History CA2 notes

5.1 Votes for women

Industrial Revolution – 19th century- jobs available

Wartime Britain and Votes for Women

• Women’s Roles in the Early 20th Century:

• At the start of the 20th century, women in many countries, including Britain, did not have the
right to vote (suffrage). Women were largely treated as second-class citizens.

• By 1911, about 6 million women were employed in the textile industry in the UK. Other
common jobs included working as domestic maids, cooks, shop assistants, and secretaries.

• Traditional gender roles were widespread, with men expected to be leaders, intellectuals, and
wage earners, while women were seen as primarily responsible for raising children at home.

Early Campaigns for Women’s Rights

• Educational and Property Rights:

• The 1868 Taunton Report showed that boys and girls had equal mental capacities, but
women were still believed to be ‘irrational’ and ‘emotional’.

• Women’s education was restricted, and some believed too much education would make
women ‘unmarriageable’ or harm their fertility.

• Some argued women didn’t need suffrage as men (fathers or husbands) could vote on their
behalf.

• However, campaigns for women’s rights succeeded in areas like education and property
rights:

• By 1864, 12 secondary schools for girls had been established in the UK.

• In 1878, the University of London began awarding degrees to women.

• In 1882, married women won the right to own property, which had previously been
automatically owned by their husbands.

• Despite these gains, women still lacked voting rights.

• Global Progress:
 • In 1893, New Zealand became the first country to give women the right to vote, inspiring
feminist movements in Britain.

The Suffragists (Peaceful)

• Formation of NUWSS:

• In 1897, Millicent Fawcett merged several women’s rights groups to form the National Union
of Women’s Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), known as the Suffragists.

• The Suffragists advocated for women’s voting rights through peaceful methods, such as
peaceful demonstrations, petitions, writing articles, and lobbying politicians.

• They argued that, since Parliament made laws that women had to obey, women should have
a say in making those laws.

• By 1914, the NUWSS had over 100,000 members, but none of the bills they supported
passed into law.

The Suffragettes (Violence)

• Formation of WSPU:

• In 1903, Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters broke away from the NUWSS and founded
the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), also known as the Suffragettes.

• The WSPU adopted more militant tactics, believing men would never grant women the vote
peacefully.

• The group organized rallies and protests, including the 1908 Hyde Park rally, which involved
30,000 women and attracted half a million spectators.

• The WSPU also received support from Sophia Duleep Singh, an exiled Sikh princess who
helped fund the suffragette movement.

• Militant Tactics:

• The Suffragettes were known for their bold and often violent tactics, such as chaining
themselves to buildings, smashing windows, bombing mailboxes, and setting fire to empty
buildings.

• These actions alienated some potential supporters but helped draw attention to the cause.

• At its peak, the WSPU had 5,000 members.

• Hunger Strikes and the Cat and Mouse Act:

• More than 1,000 women were arrested for their involvement in the suffragette movement.
• While in prison, many suffragettes went on hunger strikes to protest.

• To avoid making martyrs out of the hunger strikers, the government enacted the ‘Cat and
Mouse Act’, which involved releasing women to recover their health before re-arresting them.

• Martyrdom of Emily Davison:

• Emily Davison, a suffragette, was killed in 1913 during the Epsom Derby while attempting to
attach a suffragette banner to the King’s horse.

• The shocking moment was captured on camera and published globally.

• Her death galvanized the suffragette movement, and thousands attended her funeral.

• Impact of World War I:

• The outbreak of World War I put suffrage campaigns on hold, as many suffragettes
temporarily suspended their activities to support the war effort.

5.2 The Home Front

The Home Front During World War I

• Total War:

• The whole of British society was mobilized for the war effort under the Defence of the Realm
Act (DORA), passed in 1914.

• The government focused on expanding industrial output to produce essential armaments.

• Rationing and Panic Buying:

• As German submarine warfare reduced supplies reaching Britain, panic-buying and hoarding
of food became widespread.

• The government introduced rationing for goods like sugar and meat.

• Women’s Roles in the War Effort:

• Women’s suffrage organizations, like the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies
(NUWSS) and the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), paused political protests and
cooperated with the government.

• Women took on traditionally male roles to prove their worth.

