of the particular
opportunities. Major oil spill incidents gather most publicity, but they
arrangements of the ship's tanks, pumps and pipelines. Tank preparation
contribute the minor part of marine pollution. The major part is due to
procedures should be carefully planned with the help of the pumpman.
operational pollution - where conscientious effort can make the greatest
The pumpman will, in many cases, have more experience on the ship than
effect.
the chief officer. Full, written instructions for all loading, discharging and
It is the obligation of the seaman to bring a professional attitude to his
sampling operations must be prepared and carefully discussed with the
job. It is likewise the obligation of management to treat their crew as
junior officers. As each junior officer assumes his cargo watch, he should
valued professionals. Such an attitude of mutual respect may go against the
be closely questioned by the chief officer to verify that he fully
residue of years of union/management acrimony. The convincing evidence
understands what is required of him for the next four to six hours. Of
for such a change is the success of the shipping companies who have
course, the most important thing that is required of any junior officer is
pursued a policy of mutual respect between ship and office. No matter how
that he calls the chief officer whenever he is in doubt!
good the technology, in the end it all comes down to people.
Despite the assistance available to him in each area of his duties, the
If more evidence were needed of the importance of tanker crews, it
chief officer remains the person responsible for the safe carriage of the
could be found in such studies as the Norwegian Cause relationships of
cargo. He must develop the ability to know when and where his personal
collisions and groundings, which found that only 6.8% of the 3000
attention is needed to ensure safe cargo operations, so that he is both
incidents examined were due to technical failures. 93.2% were due to crew
available when needed and sufficiently rested throughout. With some
error.
product values as high as $10 per US gallon, this is a considerable
Quoting from a book which was long the standard of this industry: "It
burden. In most cases, it means that the chief officer must remain on
may be that men will pose greater problems in the next decade than will
board throughout the loading or discharging operation. If he needs to go
machines and it is well to remember that a tanker fleet - or any fleet - no
ashore during any cargo operation, the chief officer must advise the
matter how good its ships, operates only as efficiently as the men who man
master of his intentions and ensure that the master will remain on board
it." '
until he returns.
1.2 SPECIAL DUTIES OF THE CHIEF OFFICER 1.2.2 Maintenance
The chief officer is required to demonstrate a higher level of training, Part of the cargo responsibilities of the chief officer is maintenance of
experience and competence than the junior deck officers. The examination
requirements for the license are more numerous and
' King, GAB, Tanker Practice, Fifth Edition, The Maritime Press Limited, 1968.
 the ship's cargo tanks, piping and pumps. This is principally an inspection Because of his many other duties and perhaps because of the
requirement, since the deck department has limited resources to repair familiarity of long experience, the chief officer may be tempted to take a
any significant defects noted. Working closely with the chief engineer, the casual attitude toward his navigation duties. This should never be the
chief officer insures that regular inspections of cargo tank structure, case. The 4 to 8 watch is not a time to catch up on deck department
coatings and cleanliness are made. He is responsible for inspecting/testing paperwork. No single cause of ship collisions and groundings exceeds in
tanks and all associated piping for leaks. When defects are discovered, frequency that of failing to maintain a proper all-around lookout. A
temporary corrective measures (clamping/patching) are taken and a defect lookout cannot be properly maintained while the watch officer's nose is
report is sent to the owner's technical manager requesting early permanent buried in the deck department overtime file. This should also be a caution
repair. to shipowners who are tempted to require yet another report from the
Coatings maintenance of the hull and much of the deck equipment is chief officer in the hope of further cost reductions. If he spends part of his
supervised by the chief officer. His objectives in this area are to insure navigation watch completing the new report, the result of not keeping a
that the work is done safely and that the results are durable. Proper de- proper lookout may be an accident which exceeds in cost any savings the
scaling and re-coating procedures, completed in accordance with the report would have produced for the next hundred years!
owner's paint schedule, insures that the ship's structure is properly
1.2.4 Training
protected against corrosion and that the owner gets full value for the
Every intelligent manager of a company's resources seeks areas of effort
money paid for this work. Improperly conducted coating maintenance,
and time that will produce the greatest result for his employers.
which produces only a temporary cosmetic improvement (painting over
Considering that between 70% and 80% of tanker incidents, accidents and
rust or improperly prepared surfaces), is the same as throwing the owner's
casualties are due to human error, it would seem that the area where a
paint overboard. Cosmetic paint applications conceal defects and create
chief officer can have the greatest effect on the safety and productivity of
unsafe working conditions, as seen by lost ship bows, lost side plating,
his ship is by improving the competence of the crew. In 1978 the
etc., in the most notorious cases.
Netherlands Maritime Institute published a report on Sub standard
Coatings maintenance is an activity where quality of work is more
tankers'. Section seven of that report compared the yearly casualties of a
important than quantity of square footage covered. Quantity is maximised
37-ship independently-owned fleet with that of an oil company fleet of
by careful planning of the maintenance program and care of the
the same size. The thirty-seven independently owned ships experienced
maintenance equipment.
29 days lost time each per year, compared with a combined total of twenty
Maintenance performed is recorded in the deck logbook and in the
days lost for all of the oil company ships. Considering that most of the
deck maintenance book or computer record.
independently owned vessels lost time was spent either under tow or
1.2.3 Navigation undergoing repairs as a result of human error, it is hard to imagine that
The chief officer shares responsibility for the safe navigation of the ship their owners would not consider making a significant investment in
when standing a navigation watch underway. Because of his experience training.
and as part of his development, he may be asked by the master to Every accident or incident is an opportunity to improve the safety of
participate in the voyage planning. In many cases he is assigned to the 4 the ship. Each incident provides a lesson to be learned, rather than a
to 8 watch, on which celestial navigation should continue to be practiced reason for discipline (though disciplinary action may be necessary).
as part of the navigator's art. Since he follows another officer on the Accidents and incidents should be reviewed by management with the
navigation watch, he should review and advise that officer concerning crew, seeking their suggestions for operational improvement. If
navigation practices and may find it necessary to bring to the attention of appropriate, the persons involved in an incident should be part of the
the master any significant errors or omissions which he believes would investigation team.
endanger the safety of the vessel.
1
van Poelgeest, FM, Sub standard tankers, Rotterdam, Netherlands Maritime Institute, R 70,
February 1978.
 It is the duty of every chief officer to develop a crew which performs 1.3.1 Contents
to their best ability through an established training program and effective The handover notes should be complete enough that the relieving officer
leadership. Likewise, it is the duty of every ship owner/manager to insure could smoothly take up his duties without further instruction or
that the ship's officers have available effective training materials and assistance. This means that they will require time and thought to prepare.
training aids to achieve this. Additional information on training is They cannot be written the night before arriving at the relieving port.
provided in section 4.14. They should be written with care throughout the voyage preceding the
handover.
1.2.5 Pollution prevention
Suggested contents of the chief officer's handover notes would
The chief officer's cargo duties make him a lead performer in reducing
include:
the vessel's environmental impact. Carelessness or neglect of proper tank
washing procedures can lose half of the ship's clingage to the sea. This • An explanation of the next loading/discharge plan.
could be 400 tonnes of oil on a 200,000 DWT tanker. This oil will • Guidance concerning the next voyage ( i f available).
blanket the sea surface, interfering with oxygen exchange, the growth of • Brief description of the competence of the seaman on chief
marine life and recreational uses. Oil's toxic constituents can get into the officer's watch and the pumpman.
food chain with unforeseen results. It is up to the chief officer to prevent • Description of the competence of the deck officers.
unnecessary operational pollution. • Particular likes, requirements and dislikes of the master.
• Current deck maintenance program activities.
1.3 HANDOVER NOTES/NOTEBOOK • List of equipment requiring repair. Suspected
Many tanker incidents occur shortly after a change of watch, or on the pipeline or bulkhead leaks. Defective cargo control
watch of an officer who has been on board a new vessel for only a few room equipment. Defective or unreliable bridge
hours or days. The incidents often occur because the new watchstander equipment. Next training program module to be
does not properly interpret a new situation, or is unaware of a defect in the completed. Status of collateral duties.
ship's equipment because of his limited experience with it. Such incidents Description of preparations for the next classification or flag state
can be minimised if the new officer carries out a thorough review of his inspection, survey, or repair period.
duties before relieving, and the officer being relieved prepares for and • Indication of when ordered deck department stores are expected to
executes a professional handover of his duties. Many handovers are done arrive.
verbally. The exchange may take half a day in the case of the chief officer, • Current preventive-maintenance requirements of cargo pumps,
but in the case of junior officers it may be as short as a handshake at the • COW, or IGS equipment.
top of the gangway.
Most officers who are scheduled to be relieved will conscientiously The list of topics and the length of the notes between junior officers will
tidy up their cabin and their collateral duties in advance. That is be shorter, but each applicable subject should be covered in the same
commendable. But even more admirable is the officer who leaves his depth. Handover notes should be read by the joining officer as soon as he
successor a set of notes describing exactly where things stand on the ship. arrives on board. This should be followed by a walk-around of the ship
A thorough ship management company, or a diligent master, will require accompanied by the departing officer. When the joining officer is
the preparation of handover notes and indicate that a copy, signed by both satisfied that he understands everything he needs to assume his duties, he
the arriving and departing officer be provided to the master. Preparing a set signs the handover notes and the departing officer reports to the master
of handover notes (without being required to do so), is a sign of that he has been properly relieved.
professionalism that will be noted by the master and appreciated by the 1.3.2 Checking the information
officer relieving you. Even though a relieving officer is satisfied that he has enough written
 information in the handover notes to perform his duties on the ship, he notes. This file will provide a continuous record of handover notes for
should never assume that the information is 100% correct. Plato's caution: review and reference. A new officer can review the record of the previous
"What I am about to tell you may not be true, but something very close to relieving situations to aid his orientation to his new ship and crew. Using a
it is." should be applied to all turnover information, where even a small bound journal to write out the handover notes is a good way to provide
error could cause major problems. such a permanent record.
This is particularly true of the crew evaluations in the handover notes.
The crew may be either better or worse than described. The relieving
officer should examine every entry in the handover notes with a critical
eye until he has verified it.

1.3.3 Continuity
Handover notes provide continuity in the conduct of the watch, in the
completion of scheduled inspection and maintenance programs and in the
smooth functioning of the department. For example: knowing where each
aspect of the cargo system maintenance program is without having to refer
to each system maintenance book prevents disruption of that vital activity.
Knowing that the master does not want the bridge sanitary work to begin
before 07.00 daily (because the noise wakes him up) may seem less
important, but can still save a new watch officer embarrassment if the
advice has been included in the relief notes.

1.3.4 Routines
A relieving watch officer should continue the routine practices of the watch
until he has a good reason to change them. The routines may be changed if
he believes a specific change is justified and the master and the watch
personnel agree that a change will be beneficial. Change for the sake of
change, or change because of ignorance of the way things have been done,
should be avoided. The crew does not like to have their routines disrupted
unless they are convinced it is for a good reason. One extreme example of
this resistance to change was the young third officer who told his new
Using a bound journal for turn-over notes provides a permanent, continuous record of greater
Captain that "We don't do it like that on this ship, sir", when he was asked value to ftew officers.
to prepare for undocking differently than he had been accustomed to.
The objective of a formalised relieving routine is a smooth transition.
Inevitably, this will require some thoughtfulness by the new watch officer, 1.4 STATION BILL AND EMERGENCY DUTIES
and willingness to change by both the joining officer and those he finds The master of each vessel is required to establish emergency duty lists for
already aboard. Any changes made should be carefully considered. the crew and to see that they are trained in their emergency duties. Each
officer must have an intimate knowledge of his emergency duties as well as
1.3.5 Handover file
those of the personnel he will direct or supervise should an emergency
Each officer position on the ship should have a serial file of handover
occur.

1.4.1 Fire stations

Figure 1.4.1 represents a commonly used fire and emergency station
bill format. It divides the ship's crew up into functional groups. Each is The newly assigned officer must carefully examine the fire station bill
designated with a critical task in the event of a fire on board. This to determine his fire station and duties. He should then check the duties of
station bill is one of the first things a new officer must check when the men he will supervise in an emergency. A list of the fire team ratings
reporting on board. The moment he relieves his predecessor he must be and duties should be entered in the officer's deck notebook. Each fire team
prepared to fulfil his emergency duties. Fires on tankers often occur in member should be assigned a secondary duty to be completed if one of the
port and they are as likely to happen on an officer's first watch in port as emergency team is injured or missing.
on his last. Before the first fire drill, the new officer should discuss his fire duties
All crew members must know the character and sound of each alarm with the master, to ensure that they have a common understanding of what
signal used on the ship and the action which each requires him to take. is expected during drills and in the event of an actual emergency.

1.4.2 Boat stations

E M E R G E N C Y PLAN Before the vessel leaves port, a new officer must also become thoroughly
TT Neverspill familiar with his boat station. He should do this by a careful examination
F I R E ALARM JS SOUNDING OFALAF
of the boat, davits and all associated equipment. He should immediately
L I F E B O AT ALARM
bring any deficiencies to the attention of the chief officer. He should
mentally rehearse each operation in the preparation and lowering of the
ALLOCATION TO LIFEBOATS
lifeboat, including the duties of the crew members. Names and duties of
each crew member should be entered in the deck notebook. A muster list
should be kept at each boat station. If none is found, one must be prepared
and placed in a waterproof container at the boat station. It is important for
the officer to know two ways of getting to his boat station from his cabin
and from the navigation bridge. After the vessel is at sea, he should enter
the boat and make a thorough inspection of the contents and the
instructions for operating the motor, radio, deluge and air equipment and
other on-board equipment. He should assist the engineer when the engine
will be tested, making a point of being there to see how the motor is
started and stopped and learning how the starting system is recharged.
The lifeboaf: operations are divided among a number of the ship's
crew. In almost any emergency, several will be available to assist with its
SQUAD 1 SQUAD 2 TECHNICAL SQUAD ENGINE ROOM SQUAD 3 SQUAD 4
launching. But the new officer should always remember that he may be
the only one available to prepare the boat for launching, start the motor
^^mmmmm •••••••••• ^•^^•^••B
E!E=
EzEEE.
=! and operate the controls in an angry sea if the order to abandon ship is
given!
MAN O V E R B O A R D
^" 1.4.3 Other emergencies
The master will assign each officer other emergency duties in the event of
A standard, pre-printed emergency station bill. a man overboard, personnel injury, or oil spill. Oil spill responsibilities
are set out in the vessel's oil spill response plan. The
master should discuss each officer's response duties with him in detail. attending the drill should be asked a question about his duties, the tasks
These should be noted in the officer's deck notebook and reviewed assigned to another crew member and directed to demonstrate some
regularly. emergency procedure. For example: if a pumproom rescue drill is
Other alarms which each officer must recognise and be aware of scheduled, simply talking about the procedure is not enough. An
include: appropriate size and weight dummy should be placed beforehand in the
bottom of the pumproom, permitting the crew the opportunity to rig up
• Carbon dioxide release.
the equipment and rescue the dummy.
• Inert gas pressure (or other defect).
Other drills should be created according to the special hazards of the
• Tank high-level alarms.
ship, the concerns raised during on-board safety meetings, or scenarios
• Other alarms as displayed in the wheelhouse or cargo control room.
derived from actual casualties on similar vessels. To make the drills more
1.4.4 realistic:
Drills • Certain personnel, equipment, or areas of the ship can be declared
Drills are rehearsals for disasters. The object of all drill is readiness. A casualties or 'out of bounds' for purpose of the drill.
good crew is ready to deal with any calamity that can occur on their ship, • Alternative means of communication should be verified operational.
but they only gain this ability if they have rehearsed their emergency • Times required for each type of drill should be recorded and
duties frequently and under conditions as close as possible to the real records/charts displayed of improvements in time achieved. Teams
thing. can be formed for rescue and fire-fighting drills and awards can be
A MUST eft-
presented for the best performance.
No
IN RM9IM***/
A Pftlt-U Every drill should be conducted with all the seriousness of a wedding
CftVW LfAUNt rehearsal, with the attitude that: 'next time we do this, it will be for real!'
HOW TO HMPAS.S

1.4.5 Verbal drills

C»MTT»rW» f~~\
LWAS OUT 11-+ A . t . ' J
MO -HUB THf
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Emergency readiness is only improved by making drills as authentic as possible.

Every drill should be made as authentic as possible. When boat drills are
held, personnel should be required to don appropriate clothing before

Verbal drills of possible accidents improve readiness.

going to their boat stations. If this means survival suits, then survival suits
should be donned at least once in each month. In the tropics, caps and full
protective clothing should be put on. Each man
 Drills need not be restricted to the official weekly event. Every officer Every document included in the ship's records must be dated
should conduct discussions or mini-drills of emergency procedures with (including the year!), and include the legibly printed name and signature
his watch as time permits. He should ask his watch members to describe of the person who made the entry or completed the report. Professionals
how they would deal with a man overboard event, with an oil spill, a fire are proud of their work and like others to know who did it. They sign
in the paint locker, or discovery of a stowaway. Doing this makes their logs and reports in a way that leaves no doubt about who did the
otherwise slow watches pass faster and improves everyone's readiness. good work that was recorded there.
Some of the more important records are:
1.5 FILES, RECORDS AND LOGBOOKS
Eew things are more important to the continuity of a tanker's operations • Crew training.
and maintenance programs than a complete set of accurate records. On a • Payroll and overtime.
modern ship, payroll, overtime, maintenance, inventory and requisition • Cargo orders.
records are all maintained on a computer. If it is well designed, the • Voyage records.
modern computer system leads even the most computer-illiterate officer • Cargo system tests.
through a menu selection system which makes the necessary entries both • Oil record book.
sailor-proof and quick. Modern software eliminates mathematical work • Deck and engineer logs.
and errors - it is only necessary to make the entries correctly. Each of the • Safety inspections, meetings and drills.
company's reports can be programmed for 'step through' entry, followed • Preventive maintenance.
by printing of a perfect copy or direct transmission by modem to company • Classification society inspections.
headquarters. Any new computer version should use the forms of the • Eoading and discharge records.
existing reporting system. It should be carefully tested by management • Cargo tank cleaning.
prior to implementation. After the initial version has been in use for a • Shipyard repairs.
time, crew recommendations should be sought and used for making • Accident/incident reports.
improvements. • Port state inspections
'Package' ship records systems are available. They avoid the costs of Crew training records
1.5.1
custom programming, but any off-the-shelf program should be fully At a time when qualified and experienced crews are becoming more
reviewed by the crew before it is purchased for their use. Some of the difficult to assemble, maintaining an active training program is the only
programs are easy to use, while others are so 'user-hostile' that the crew way an owner can insure that his personnel know their jobs. Records are
would be better off with an old, bound-journal system. A well-designed essential to insure that each employee completes all required training and
shipboard computer system will have password protection for the various that training progress is documented. These records can have additional
files and programs so that only authorised users (master, chief officer, value in helping to defend the owner against injury a'nd pollution claims.
chief and first assistant engineers) can access or edit critical data. They demonstrate that the seamen were given the training necessary to
Whether the ship's record keeping system is manual or computer recognise and avoid the hazards of their employment and that a
based, each officer must continue to conscientiously maintain it. This is conscientious program of anti-pollution indoctrination was followed.
particularly true in the case of 'relief officers replacing a 'permanent' crew On the day they first report aboard a new ship, crew members should
member. When the regular officer returns, he will be delighted to find that be given a familiarisation tour of their workplace and emergency duty
his records and files are up to date. If they are not, he is sure to make stations. This will be entered on their record. The crew member should
some bitter comment to the master before or after the relieving officer's initial or sign the entry for his indoctrination tour and for each training
departure! session completed while on board. The report sheet should be sent to the
office when the crew member leaves
 and forwarded to the next ship he rejoins. Vessel training records should machinery inspection program depend on accurate and complete
be reviewed by the personnel director to determine the kind of training records to maintain inspection exemptions, else costly 'open and
needed on board. They should be retained as proof of training inspect' requirements may be imposed.
conducted. If an officer joins a ship which does not have a maintenance logbook
for his collateral duties, he should start one. Even if he is a third officer in
Crew training record charge of only the bridge navigation equipment, flags, and lifeboat
inspections, he should have a small journal to record inventories,
inspections completed and repairs/exchanges made. With even a basic
record system, the job will be done better and it is good practice for other
Formal training
duties as the officer advances in rank.
Course
Instructor signature
With a complete lifeboat inspection record in his journal, a young third
officer will not need to freeze in the lifeboats if the chief officer asks for
an inventory of the expiry dates of all the lifeboat stores when the ship is a
day from arrival in Montreal in December!
Two of the chief officer's important maintenance records are the
maintenance logbook and the individual equipment records. The chief
On-board training
Module
officer records all work completed by the Deck department in his
An individual crew training record. The crew member's signature proves that training was maintenance logbook each day. At a later date (see section 4.6), this log is
received. reviewed and the specific equipment journals (hand written or computer)
are brought up to date. If the individual equipment records are kept as file
1.5.2 Preventive maintenance records folders, the files should be arranged according to the company file code
Conscientious owners appreciate the value of programmed maintenance. system, or generically (military style). If the ballast pump is a 'Watrous'
Over the long run, it preserves both earnings and the resale value of their design do not file its records under 'W'. File them under 'Pump, Ballast,
ship. Such programs are entirely dependant on accurate record keeping. Maintenance'. Clearly label each file and use a suspension-type file
Each cycle of a system's maintenance should be completed on time and all system.
completed work must be recorded. When the completed work has been 1.5.3 Safety records
entered in the computer program, the computer will be able to determine The position of ship's safety officer should be rotated among the deck and
when the task is due to be repeated. Vessels which are on a classification engine officers. Each in turn is required to complete and record the
society continuous necessary routine inspections and to audit the other department for proper
safety practices. Records of all safety meetings, inspections and safety
equipment are maintained. The safety officer should schedule (or follow
the company schedule for), the emergency drills and safety training
program.
The safety records demonstrate that the latest safety advice, casualty
reports and instructions have been properly disseminated to the crew, who
are the end users of this important information.

1.5.4 Overtime records

Overtime records are essential to support charterer's invoices, proper
payroll administration and for reference in preparing future budgets.
 In the event of a casualty, investigating authorities may examine these Check lists used for the efficient performance of cargo operations should
records to evaluate the contribution of crew fatigue to the accident. be retained as an important part of the cargo and voyage files.
Cargo forms for the previous six cargoes must be readily available.
1.5.5 Cargo records
Two copies of each form and report should be maintained. One copy is
Few areas of a tanker's operations result in more claims than the handling
part of a consolidated cargo file for that cargo, filed as a group by voyage
of the cargo. A tanker cannot hope to prove 'proper care' of a petroleum
number.
cargo unless full and complete records are available for presentation.
The second copies are kept in files or ring binders by report type.
Cargo records which may become important to a cargo claim inquiry
This makes it easy for the chief officer to refer to past records when
include:
preparing orders without disturbing the consolidated cargo file packages.
Loading Cargo records must be sufficiently detailed to be useful to a claims
• Charterer's loading orders. investigator. Port logs must show the sequence in which each cargo tank
• Tank washing, cleaning and preparation programs; slops recovered. was loaded/discharged, including the times of commence and finish
• Ballast plan. loading/discharging each tank/product. Also indicate into which cargo
• Tank inspection certificates. tank(s) the contents of the cargo lines were dropped at the start and finish
• Chief officer's loading instructions. of loading or discharging and whether such dropping occurred prior to or
• Declaration of inspection prior to cargo transfer. after gauging ROB.
• Ship's ullage sheets and loading quantity calculation. Other records which may be requested include:
• Shore tank ullage sheets and quantity calculation.
• Summary of ports of call, including dates.
• Cargo analysis report/quality certificates.
• Letters of discrepancy for all voyages undertaken.
• Ship's deck and engine, rough and smooth logs and port log.
• Superintendent reports.
• Cargo manifest/bill of lading copy.
• Engine sea trial book.
• Cargo heating instructions and heating records.
• Heating balance diagram.
• Oil record book.
• Date last drydock, hull cleaning, leadline, US coast guard
• Slop/sediment declared at loading port.
inspections.
• Slop disposal certificate.
• Maker and type of anti-fouling paint in use.
• Fuel loaded documents.
• Crew lists (all voyages) including home addresses and telephone
• Arrival and departure reports.
numbers.
• Dead-freight or short lifting calculations.
• Leaks in cargo tanks or piping systems, dates detected, causes,
• Notes of protest
repairs made, repair test records and class inspection dates.
Discharging
1.5.6 Inspection records
• Ship's arrival ullage report.
Most inspection records become part of the preventive maintenance or
• Charterer's discharge instructions.
safety record files. Those which do not should be filed separately
• Chief officer's discharging instructions and logs.
according to the equipment or system inspected, or with the classification
• Cargo pump operations record/log.
records as appropriate.
• Ship's port log sheet.
• Ship's tank inspection certificate. 1.5.7 Cargo tank records
• Shore tank ullage sheet and quantity calculation. Records of cargo tank crude oil washing, cleaning, maintenance, repair
• Cargo exception reports. and modifications are important to proper cargo operations. These records
• Chief officer's ballasting instructions. should be filed by tank, so that the history of any tank can be determined
• Notes of protest. from a single file.
 1.5.8 Cargo system records • Personnel injuries.
Pressure tests of cargo piping and leak tests on valves, replacement/ • Damages which occurred, or which might have occurred due to a
repair of pipe sections, valves or pumps, records of ultrasonic thickness near miss.
surveys and placement of temporary repairs should be included in these • Estimated cost of damage and loss.
document files. Temporary repairs must be permanently corrected at the • Possibility of reoccurrence if nothing is done.
very first opportunity. Failure to do so will expose the vessel to charges • Recommended actions to prevent reoccurrence.
of 'unseaworthiness with respect to cargo' if a cargo contamination • Loading port and date of loading.
should occur. • Discharge port and date.
1.5.9 Shipyard records • Quantity and type of cargo.
Shipyard records are important for review in the event a repair fails, or • Nature and extent of damage.
when preparing for the next repair period. They are also necessary sources • Total number and reference numbers of Bills of Lading.
of information for correcting the ship's stability booklet. A separate
1.5.13 Records retention
summary of significant weights added to or removed from the ship, along
Each vessel owner should have a records retention and disposition
with the location should be maintained. This can be compiled from the
program for his ships. This program will indicate which records must be
shipyard record after repairs are complete.
maintained in file form, how long they are to be retained on board the ship
1.5.10 Oil record book and how they should be disposed of (transferred to the Home Office or
One of the more important record books is the tanker's Official oil record destroyed), at the end of that time.
book. These records are required by Regulation 20 of MARPOL 73/78 and
1.5.14 Logbooks
must be maintained in a form (and usually in a book) supplied by the flag
The logbook is the official record of the ship. In it should be recorded a
state authority. On 4 April 1993, the oil record book form required by detailed record of the activities of the ship and her crew. Each significant
Appendix III of MARPOL 73/78 (1991 Consolidated edition), became point during a voyage and each operational change while in port should
effective. be clearly entered. Logbook entries should be concisely detailed, that is,
Entries are made by the chief officer according to the instructions. all important information should be recorded by brief notations. As an
Each page is signed by the master (see section 2.13.2). example, the entry '14.38 - began loading cargo' is concise, but lacks
1 . 5 . 11 Orders essential details. In a later, investigation of this cargo operation, this
The written orders prepared by the master, chief officer and chief engineer logbook entry would provide no information regarding the way in which
must be retained on board as part of the ship's permanent records cargo was loaded, or what happened to the No.2 oil later found to be off-
test. The entry '14.38 -began loading No.2 oil into tanks Nos. 3 across, 4
1.5.12 Accident/incident reports wings and 5 centre, via No.2 line and deck drop' provides all essential
The company may have a special accident/incident report form. If not, it information to determine how the No.2 oil was loaded into the ship. Each
is important that notices of accidents or incidents contain at least the step of the cargo operation should be recorded, from all fast on arrival
following information: through last line aboard on departure.
Logbook entries must be clearly printed, in neat, hand printing. The
Name of the vessel.
watch officer should sign the last entry of his watch with a legible
Time and date of the incident.
signature. The style of logbook entries may vary from ship to ship. For
Personnel involved, their crew position, years of service.
the new officer, a cursory examination of the previous voyage and port
Person in charge of the operation.
entries will indicate what the accepted practice is on the ship. All logbook
Location of the incident on board.
Weather and other influencing factors (noise, lighting, footing, etc. entries must be true and correct to the best of the
 understanding of the officer making the entry. If there has been an leaf binder, along with a supply of reinforced lined paper, blank paper
unusual event on the watch, the officer may first draft his logbook entry and tab dividers to organise the material.
in rough and review it with the master before making the entry in the One way to organise the officer's notebook is with alphabetical
logbook. dividers. The upper right corner of each page is labelled with the name of
No erasures are permitted. An error should be ruled through with a the information it contains. Information on a particular port would be
single line, initialled and then the correct entry made immediately after. filed under the port name. If the officer's ship makes three or four trips to
The master may make navigation entries, or entries regarding the crew as Texas City, he will soon have gathered all the necessary and useful
necessary, or may instruct the watch officer to do so. The chief officer information about the port, such as the maximum draft allowed in the
may make entries regarding cargo operations, or instruct the officer to do Texas City channel, the dock salinity at high and low tides, range of the
so. If there is any controversy regarding a logbook entry, the entry should tide, best mooring plan for each berth, size of shore hoses for each berth
be made and signed by the officer who wishes the entry to be made. visited, the VHP working channel of the pilots and marine operator and
numbers of the charts required on board to avoid a US Coast Guard
1.6 THE DECK OFFICER'S NOTE BINDER AND DECK BOOK citation. The notebook should not contain information from official
The proper performance of the duties of a tanker officer requires a navigation publications which are updated through the 'Notices to
thorough understanding of the basic principles of tanker operations and mariners' system. Pach entry must be dated, including the year.
the ability to recall or refer to a large volume of detailed information. Vital data on each tanker the officer is assigned to will take up one or
Much of this information is exclusively for the ship to which the officer is two pages, with a hand drawn cargo system diagram, pump table, tank
assigned, some of it refers to the harbours and docks visited. Much of the capacity table and manoeuvering diagram. The cargo piping system
information is facts and figures used every day. Many of these facts can diagram should be drawn by hand as an aid to learning the system.
be committed to memory. We all know one or more officers with a Basic navigation forms, tables of distances and a collection of
prodigious ability to recall names, facts and figures long past dimmed in conversion tables from a dozen sources can be included. As the entries
our own minds. But how many officers could recall the maximum accumulate, such a notebook becomes a valuable reference for each
allowable electrical resistance of a 15-meter tank cleaning hose, the exact bridge watch and when writing up a loading or discharging program.
winter deadweight of the ship we are on, the VHP radio working Before photo-copy machines appeared on ships all of this information
frequency of the Rotterdam pilots and the % LFL that corresponds to the would have to be laboriously hand copied. With copiers, this job has
TLV for gasoline? These are all important facts for a chief officer to know become even easier and an officer has no excuse for being without a good
and they can be conveniently retrieved if they have been recorded in a personal binder. For a junior officer interested in advancement, it would
personal note binder. do no harm for the master to notice a neatly compiled professional
notebook on the chartroom
1.6.1 Deck officer's personal note binder
table during his watch. / 1.6.2
For much of what a tanker officer routinely does, memory is OK. But The deck notebook
memory is fallible. Where time is available, it is much better to check the Next to the professional binder, the next most useful book an officer can
facts. These 'facts' are found in a hundred publications which pass through have is the deck notebook. The best kind of notebook for this is a land
the officer's hands in the course of his training and working years. It would surveyor's field book. They cost several dollars, but the covers and pages
be hard to carry all of these books along from ship to ship! A better way is are waterproof and the sewn binding won't fall apart after spending
to make a record of the important facts and figures as they are encountered several weeks in a back pocket. Begin daily entries from the front of the
and assemble these records in a way that permits quick location of the book. Enter useful reference information in the back pages. For each
information needed. The best way to do this is for the officer to purchase a voyage the tank cleaning plan, ballast plan, loading
good, office-quality, loose
plan and discharging plan should be copied into the book. Used pages can The pocket notebook is one of the places to gather useful information
be held against the front cover with an elastic band so that the book opens for later transcription to the officer's binder. The bulletin boards of dock
instantly to the current cargo plan page. offices are a good source of port information. While waiting to use the
telephone, an officer can copy some of it into the deck notebook. It may
make the next visit to that port much easier.
Entering information in the deck notebook that may seem un-
important at the time can suddenly become very useful, as the
following officer's experience indicates:
"One night I was loading chemicals in Texas. As I started cargo in one
of the smaller tanks I heard the dockman call the refinery control room on
his radio: 'Dock three to C-7', he said 'start No.38 line'. I was holding my
pocket notebook open at that moment to verify the kind of starting sample
I was to take. I pulled out my pencil and wrote 'C-7/38' in the corner of
the square that represented the cargo tank on my notebook cargo diagram.
Based on previous loading rates, I expected that tank to take three hours
to load. An hour later, I stopped by the tank to see how the cargo was
doing. Unknown to me, they had installed a new pump to the refinery
since the last time I had loaded that grade of chemical. The new pump
was doing very well. In fact the cargo was exactly three centimetres from
the deck. There was no time to call the dock and tell him the problem. By
the time he checked which control room was pumping that grade of cargo
it would be all over me and on its way into the harbour. I had my deck
notebook open in my hand. My eye picked out the pencilled notation for
the control room and line number, 'C-7/38', as I backed away from the
tank top. I grabbed the microphone and trying to conceal the panic I felt
called: 'ship to C-7, shut down 38 line!'. Fortunately, the operator in
Control Room 7 didn't ask any questions about a strange voice telling him
to shut down. The cargo stopped coming in one centimetre below the
deck.
Deck officer's notebook entry for a clean product tanker discharge. The circled numbers show the My neglect to check the tank earlier and to compute its filling rate
order tanks will be discharged on each system. after 20 or 30 minutes of loading, had nearly cost me a significant spill,
probably my job and possibly my license. Only by making the small extra
Having this information always ready in his hand means that the officer effort to write that note had I saved myself.
does not need to leave the deck to refer to it. The events of the watch can The corners are worn off that notebook now and it looks a little
be recorded in the notebook as they happen, making it easier to write a shabby on the shelf in my office. But I keep it there as a reminder of how
clean copy in the deck log after the watch. A hard pencil, (not pen), should one extra precaution can prevent a pollution incident, save a job and
be used for all entries. It doesn't run or smear. Entries in the notebook possibly save a career."
should be as neatly printed as the deck logbook entries; if there's an
While on cargo watch, the officer in charge should record the tank
incident on the watch, the notebook may become evidence.
 levels in each cargo tank hourly. This includes checks of the cargo tanks 1.7.1 Advising your limitations
which are not supposed to be receiving cargo! When a new officer arrives at a ship, the master and chief officer may
have only limited information concerning his qualifications and
1.6.3 Things change - check the information
background. It is up to the arriving officer to discuss his professional
'Half of life's troubles come from bad information', is a quote to
experience with both the master and the chief officer. It will do no harm
remember before relying on information laboriously gathered into an
to give them both a written list of the ships and ratings served in, along
officer's notebook. As the story above illustrates, things change. The
with a brief description of the requirements of each assignment. With this
information gathered in a personal notebook is 'uncontrolled'. It must
information, the master and chief officer are able to assign duties which
always be secondary to 'controlled' information contained in official
make the best use of the officer experience available to them and avoid
publications. Information gathered personally should be used as good
assigning duties for which an officer may be unprepared.
advice and never trusted until confirmed by critical evaluation of the
circumstances at the present time. The older the entry in the notebook, the 1.7.2 Learning the cargo system
less it can be trusted. Before a tanker officer can safely stand a cargo watch, he must be
intimately familiar with the ship's cargo system. Each type of oil carrier,
1.7 Learning the ship
OBO, O/O or tanker has its own peculiarities of equipment and operation
On a well run ship, a new officer can expect to gather a great deal of
which are critical to completing an uneventful voyage. The ship's cargo
information about the ship and its standard procedures from the turnover
system is normally set out on a diagram in the cargo office. Each valve
notes, records and company publications. But there is an equal or larger
and pump should be numbered on the diagram and on the equipment
amount of information that must be obtained in the performance of his
itself. At the first available opportunity and preferably on his own time
duties and in exchanges with the other officers and crew. The master,
(to avoid distraction and neglecting other duties), the officer should copy
officers and crew provide the second best source of information about
the cargo system diagram in his deck notebook, including the pumproom
current ship procedures. How much an officer benefits from their
diagram. The next step is to trace the cargo piping on deck and in the
experience and knowledge depends a lot on the attitude he brings to the
pumproom, locating each of the numbered valves and pipeline
working relationship. If he has a limited experience in ships of this type,
connections. It will be impossible to follow the piping in the cargo tanks,
but pretends that he knows everything, he is not likely to learn much from
but the above-deck mechanical operators for the tank suction and fill
his shipmates.
valves should be located. The officer should inspect each valve controller
The best approach for a new officer to take is to be frank about his
carefully and determine:
experience and openly appreciative of any help offered in the areas where
his experience is limited. For a new third officer, the first assignment to a • How each valve is operated (hand, hydraulic, air, electric).
tanker may feel as if everyone on the ship knows more than he does. He • Method of manual, local and remote operation activation.
shouldn't worry, within a year someone will be asking his advice and by • Operation of the local and/or remote position indicator.
the time he becomes chief officer he will have enjoyed a thousand • Manual means of operating normally power operated valves.
opportunities to repay the favours of others who kept him out of trouble
Determine the type of valves installed in the cargo tanks and the
while he was learning the profession.
problems associated with each type. If the valves are manually operated,
The process of learning the ship is easier if the officer asks questions.
ask about their difficulty and speed of operation. On older tankers, there
Professionals enjoy being asked their opinion, or asked to explain some
is invariably one valve that is a 'beast' to open or close. Extra time must
technical obscurity. They usually consider it a compliment and consider
be allowed to open or close this valve.
that the questioner is demonstrating good judgment by asking them. So
The drop valves (used for loading) should be located and the means
the basic rule 'when in doubt ... ask', applies from the first day on board of operation determined. Particular attention must be given to
and if it is necessary to stop a cargo operation to have time to ask the
question, do so!
 crossover and block/master valves. These are vitally important to • Petroleum tanker operations manual.
proper segregation of mixed cargoes. On some vessels, blanks or • Operating procedures prepared to support a safe ship operation and
blinds are used in place of crossover valves. pollution prevention (SEP) management program.
The cargo manifold should be checked to locate the drain and • Operating procedures prepared to provide performance to an
stripping connections. If the tanker is operated from a control room, the audited ISO 9002 standard.
mimic diagram may not show some of the smaller drain line connections. • Other manuals, such as circular letter files, standing orders, etc.
The officer must know the drain line arrangements and how any spillages
are removed from the manifold drip tray. 1.7.4 Safety notices
The pumproom can only be entered with the permission of the chief A well managed vessel conducts a comprehensive safety program,
officer or the cargo watch officer. If pumps are in operation, hearing supported and encouraged by owners and management. Safety notices,
protection must be worn. In the pumproom, the main lines and stripping safety bulletins and the vessel's safe work practices manual should be
lines should be located and identified. Powered valve operators should be reviewed carefully to learn how work is to be performed and situations to
examined as described above. Check all lines for drain valves above and be avoided.
below the lower gratings but do not enter the pumproom bilges unless an 1.7.5 Standing orders
officer or member of the deck watch is standing by. Determine locations of The new officer must read and sign the master's Standing Orders before the
cargo pump controls and emergency stop switches for each pump. vessel departs for sea. The standing orders should be reread before each
After one or two months on board, a good tanker officer should be voyage, until they become second nature. (See section 4.1)
able to visualise the piping diagram in his mind, but he should never
depend on his memory when making up cargo orders or setting the valves 1.8 FOLLOWERSHIP AND LEADERSHIP
in the system. Cargo piping lineups should always be done according to a The axiom that you must learn to follow before you can lead is as true on
written plan. tankers as in the military. An officer's progress from apprentice/seaman
Well in advance of his first cargo discharge, a new officer must through the ranks to command begins with learning to follow.
determine how low the main cargo pumps can pull the liquid level in the By mastering the difficulties of following instructions well, the
cargo tanks and how the stripping system is operated. If an eductor future officer will realise the importance of good leadership.
stripping system is fitted, special procedures will be necessary to place it
in operation. 1.8.1 Followership
Some VLCCs (very large crude carrier) have 'free-flow' cargo systems Good followership is intelligent obedience to and implementation of the
which permit pumping of cargo without suction pipelines. Again, special orders and instructions of a senior officer. The key word is intelligent.
operating procedures will apply and should be reviewed. The accuracy (or There may be several ways to accomplish most of the tasks assigned by
inaccuracies) and repeatability of the ship's cargo ullaging system should the master or chief officer, but one is more economic of time and resources
be reviewed with the chief officer and other officers. than others. In addition, a competent officer is constantly reviewing the
priorities of the various duties and tasks calling for his attention and
1.7.3 Operating procedures selecting the most important (at that moment), to receive his immediate
The IMO Guidelines for the management of safe ship operation and attention.
pollution prevention call for tankers to be provided with procedures One memorable case which demonstrates a lack of intelligent
defining tasks to be performed and instructions for proper completion of followership occurred in New York twenty years ago. The chief officer of
those tasks, where the absence of such procedures would adversely impact a clean oil tanker had left orders that the forepeak ballast was not to be
safety or the environment. Procedures may be in the form of: started until pumping had commenced on the cargo in the forward cargo
tanks. During the night, the master called the cargo
 control room to see if forepeak ballast had been started. The watch direction and control. This technique requires limited imagination, achieves
officer answered simply that it had not. The master said to start it limited results and takes up a lot of a leader's time that could be more
immediately. The watch officer should have explained that the discharge of productively spent on other matters.
forward cargo had not commenced, and that the Captain's instruction was
LEADER B E H AV I O U R
in conflict with the chief officer's orders. Instead of explaining the hazard
the Captain's order would expose the ship to, the watch officer began CT .
3 Share ideas and facilitate in making 2 Explain decisio ns and provide
'i decisions opportunity for c arification
ballasting the forepeak. Two hours later the ship grounded at No.l centre
cargo tank and lost 10,000 barrels of cargo into the harbour.
Good followership includes keeping an officer's superiors and himself, \xH sT

out of trouble by asking intelligent, timely questions about any confusing

3 X,
o <
-C 0
or dangerous instruction or order. It also means listening carefully to the
'•E
explanation offered and then proceeding to carry out the instruction in the o
Q.
* • Low Q. ^H High ^H High C
3

best way possible. 3O

<U
.Q ^H High
0.

Good followership means knowing when to wake up the master or

W •§ Low
chief officer to ask their help or guidance. There are few stupid questions ^M High ^^1 Low ^
s _
in operating a tanker, but many stupid mistakes made as a result of failing
to seek timely assistance. From time to time we encounter a master or co

chief officer who complains about being awakened for a situation which OT <<
a: .V
subsequently turns out to be a non-problem. Such complaints are the
\
opposite of the appropriate reaction and any officer who objects to being 1 4 Turn over fesponsifeifity for decisions: 1 Provide specific instructions and closely
and tmpteflwntalton supervise performance
awakened by a subordinate with a legitimate question is pursuing the
wrong career.
One of the most difficult parts of followership is passing on unpopular Low Task behaviour (directive behaviour) High

instructions. This should be done without comment by the junior officer ^H Task behaviour ^H Relationship behaviour
The extent to which the leader engages The extent to which the leader engages in defining roles, tell
either as to the instruction or its originator. A junior officer is expected ng what, how, in two-way (multi-way) communication, when, where, and if more than one
listening, facilitating behaviors, socioe-person, who's to do what in: • Goal motional
(not to mention being paid), to carry the order out to the best of his support: • Giving support

ability with the resources at hand. time lines • Directin

Decision styles
Through good followership, officers develop into professional leaders. 1 Leader made decis 3 Leader
on. 2 Leader made decision with dialogue and/or explanation, made decision
or follower made decision with encouragement from de decision.
and followe eader. 4 Follower ma
Officers should welcome any advice aimed at improving their ability to
follow orders as eagerly as they would seek instruction to develop other
professional skills. By carefully studying the leadership styles of the FOLLOWER READINESS
effective officers he meets, a tanker officer will gather the tools to develop High ABILITY , Moderate
his own leadership skills, maturity and self-confidence. Followership .
1 Able and willing or WILLM 2 Able but GNESS 3 Unable but
involves cooperation in all aspects of the shipboard working relationship motivated unwilling or inscure wilting or motivated

with the master and chief officer.

1.8.2 Leadership
If there was one universal leadership technique that everyone could learn - In using situational leadership it is useful to keep in mind that there is no 'one best way' to
influence others. Rather, any leader behaviour may be more or less effective depending on the
good leaders would not be as valuable as they are! Many officers of the old readiness of the person you are attempting to influence. The model provides a quick reference to
'theory X', school lead by unwavering, rigorous assist in; 1 Diagnosing the level of readiness, 2 Selecting high probability leadership styles and, 3
Communicating styles to effectively influence behaviour.

P;c-f
 In section 1.7 the need for a subordinate officer to advise his superiors 1.9 CREW TEAMWORK
of his experience and limitations was explained. This was partly to insure Each officer should see his subordinates as a team of which he is the
that too much was not expected of him. But the most important reason for team leader. Every officer has the professional responsibility of striving
doing this is so that his experience, maturity, apparent initiative, and to obtain the maximum performance from his team. A high-performance
ability can be compared to the demands of his position and the leader applies the following basic principles of human relations to gain
appropriate leadership technique applied to leading him. This points us to respect and motivate performance:
the truth about the one best leadership technique. There is none.
• He is supportive, friendly and helpful (not critical, hostile
Leadership is the ability to select, from a range of options the one
or remote).
leadership style that will have the most favourable result when applied to
• He shows confidence in his subordinates, which leads both leader
a particular combination of follower and task.
and subordinate to have high expectations of their performance.
This ideal method is easier to understand if we agree that the object of
• He sees that subordinates are well-trained; whenever possible he
leadership is to get someone to act to achieve a certain result. If that is
helps them to get promoted.
true, then we are in a leadership situation whenever we are paying
• He periodically assesses crew proficiency and coaches and assists
someone to work for us personally. But we would not think of dealing
personnel whose performance is below standard.
with the lawn boy, television repairman or our attorney in the same way.
• He is a leader who develops his subordinates into a working team
We would talk to them differently, behave (however subtly) differently
with high group loyalty. He achieves this by using participation and
toward them and expect a different level of response from each. In
other group leadership practices.
addition to paying these individuals, we use different 'leadership'
approaches with each. The same must be true of our relationships with our Two keys to becoming a high-performance leader are:
subordinates on a tanker.
• Recognising that information includes knowledge of opportunities
A good leader 'sizes up' the fit of the crew member to the job and then
to develop human resources.
decides how he will attempt to lead the subordinate toward a better
• That instruction is preferred to directing.
mastery of his job. Leadership's aim is two-fold: to get the current job
done and, to improve the motivation, abilities and maturity of the doers. The question, 'What motivates personnel to work effectively?' is tied to
To do this, an officer needs crew members who are ready for development job satisfaction. Designing a management strategy to enhance
and if that is not the case, he must convince them that it is in their best performance means considering the extent to which the jobs provide
interest to follow his development path. This can only be achieved if the opportunities for meaningful achievement, recognition and advancement.
followers are convinced that their leader has the power to reward the Enjoyment of the work itself, as well as the existence of opportunities to
appropriate behaviour and will unfailingly do so. assume greater responsibility are key factors related to job satisfaction.
Thus, effective leadership involves motivating individuals to work
1.8.3 Management leadership
cooperatively as a group.
A nurturing, creative and cooperative leadership environment cannot be
Leadership is essentially an interactive process that requires
created on the ship unless it is promoted and practiced between shore
continuous nurturing of the followers to achieve four goals:
management and the vessel. Management must recognise that improved
performance (reflected mainly in significant reductions in loss ratios), can • To get the group to accept and understand the limitations of the
only be accomplished by a commitment to human-oriented resource framework within which it is functioning.
development. • To get the group to identify itself with the goals set by management.
• To further the development of the individuals within the group.
• To encourage frank communications and sharing of information
relevant to the group's activities.
Each officer in the course of his assignment to a ship is part of two or
more 'groups'. He is the leader of his watch. He is also a member of a JXRECT Results of an action appear in the form of immediate/early feedback, permitting real-time
navigation team as prescribed by company procedures under some
condition of visibility and traffic. He is a member of the group of
officers of the ship. In each group, one of his objectives will be to gain
respect, but if he thinks of this as personal respect he will be on the IMG / IT fc——a MASTER, p———a| OFFICERS)::?——^
wrong track. The respect sought is professional in nature. While personal development of the most effective way of carrying out an instruction. Results of individual
instructions become quickly known, often in the form of: 'The suggested procedure didn't
respect might be sought in a number of ways (depending on the group), work, but the following procedure did.'
the means of gaining professional respect is common to all groups and is KEY-
directly related to the level of professionalism with which the individual
>ISCUSS'aM
conducts his work and his personal affairs. Those who are sloppy in their
work and ignorant in their conduct toward others cannot obtain the Results of an action appear (if at all) only in monthly operations or financial reports and
respect needed for effective leadership. cannot be individually assessed.

To build an effective team from the individuals a new officer finds on To increase productivity, ship owners and operators must commit
his watch, the officer must: themselves to long-term human resource development programs. The

• Encourage a relaxed working relationship among the

watch members.
• Develop trust and confidence within the watch.
• Identify the proper conduct of all watch routines as an
important value.
• Set clear goals for the watch members.
• Make problem solving a group effort by encouraging suggestions
from the watch.
• Help each member develop to his full potential.
• Encourage frank and full communications concerning the conduct effort must be genuine, continuous and non-manipulative. Owners who
y? O have invested in such programs have realised substantial benefits at the
of tasks facing the watch.
• Listen to recommendations and suggestions by watch members expense of their competition. For example, on average, oil-bulk-ore
and implement them whenever possible. carriers (OBO's), require approximately 112 hours to prepare to load a
• Encourage watch members to make decisions appropriate to their dry cargo after transporting a liquid cargo. Some companies have reduced
routine responsibilities. this preparation period to 36 hours which nets them 31 additional earning
days each year. Equally important however, is the fact that improved
These practices build motivation and result in more effective performance in this sector has been accompanied by significant
group action. reductions in loss ratios (including personal injury, cargo damage and hull
Management as a team member damage).

1.9.1
Most of the above principles apply equally to the relationship between the
ship's senior officers and shore management. If shore managements
leadership technique is directive rather than interactive, development
toward the cooperative situation essential to producing a rise in
performance can not occur.
1.9.2 Taking over the watch • Applicable night or cargo orders affecting the next watch.
The basic guideline for relieving the watch is to begin in sufficient time • Ask any questions that seem necessary to clarify points of
to become fully aware of the situation before offering the relieve. In the confusion. Ask what events the watch officer expects to occur
case of relieving a cargo watch in port the following steps are during the next four hours.
recommended: • If all appears to be in good order, the relieving officer indicates that
• In the cargo office, read the chief officer's cargo orders and he is ready to relieve the watch. The watch officer then indicates
initial them. that he is surrendering the watch to the relieving officer.
• Read the deck logbook or cargo logbook, as applicable, to • Do not relieve while topping off tanks. Offer to assist the
determine the status of the cargo program. officer who is topping off, but wait until the operation is
• Check the predicted tides. If these are not available in the cargo complete before offering to relieve him.
office, then do the necessary calculations to determine them. • After relieving the watch, make the appropriate logbook entry.
• Check the cargo status board to verify cargo operations progress. The pre-relieving tour of the deck is particularly important on those ships
• Tour the vessel, checking the condition of the gangway and where the cargo operation is controlled from a cargo control room (CCR).
moorings, tank levels in tanks filling and shut off, position of critical On CCR ships, the watch officer should be relieved by the chief officer or
valves, the position and support of the cargo arms/hoses, and the pumpman every one or two hours so that he can make an inspection of
water around the ship for signs of oil. the cargo deck to verify the prevailing conditions. However, conditions
• If the ship is loading or discharging, inspect the pumproom. can change quickly when loading or discharging cargo and the relieving
• If the ship is loading, verify the location of the terminal emergency officer must not assume that the officer on watch is perfectly up to date.
shut down button (if provided). At sea, relieving a navigation watch properly also requires an early
• If the tour of the vessel indicates conditions contrary to those start. If the watch begins in confined waters, with heavy traffic density, or
required by the cargo orders, or if a hazardous situation is discovered, with the ship navigating under any watch type other than 'normal
immediately report this to the watch officer but do not relieve the steaming watch', it is particularly important to start early.
watch. It is a watch officer's duty to have the watch in good order for The following procedure is recommended:
his relief. If it is not correct, then he must make things right before
• Tour the deck of the ship and the accommodations prior to
expecting to be relieved.
proceeding to the bridge; note any unsatisfactory conditions.
• If all appears to be in good order, report to the watch officer and ask
• Read the night orders and initial them. (It is also a good policy to
him to describe the loading cargo program status as he understands it.
reread the standing orders at frequent intervals)
The following checklist items should be covered:
• Read the deck logbook to review the conditions during the
• State of the tides. previous watch.
• Draft of the ship forward and aft. • Read the weather report and radio notices to mariners received since
• The anchor(s) or moorings in use. previously going off watch.
• The depth of water in the berth/anchorage. • Examine the chart for the progress made good during the previous
• Marks or objects used for anchor bearings. watch and the courses set out for the impending watch.
• State of readiness of the main engines. • Verify that the speed made good and course made good are
• Bunkering operations underway. 'reasonable'. If they are not reasonable, suspect that an error has been
• Ballasting operations underway. made and examine the navigation position closely.
• Cargo operations underway. • Verify the courses and dead reckoning positions are
• Officers and important crew members ashore. correctly plotted.
• Visitors on board.
 • Check the proper function of all navigation fixing equipment to be that task. On modern ships with reduced manning, the Cargo Watch officer
used during the watch; verify the ship's position using the most used may have only himself and a seaman (loading), or pumpman
navigation aid. (discharging), for cargo watch duties.
• Check the heading by the master gyro compass; comparing master The watch officer must assess the watch situation and call in time for
gyros (if two are fitted). any assistance required to adequately control the situation. If additional
• Enter the wheelhouse; if it is dark, wait for night vision adaptation personnel are not available, then he must reduce the loading rate, the
before proceeding. number of grades of cargo being handled, or stop cargo operations
• Verify the traffic situation by sight and by radar. altogether to regain full control.
• When confident that the traffic and navigation situations are fully
1.9.4 Bridge watch organization
understood, offer to relieve the watch officer.
At one time, the organization of the bridge watch for differing situations
• If the navigation or traffic situation is contrary to the navigation
was left entirely to the discretion of the master, who might use a formal
orders or otherwise unacceptable, the relieving officer should indicate
structure or ad hoc decisions to structure the watch tasks according to
his concerns and advise the watch officer that he is not prepared to
conditions. Most tanker operators now provide a set of required watch
relieve him until the situation is remedied.
structures, each intended to be implemented according to the prevailing
• Do not relieve in the midst of a manoeuvre to avoid traffic; wait
navigational situation. The master is free to enhance these structures, but
until the ship is again clear and back on its base course before
cannot make fundamental changes without the approval of the owners.
relieving.
The basic watch arrangements are designed to provide a team structure,
• After relieving the watch, make the appropriate logbook entry.
with each member assigned specific duties. The intent is for each team
In both cases (cargo and navigation watches) the first priority is to member to know exactly what is expected of him and to improve the
continue the safe operation of the ship. This is only possible if the relieving accuracy and efficiency of the navigation work.
officer fully understands the situation at hand and what is expected of him The three basic watch modes are Normal Sea Watch ('normal
during his watch. Many cargo and navigation incidents and accidents occur steaming'), Modified Sea Watch and Manoeuvring Watch. An example of
shortly after the change of the watch. In most cases, the cause of these a set of watch organization types to be used in differing weather,
incidents is inadequate preparation by the relieving officer. navigation and traffic conditions could be:

1.9.3 Cargo watch organization Normal sea watch

A navigation or cargo watch runs best based on a formal structure. The In conditions of unrestricted sea room and good visibility, with no traffic
duties of each position of the watch team must be clearly set down and having a CPA less than two miles a Normal Sea Watch is set:
clear assignments made to those duties. In the case of a cargo watch, the
• Watch officer - conning; duties as per STCW requirements and
pumpman, deck watch officer, able seamen and ordinary seaman should
standing orders.
each be assigned specific tasks to be performed. The watch officer's
• Helmsman - maintains bridge lookout (nights), or is immediately
principal job is monitoring the performance of the watch. If necessary,
available nearby (days).
duty assignments are rotated to provide for even workload distribution (ie.
the mooring winch duties and cargo tank watch duties may be exchanged Modified sea watch
between seamen at mid watch). Where cargo activity is heavy, the chief In conditions of restricted visibility, or good visibility with heavy marine
officer and any other necessary personnel should be called to assist. At traffic, or good visibility and light traffic in confined waters, a modified sea
some terminals (Drift River, Alaska), the requirements for tending watch will be set:
moorings are so extreme that extra watch personnel are assigned
• Master - takes the con; responsible for Convention on the
exclusively to
international regulations for preventing collisions at sea compliance,
 vessel course and speed, observes traffic radar, coordinates to set the indicated watch should be started immediately, without
watch activities. waiting for the master to arrive in the wheelhouse.
• Watch officer - operates navigational radar, reports traffic with
close CPA to master, prioritises targets (earliest CPA has highest 1.10 CREW RELIEF PROCEDURES
priority), maintains navigation plot at each course change, navigation One area where management practices can have a significant impact on
mark, or as directed. Operates engine control/ telegraph, maintains safety and high crew performance is the way in which they schedule and
bell book, observes rudder indicator and tachometer for correct conduct crew reliefs. While recognising the economies available through
response. Coordinates bridge to bridge and ship-to-shore transporting relief and off-going crews en-block, good management will
communications. weigh the potential gains of replacing the entire crew in one day against
• Helmsman - operates the ship's wheel in hand steering mode in the possible losses caused by crew unfamiliarity with ship systems or
response to master's orders. conditions.
• Lookout - is posted as required by Convention on the international Even when the relieving personnel are familiar with the vessel, it is
regulations for preventing collisions at sea. Maintains lookout by strongly recommended that the following crew relief guidelines be
sight and by hearing. followed:
Manoeuvring watch • No more than one-half of the crew is relieved at any port call.
In confined waters and reduced visibility with heavy traffic or under • The top two personnel in each department are relieved on separate
pilotage, the manoeuvring watch will be set: occasions, ie. if the chief engineer is to be relieved, the First-Assistant
Engineer remains aboard.
• Master - coordinates watch activities
• If the vessel is preparing to carry, or is carrying special cargo, the
• Pilot - (with the permission of the master and as an advisor only),
chief officer and master are not relieved until the cargo discharge is
takes the con. Responsible for International regulations for preventing
completed.
collisions at sea (Rules of the Road) compliance, vessel course and
• Crew reliefs travelling more than six hours (door to gangway), to
speed, observes traffic radar.
reach their ship are permitted eight hours of rest ashore or on board
• Watch officer - radar watch - operates navigational/traffic radar,
before relieving.
reports traffic with close CPA to master and pilot, prioritises targets
• Officers are permitted six hours of handover time between the
(earliest CPA has highest priority). Provides radar based navigational
relieving officer reporting for duty and the departing officer
data to navigation watch officer. No other duties!
surrendering his duties.
• Watch officer - navigation watch - maintains navigation plot at each
• Unlicensed personnel are permitted two hours of turnover time.
course change, navigation mark, or as directed. Ensures that vessel is
• Departing officers are strictly instructed to refuse to surrender their
proceeding on a safe track. Operates engine control/ telegraph,
duties if they are not satisfied that their relief is competent and
maintains bell book, observes rudder indicator and tachometer for
capable of assuming them.
correct response. Coordinates bridge to bridge and ship to shore
communications. The final point is closely linked with the concepts of effective
• Helmsman - operates the ship's wheel in hand steering mode in followership and crew-management teamwork previously discussed.
response to master's orders. Unless the officer is convinced that management is depending on him to
• Lookout - is posted as required by Rules of the Road. Maintains be the final guardian of the ship's safety, he will accept without demur the
lookout by sight and by hearing. person sent to relieve him. 'The company picked this person, so it's their
problem!' would be the attitude of many officers in a highly directive
Normally, the master will indicate the kind of watch to be set, however,
organization. Faced with handing over to a relief who clearly lacks the
reduced visibility or heavy traffic may be encountered at any time. In such
experience or confidence for the responsibilities of the job, they will do
cases, it is up to the watch officer to call the master, advise him of the
so.
conditions and 'recommend setting watch type'. Actions necessary
 With today's manning procedures and problems, incompetent crew 1 . 11 . 1 Stress
members will from time to time arrive at the top of the gangway to Seafaring can be a stressful job and many shipping jobs ashore have their
confront an unfamiliar ship or ship type. The master, department head and share of it as well. But stress itself is not a health concern. In fact a study
officer being relieved are the last line of defence against the ship sailing cf a quarter million businessmen found that those who had the most
with this problem person on board. stressful jobs (often corresponding to greater success in their careers),
had lower heart attack rates than all other groups and only 60% of the
1.10.1 Inexperienced personnel
expected incidence of heart disease.
On occasion, a shipping company knowingly hires inexperienced
The hardest jobs on health turned out to be those involving less
personnel. As one example, a major oil company ran a portion of its fleet
demanding jobs, especially those associated with boredom and lack of
from 1955 through 1968 without needing to hire a single officer. In 1967
responsibility. The message is clear for both employer and employee. The
the number of ships stabilised after years of reductions, several officers
more interesting a job can be made and the more responsibility attached
announced their retirements and the company found itself replacing men
to it, the more beneficial it will be to the health of the person doing it.
of 15 years experience with a dozen maritime school graduates who were
Stress can have a negative effect on health and performance if it is not
absolutely unfamiliar with company procedures and in some cases had no
managed properly by the employee. Today, stress management is a well
experience on tankers. With some intelligence and foresight, the company
developed discipline. An intelligent management would be wise to include
assigned these officers to ships for as much as one month's training on
shipboard courses in stress management in a program of 'riding'
watch with a senior, highly professional officer. Only after this officer was
instruction to improve crew performance.
satisfied with their performance were the new employees allowed to stand
watch unassisted. 1 . 11 . 2 Fatigue
Even when the officer has considerable experience, if he is new to the Fatigue is a significant contributing cause of marine casualties, often
company or ship-type and is relieving as a department head, he should involving significant pollution claims. The incidence of fatigue in senior
complete one voyage or cargo cycle with the departing officer before officers is attributable in part to manning levels and inadequate junior
relieving. The extra costs of this practice can be insignificant compared officer qualification. In many tankers today, the chief officer is the only
with the costs and penalties of a cargo contamination or ship casualty. person trusted to conduct cargo operations. The junior officers are often
The sign prominently displayed in a chemical tanker's cargo office relegated to the duty of deck watch during loading and discharging
applies: If you're not worried, it's because you don't understand what is going operations. This is a significant departure from only a few years ago when
on here! each junior officer was fully qualified to conduct routine loading or
An effective crew relief procedure ensures that there are always key discharging operations and the chief officer was only called out for more
people on board who know what is going on and who are concerned (rather demanding evolutions such as topping off tanks or preparing for CBT
than worried), about the safety of their ship and its crew. operations. Combined with a three officer manning level, lack of
qualifications by the junior officers can mean non-stop activity by the chief
1.11 PERSONAL HEALTH officer during every port call.
The close relationship between health and job performance cannot be To avoid fatigue the chief officer needs to know how to get the most
doubted. At one extreme: if you're dead, you can't do your job at all; and from his officers and how to pace himself. He must learn how to relax and
at the other extreme: a deck officer whose hobby is participating in how to arrange the cargo operations to insure that he gets at least a couple
triathalons has little trouble dealing with the physical demands of of breaks in every port. Given the ability to relax at will (good stress
handling cargo on a non-automated tanker. Most officers fall somewhere management technique), the chief officer will be able to capture short naps
between those two extremes, exactly where being largely dependant on during the periods of cargo operations when his immediate attention is not
their mental and physical health. required. Such brief napping has been demonstrated to significantly
increase
 alertness, performance and endurance in the face of long-term demands. combined with adequate exercise will keep a seaman healthy and fit.
Naps for the chief officer are a poor substitute for the real solution to There is also a relationship between the morning meal and fatigue.
this problem ... fully qualified junior officers who are competent to take Studies have clearly indicated a reduction in fatigue and fluid retention
over a cargo watch for four hours of routine operations without creating among previous breakfast-slighters who added fish, meat, or cheese
an incident. It is possible that some owners who have put their vessels in (mozzarella, cottage, or provolone), to their normal morning meal of toast
the care of a technical management company are not aware that their ship and coffee.
is manned by under-qualified officers. Any owner who is not conducting
Exercise
regular independent audits of the crew performance should not be
In a tanker which is manually operated, there is plenty of opportunity for
surprised when faced by a disaster caused by under-qualified personnel
and/or exhausted senior officers. 1 . 11 . 5 Health care
The master should be both aware of the level of fatigue experienced the deck officers to get their allowance of exercise. Few tanker officers
by his officers and prepared to assume their departure navigation watch if were ever more fit than when each port call included a workout of
they have not had adequate rest in port. One recent pollution incident opening and closing twenty valves during a watch and
occurred because the master failed to monitor the fatigue level of his
officers and did not insure that he himself was sufficiently rested and alert
to navigate confined waters while departing.
One of the foundation blocks of health is good nutrition. This is a joint

1 . 11 . 3 Diet

responsibility of the ship management and the crew member. Management

is responsible for providing the catering staff with good food to prepare,

for ensuring that the ship's menu includes regular appearances of the seven

1 . 11 . 4
main food groups and for training the cooks to produce attractive and
appetising meals.
It is then up to the crew to take their meals regularly and in moderation.
One common problem among seamen is overweight. Carrying too much
body around reduces performance and life expectancy. Moderate eating
making two or three inspection trips to the bottom of the pumproom. Today
the cargo control room has taken away that opportunity to keep in shape.
Now it is necessary for the management to provide an exercise space and
appropriate equipment so that the crew can maintain their physical
condition. Adequate fitness can be maintained by an exercise routine which
raises the heart rate for twenty minutes three or four times each week. This
can be readily achieved with a rowing machine, exercise bicycle or
treadmill.

Crew member B is a greater health risk; he has high blood pressure (crew member A is only

overweight). Only regular health examinations can fully disclose crew health risks.

Illnesses or injuries must be reported immediately to the ship's medical

officer. It is the responsibility of the owner and master to provide each
crew member with any necessary medical care while employed on their
ship.
Beyond routine care of minor illnesses or injuries, owners have an
interest in providing each crew member with an annual or biennial
physical exam rigorous enough to disclose any hidden illnesses.
 Lack of rigorous crew physical examinations risks an unexpected as a user or as a courier, places your career on the razor's edge. Thousands
medical diversion. Most of the costs of a medical diversion are of officer careers have been ruined by alcohol, a legal drug. Illegal drugs
normally recoverable through P&I coverage, but the unrecovered can have an even stronger hold on the user and bring a career to an earlier
costs will always be more than equal to several years of crew physical end. Some officers propose that they are free to use drugs, alcoholic or
examinations. otherwise while off the ship. For a professional officer, that is not an
acceptable attitude. While assigned to a ship and even while on vacation,
1 . 11 . 6 Drugs
an officer must abstain from all illegal drugs and should use alcohol
All ship owners and operating managers should have a policy of:
moderately. Habits cultivated while ashore are difficult to leave behind
• Prohibition of possession, use, trafficking, or sale of drug when returning to sea.
substances by crew members. On those vessels where alcohol is permitted and available to the crew,
• Prohibition of the use of any substance which produces unusual an enforced policy of abstention prior to going on duty must be in place.
behaviour of a crew member in the course of performing his duties. The US Coast Guard requires four hours of abstention. It must not be less
than one hour of abstention for every unit (1 unit = 30 cl. ordinary beer =
Shipping companies should have a policy on alcohol and drug use. The
10 cl. table wine), consumed. Spirits, fortified wines and extra strength
policy must be clear and readily understandable by crew members and
beer should not be permitted on board. To avoid doubt, an alcometer
shore staff. The objective is to prevent a company vessel from being
should be supplied to the master.
operated by any crew member while impaired by alcohol or drugs.
Officers must be strictly prohibited from surrendering their watch to
Crew physical examinations should include a drug test. Provided that
their replacement, if they believe the replacement to be under the
it is mandatory for all personnel, the practice is accepted by most crew
influence of alcohol or drugs.
members and unions. Because of the substantial penalties for Customs
discovery of drugs on a ship, including possible seizure of the vessel, Contagious diseases
owners must take all reasonable efforts to insure that drugs are not found Sexually transmitted and other contagious diseases have always been a
on board. The laws of the United States (Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986) 1.11.7 hazard of the seafaring trade. Today, the added threat of AIDS should
and Colombia (National Narcotics Statute), among other countries, permit inspire every seaman to practice safety if not abstention. While current
the confiscation of ships carrying drugs unless the owners, charterers and preventive measures may not be foolproof, they are more than 90%
master have exercised the highest degree of care and diligence to insure effective in preventing contagion. Earlier contagious diseases remain
that drugs were not transported in the vessel. Prior to departing a port in a prevalent. Any crew member who suspects that he has contracted any
known drug trafficking area, the heads of department 'must conduct a illness must report it immediately to the ship's medical officer.
thorough visual check of all spaces, reporting any suspicious observations
Other diseases
to the master. Any spaces not required for the vessel's operation should be
Malaria - the incidence of malaria is increasing throughout the tropical
kept locked and all ship's stores deliveries should be inspected by an
1.11.8 areas of the world including, Africa, Asia, East Indies, Philippines,
officer. If necessary, private drug finding dogs may be employed before
Malagasy Republic and Melanesia. In these areas, the crew should use
sailing to conduct a final search of the ship.
mosquito repellents while working and mosquito netting while resting.
Owners and officers should be aware that any marine accident in Insecticide sprays should be used freely in the quarters. Preventive drugs
United States waters automatically subjects the vessel and its crew to a should be supplied and the crew encouraged/required to take it at the
thorough drug inspection, including substance testing of all personnel recommended intervals while in subject areas and for some time after
involved in the accident. leaving the area.
From the viewpoint of the officer, involvement in drugs, either Typhoid and paratyphoid - can be prevented by effective
 purification of water supplies take from questionable sources and by English as the primary means of communication with shore
prohibiting swimming by the crew in docks and harbours. terminal personnel during cargo transfer operations.

1 . 11 . 9 Personal hygiene
1.13 COMMUNICATIONS AND LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES
Personal cleanliness is an important part of good health, especially under
tropical conditions. Frequent showering facilitates sweating to cool the Given a reasonable amount of cooperation and good leadership, language
body naturally. Frequent hand washing reduces the opportunity for difficulties within a crew can usually be worked around. Where a level of
contracting contagious diseases. language difficulty persists it is of great importance that adequate training
and drills be conducted so that the crew understands what is expected of
1.12 INTERCULTURAL DIFFERENCES WITHIN MULTI-
them in emergency situations as well as routine work. If the crew cannot
NATIONAL CREWS
be verbally directed in the event of an emergency, then they must know
what is expected through training and drills so that it will be done without
At one time the term 'motley crew' was a disparaging comment used to
direction.
describe a ship's company composed from a variety of races and cultures.
Today the term is not widely used, but the fact of such crews is more 1.13.1 Ship-shore difficulties
common than ever. In one case a tanker crew was noted to contain eleven
nationalities. Such a situation is not a problem if most of the crew share a
common first language. But with eleven nationalities on board, it would be
surprising if all shared a first, second or third language! Whatever the cost
savings represented by a mixed crew, the increased risk of accident due to
ineffective communications must be recognised.
Unfortunately, owners who accept mixed manning are unlikely to do
much to improve the situation by language training. With a mixed crew,
language differences may not be the only problem. When a crew is
gathered from a number of nationalities there may be historic or cultural
prejudices or animosities between individuals. This will add to the
difficulties of effective leadership. An intelligent master will allocate the
men to watches so as to minimise possible friction. Officers should insure
that they show no favouritism or discrimination in dealing with the
personnel they supervise. Prejudice based on ethnic origin is as welcome
on a ship as a plague of Spanish influenza.

1.12.1 Human relations and language training

In accordance with Resolution 22 of the International convention on
standards of training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers, 1978:

• All governments are invited 'to establish or encourage the

Ship and shore must have common-language capability before transferring oil.
establishment of training programmes aimed at safeguarding good
human relationships and social responsibility.'
Where difficulties arise between the ship's crew and shore terminal
• At a minimum, all ship's officers should be trained in the use of
personnel, or between a larger ship and a lightering vessel, immediate
measures must be taken. In accordance with section 4.5 of the
International safety guide for oil tankers and terminals "a person with
 adequate technical and operational knowledge and sufficient command of of the owner's sincerity regarding the safety program. The owner
a language understood by both ship and shore personnel" can be appointed should visit his vessels, to personally impress on the master and
as an interpreter. Alternatively, the ship's watches may be rearranged so officers the importance of the loss control program.
that each watch includes a crew member who can speak the language of Following that introduction, the performance of the ship should be
the shore terminal. carefully monitored to ensure that safety is not being compromised for the
In no case should cargo operations commence until effective saving of time or expense, and that the owner's safety
communications have been arranged. education/instruction program is being conducted and its lessons
Where foreign officers are employed on a company ship, it is useful, implemented in the daily work of the ship.
perhaps essential, that one of the technical managers of the shore
1.14.1 Tanker safety concerns
operations department be fluent in the native tongue of the master and
The owner's safety program should be designed to address all of the
senior officers. Many important operational matters are now resolved by
significant occupational risks to which the crew may be exposed. These
satellite telephone calls where fluency in a common language is essential
include:
to a successful outcome.
• Explosion or fire hazards associated with the vessel's fuel.
1.13.2 Ship-to-ship communications
• Explosion or fire hazards associated with the vessel's cargo.
In 1973 the IMO Maritime Safety Committee agreed that English should be
• Toxic hazards of chemicals used on board.
used as a common language for navigation. The IMO Standard marine
• Toxic hazards of the vessel's cargoes.
navigational vocabulary was adopted in 1977 and amended in 1983 and
• Rolling and pitching of the ship in heavy weather.
1985. The ability to use this vocabulary is a requirement of the STCW
• Operation of machinery, in normal conditions and in
convention of 1978.
heavy weather.
The two most important aspects of the Standard marine navigational
• Ice and freezing weather.
vocabulary are that non-English speaking officers must understand
• Exposure while working aloft, over the side, or in confined spaces.
enough English to efficiently use the vocabulary. For English speaking
• Unsafe work practices and neglect of personal protective equipment.
officers it is equally important that they learn the procedures and format
for using the vocabulary. The format is structured and the normal It is the job of management to (initially), identify the principal areas of
exchanges use few words. Adding words which are not in the IMO concern, and to put in place the necessary procedures and equipment to
vocabulary will only confuse the non-English speaking navigators on the minimise the risks. It is the job of the master, officers and crew to
other vessel. diligently implement the safety procedures and to recommend changes or
The IMO vocabulary includes standard language usage for engine and improvements in the safety programme to management.
rudder orders while under pilotage. The master must ensure that these are The mere posting of notices and provision of safety information is
fully understood by all of the wheelsmen who will steer with pilots insufficient to protect the owner from liability and is not particularly
embarked. effective in getting the information into the heads of the crew. A formal,
Audio cassette training programs are available for learning the periodic training program should also be in place, including maintenance
IMO Standard marine navigational vocabulary. of training records. Individual crew members must sign their training
records at the completion of each unit of training. One method of
1.14 SAFETY ON BOARD promoting crew attention and interest is to make clear that failure to
Safety on board tankers cannot be imposed by management. The owner's comply with the company safety requirements could affect the outcome
loss control manager can issue the world's finest safety policies and of their claim for compensation in the event of an accident.
procedures, but they will have no effect if the master, officers and crew do
not adopt the practices as part of their work routines. The master, officers
and crew must be absolutely convinced
1.14.2 Safety committee • Boilers must be operated in accordance with manufacturers
Implementation and improvement of the safety program will be most recommendations.
effective if an autonomous safety committee or safety discussion team is • Wood or fibreboard packing cases, paint, or tins of oil should not be
formed, with authority to report directly to the loss control manager stored in boiler flats, machinery spaces, pumproom, or in the
ashore. The functions of the on-board safety committee/ team are to: steering engine room.
• Smoking regulations and places must be established by the master
• Prevent accidents or injuries to the crew and vessel.
and strictly enforced.
• Improve safety conditions on board.
• Personal electrical equipment must be inspected and approved by the
• Implement and enforce safety procedures on board.
chief engineer before being used on board.
• Investigate and report on accidents or incidents with the objectives
• All portable electrical appliances must be disconnected or well
of determining cause (not fault!) and preventing recurrence.
secured before the vessel departs port.
• Review and offer recommendations for changes to safety checklists.

The safety committee should participate in the scheduling of training, 1.14.4 Explosion hazards
exercises and drills and discussions of the results of drills should be part The basis for preventing explosions is the rigorous separation of sources
of their reports to management. Drills should be conducted as indicated of vapour from sources of ignition. Explosions occur when both of these
in section 1.4.4. means of prevention fail. Accidental or negligent uncontrolled release of
The safety committee should ensure that all safety instructions, hydrocarbons anywhere on a tanker can lead to introduction of their
booklets and literature provided by management are prominently insidious vapour into any space. Following such an incident, the only
displayed on board and readily accessible to the crew. protection against an explosion is the correct condition of the
intrinsically safe and explosion-proof electrical equipment. For this
1.14.3 Fire prevention
reason, electrical wiring and equipment should be frequently inspected
The chief danger to any ship is fire. On a tanker, there are more
and any defective equipment disconnected at the source until it can be
opportunities for fire due to the nature of the cargo, but the potential for
repaired. Exterior doors to the accommodation and machinery space
engine room and accommodation fires is no greater than on any other
must be kept closed at all times when not immediately in use.
ship type. Many tanker losses begin with a fire in the machinery spaces.
Sparks or heat sufficient to ignite an explosive vapour can also be
To minimise the opportunity for machinery space fires, the following
caused by:
routine practices should be maintained:
• Defective electrical tools.
• Immediate clean up of any oil leakage and repair of the cause of
• Tools being knocked together or dropped onto a steel surface.
the leak. This is particularly important if the leak is near any hot
• Electrical motors and other equipment.
surface or source of ignition
• Spontaneous heating of oily rags or waste.
• Waste oil must not be allowed to accumulate in the engine or
• Aluminum or one of its alloys knocked against rusted steel.
pumproom bilges.
• Falling of anodes in cargo tanks.
• Frequent verification of proper function of remote controls and
• Discharge of an accumulation of static electricity.
remote indicators.
• Non approved electrical appliances carried onto the main
• Regular tests of vent dampers and closures to ensure that the air
deck, such as photographic equipment, portable amplifiers, or
supply can be stopped in event of fire.
portable radios.
• Regular inspections of unmanned machinery spaces.
• Persons alone in machinery spaces must regularly communicate Hot work permits must be prepared and approved for all welding, flame
with the ECR watchstander or the bridge watch. cutting, or hot work on board, whether in the machinery space
 or elsewhere. All requirements of the approved hot work permit must be 1.14.6 Toxic hazards of cargo
observed, including proper fire watch, periodic testing of the space No cargo should be loaded into a tanker unless the vessel has been
atmosphere for hydrocarbon vapours and regular inspection by the chief provided with a material safety data sheet beforehand. If the cargo has
engineer or other qualified officer. Work permits should be valid for a not been previously carried, or if the ship has a number of new crew
maximum of 12 hours. The work permit must refer to an appropriate members, each watch officer should read through the data sheet with his
safety checklist to be completed prior to the commencement of hot work. watch to ensure that they fully understand the hazards and precautions
Crew members should be made aware of the possibility of for the cargo and the actions to be taken in the event of exposure.
accumulation of hydrogen in cathodically protected ballast tanks. The The crew should be aware that petroleum poisoning may occur
hydrogen will accumulate in the upper section of the tank and present an orally, by inhalation, or by skin contact. The particular hazards of sour
immediate explosion hazard when the tank is opened. Precautions crudes (H2S) and the benzene/toluene type cargoes must be stressed to
regarding ignition sources must be as strictly observed when opening and the crew each time those cargoes are carried. Adequate personal
entering ballast tanks as when entering cargo tanks. protection must be provided for crew while cleaning leaded gasoline
tanks.
1.14.5 Toxic hazards on board
The area of greatest danger during routine operations is the
The purchase requisitions for all chemicals, cleaners and paints ordered
pumproom. Pumproom ventilation must always be in operating while
for/by the ship must include provision by the vendor of several copies of
handling cargo in port or while tank washing at sea.
the appropriate 'material safety data sheet' for the product. The data sheet
must include a description of the hazards of the product and the antidote 1.14.7 Work practices on board
or treatment required for personnel exposure. If the antidote or treatment Each vessel must have a manual of standard safe work practices,
is not normally carried on board, it must also be made part of the order. particularly the preparations, precautions and procedures to be used
Copies of the data sheet should be placed in the medical office, in the when:
space where the material is stored and at the work station where it is
• Vessel is rolling or pitching in rough weather.
normally used.
• Working aloft while underway at sea.
The ship must be provided with appropriate organic respirators, dust
• Work overboard in port.
masks, goggles, face masks, disposable coveralls, and protective gloves
• Entering confined spaces (see section 2.15.8); the hazards of
so that crew members can safely handle and work with the chemicals on
confined spaces must be recognised as applying not only to cargo
board. Officers must ensure that the protective equipment is used where
tanks but to all spaces in the ship where oxygen deficiency may occur.
appropriate. Hand cleaner and neutraliser must be readily available to
remove any accidental contact with the chemicals. Individual crew safe work practices include:
Spray painting can expose crew members to a number of hazards.
• Wear suitable, close fitting clothing; synthetic fibres should be
Airless spray equipment ejects the paint at very high pressure, sufficient
avoided in preference to heavy-duty cotton coveralls.
to penetrate skin or cause severe eye injury. A suitable respirator must be
• Long hair must be restrained and kept under a cap or hardhat.
worn. In some cases it may be necessary to use breathing apparatus.
• All jewellry and watches should be removed while working on deck
Likewise, respirators or breathing apparatus may be required for welding
or with machinery.
or flame cutting in confined spaces. • Wear hearing protection in all high-noise areas.
The crew in general and the steward's department personnel in • Wear a hardhat on deck, in tanks, or when others are
particular, should be educated regarding the danger of mixing working above.
different chemicals and the combinations of chemicals which are • Leather footgear with protective toes and non-slip soles must be
particularly dangerous. worn while working.
 • Wear the proper industrial gloves for the chemical being used or the boats. The master or chief officer must take the time to evaluate the
work being performed. stability condition of the vessel. Only when all efforts to save the ship are
• Wear protective goggles or shields for grinding, chipping, welding, obviously futile should an organised, calm abandonment take place. If at
or using compressed air. all possible, the vessel should not be abandoned until a positive means of
• Check and obey all safety placards and notices. rescue is at hand.
• Clean skin immediately of any exposure to harmful substances. It is incumbent on all owners to provide each crew member with an
• Report careless or reckless behaviour or work by any shipmate to the appropriate survival suit, regardless of the absence of any regulatory
supervising officer. requirement.
• Report defective or damaged equipment.
• Safety harnesses must be worn and properly secured or tended 1.15 FRAUD AND CARGO THEFT
while working aloft. This handbook was written during a period of depressed tanker earnings,
• Personal flotation must be worn while working over the side of the when owners, managers and crews have been under severe economic
vessel. pressures for some time. In such an environment, the temptation to reduce
fuel costs or increase incomes by stealing cargo can be very strong. Even
1.14.8 Accidents
in the best of times, there will be some crews and/or owners who believe
Following any accident, the master must:
that a few tonnes of cargo missing here or there will not be detected in the
• Ensure the safety of injured personnel uncertainties of cargo measurement. Some of the cargo theft or fraud
• Take action to minimise additional damage to the ship and to schemes may be temporarily successful, but the vigilance of cargo interests
contain any existing damage. and the methods of detection are continuously improving, reducing the
• As soon as practicable, gather evidence, photographs and chances for success to the level where even the most brazen miscreant
statements necessary for the accident report. should be deterred.
• Obtain necessary medical assistance from shore stations or by
1.15.1 Theft by owner
nearby vessels through the AMVER system.
Owners may have in place a program for recovering slops and ROB cargo
• Complete the necessary official notifications and reports.
for use as fuel, when suitable. (See sections 2.12.9, 5.35.2 and 5.42.5).
Vessel managers should provide the master with a checklist of actions to Such procedures are lawful so long as the cargo is safe for use and the
be taken in response to typical accidents. crew is not encouraged to artificially increase ROB quantities by poor
discharging technique.
1.14.9 Firefighting and abandoning ship
In some cases, the amounts available as fuel from ROB do not meet
Detailed procedures for firefighting are beyond the scope of this book.
the owner's/manager's 'needs' and the owner may encourage the crew to
However, it should be noted that successful firefighting efforts cannot be
increase the amount of ROB cargo at completion of discharge. The
attempted unless the crew has been thoroughly trained in the use of their
encouragement may be in the form of indications of continued
equipment and the strategies and tactics of team firefighting. Frequent and
employment/br as cash payment for the 'sweepings' achieved during the
diligent training will provide the ship with fire teams who are capable of
ballast voyage.
extinguishing all but the largest fires. Since a fire may occur under
In some cases, the owners or managers conspire with the crew to sell
conditions where it is dangerous or fatal to abandon the ship, each crew
cargo en route. The physical and safety risks of impromptu lightering
member should appreciate that his life may depend on his individual
operations and the commercial risks of discovery and exposure make such
contribution to the firefighting effort. In any marine accident, the vessel
ventures suitable only for fools and idiots. Certainly, it is better to wind
should not be abandoned hastily. Vessels often remain afloat long after
up a business that is losing money than to put ships, crews, the
their crews have been killed or injured while abandoning the deck or died
environment and professional reputations at risk in a vain effort to stay
from exposure in
financially afloat.
 One method of attempting to confuse the calculation of cargo on board perform detailed and sophisticated analysis of the results of their
and thereby concealing a subsequent theft, is to have a separate set of shipments. The performance of individual vessels, of fleets of a
ullage tables for the ship's tanks. The false tables reflect a smaller quantity particular owner and even of individual masters and chief officers can be
in the tank(s) than the vessel's true ullage tables. At the discharge port the evaluated. They can examine the outturn results of the same cargoes
ship's correct ullage tables are presented for the cargo calculation, with a moving over the same routes and determine by statistical analysis, the
result that no cargo appears to have been removed from the tanks. Ullage loss allowances that should be expected. The Institute of'petroleum guide
tables should not be accepted by cargo inspectors unless they have the voyage loss allowances of 0.5% to 0.63%, are no longer accepted by the
imprint of an independent petroleum inspection company or other major cargo interests. Cargo interests now know the loss a properly
accepted authority. operated vessel will experience for a voyage and are fully prepared to
defend a claim in arbitration or in court for any excess loss. Voyage
1.15.2 Theft by the crew
cargo losses are now expected to average closer to a range of 0.35% to
There are several cases on record of the master and officers of a tanker
0.15%. The amounts available between best outturn performance and
selling cargo en route without the knowledge of the owner. This kind of
acceptable loss allowance are not large, being in the range of 2000 bbl on
fraud has all the perils mentioned above plus the chance of discovery by
a 250,000 DWT tanker. The crew might realise $20,000 by selling this
owners or managers. This type of theft is rarely found in companies
amount of cargo clandestinely, hardly a sum which (when divided three or
which have a program of careful crew selection, development and
four ways), should tempt a professional officer to risk his career.
retention. However, where the employment policy is to engage the
It is not surprising that masters who have sold cargo en route have
cheapest of available alternatives for officer or crew replacements, with
not been the kind of leader who inspired loyalty from their crew,
resulting high turnover of masters and officers, then the crew can be
especially if the proceeds of the diversion were not shared with the crew.
expected to put their own interests well before those of the owner.
In some cases, masters guilty of cargo diversion have been discovered
Because public disclosure of such theft can be nearly as damaging to the
through reports by the crew to owners or managers of the ship.
owner's reputation as direct involvement, owners have another reason to
The consequences of cargo theft can range from loss of career to loss
implement employment practices aimed at increasing crew retention,
of life (Section 2.12.9). When crude oil is diverted for use as fuel, the low
development and loyalty.
flash point can lead to catastrophic engine room fires or
Sale of cargo en route is usually discovered, although sometimes not
explosions.'Underwriters will withdraw cover from vessels which are
until the results of the voyage have been evaluated by the shipper. The
discovered to have low-flash fuel in their tanks, leaving owners totally
sums of money realised from a single cargo theft are rarely large enough
exposed for any incidents which result. Port authorities will evict such a
to keep an entire crew and their fellow conspirators silent. When the
ship from the berth or port until the fuel is removed and tanks are
master and officers keep the proceeds for themselves, it is not unusual
cleaned and gas freed. Authorities will initiate action to suspend or
that someone in the crew will inform the owners or managers.
revoke the license of a Aief engineer whose vessel is found with low-
1.15.3 Detection and consequences flash fuel on board. Criminal conviction for fraud or theft of cargo will
Cargo theft or fraud can be discovered or disclosed in a number of ways. prejudice the license of any officer. All things considered, it is better for
Independent surveyors and out-turn audit specialists are routinely the vessel to be content with recovering whatever fuel-suitable ROB
engaged to give the vessel's cargo measurements and outturn the closest comes to hand in the normal course of its trade and to seek economies in
scrutiny. Discrepancies from previous performance will be noted and other areas such as preventive maintenance programs, engine efficiency
evaluated. The cargo discharge report will call attention to any unusual analysers, weather routing and detailed work planning.
result.
Computers have now given major cargo interests the ability to
 In cases where vessels are discovered with false, or even uncertified,
ullage tables, authorities of some countries impose drastic penalties
against the vessel. In one case the chief officer was arrested for fraud and
a fine of USD 250,000 was imposed against the owner, because the
vessel was discovered to have on board a set of tables for another ship.