• Over 2 million women replaced jobs left behind by men at war, working in factories, farms,
docks, and transportation.
• By 1918, 90% of munitions factory workers, 4,000 police officers, 117,000 transport workers,
and 260,000 farm laborers were women.

• Women’s work was often grueling, involving toxic fumes, long hours, and poor pay compared
to men.

• The percentage of women in employment increased from 24% in 1914 to 37% in 1918.

Air Raids on Britain

• Zeppelins and Bombing:

• Britain was unprepared for enemy air raids, with its defense systems focused on the navy.

• In January 1915, Britain experienced its first air raid.

• Over 52 zeppelin raids took place during the war.

• Zeppelins were vulnerable to being shot down if searchlights located them, as they were filled
with explosive hydrogen gas.

• May 1917: Gotha bi-plane bombers began bombing Britain, and in 1918, Riesens (‘Giants’)
bombers were developed, capable of carrying bombs up to 13 feet long and weighing a metric
ton.

• Over 1,400 people were killed, and 3,400 were wounded in air raids.

• 300,000 people used the London Underground to shelter during air raids.

Pacifist Movement and Conscientious Objectors

• Conscientious Objectors:

• Many people did not trust the war’s motives and refused to enlist.

• The Military Service Act was passed in 1916, requiring all men aged 18-41 to join the military,
except certain categories of workers and the medically unfit.

• 2.5 million troops were raised, but 16,000 conscientious objectors were tried for refusing
military service, and 6,000 were sent to prison.

• These objectors were often seen as cowards rather than humanitarians.

• International Congress of Women:

• In 1915, 1,136 women from various countries met in the Netherlands to discuss peace
founded on gender equality, human rights, and social justice.
5.3 Interwar Britain
Social Changes in the 1920s

• Impact of WWI:

• Towns and villages across Britain were deeply affected by the war.

• The younger generation sought freedom to honor those lost.

• Women’s Rights:

• 1918 Representation of the People Act:

• All men over 21 gained the right to vote.

• Women over 30 who met a property qualification also gained the vote (about 40% of women).

• 1928 Equal Franchise Act:

• Granted all women the same voting rights as men.

• New Freedoms for Women:

• Women could:

• Walk without chaperones.

• Smoke, drink alcohol, and wear makeup.

• Cut their hair into bobs and wear loose dresses exposing their legs and arms.

• Women adopting these freedoms were labeled “flappers” by the older generation.

Technological Advancements

• Motor Vehicles:

• By the 1930s, horse-drawn vehicles disappeared from cities.

• Over 2 million motor cars replaced them.

• Media and Entertainment:

• Cinemas:

• Showed news, cartoons, and movies.

• By 1937, 946 million tickets were sold annually for Hollywood films in Britain.

• Radios:

• By 1939, there were 9 million radio sets in British homes.

• Popularized music like jazz and blues of African-American origin.

• Education:

• 1918 Education Act: Raised the school leaving age to 14 for boys and girls.

• Boosted literacy and led to the rise of newspapers, magazines, comics (DC and Marvel by
1939), and paperbacks (from 1935).

Sports and Popular Culture

• Mass Media and Celebrities:

• Focus on sports heroes and movie stars.

• Football gained massive popularity, with the first World Cup in 1930.

Social Unrest

• Economic Hardships:

• Unemployment rose to 2 million by the mid-1920s.

• Northern England and Wales saw unemployment rates reach 70%.

• 1926 General Strike: 1.7 million workers protested government wage reductions for coal
miners.

• Fascism in Britain:

• British Union of Fascists (BUF):

• Founded by Sir Oswald Mosley in 1932.

• Promoted authoritarian rule and used racist ideas.

• Grew to 50,000 members.

• 1936 Battle of Cable Street:

• Anti-fascists blocked BUF’s attempt to march through London’s East End, preventing
intimidation of the Jewish population.
Prohibition in the US

• 1919–1933:

• Alcohol manufacturing, import, and sale were banned.

• Underground clubs (speakeasies) emerged, leading to gang violence.

• Prohibition laws were repealed in 1933.

British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

• Founded: 1922.

• Mission: “To inform, educate, and entertain.”

5.4 Churchill and the Battle of Britain

Operation Sealion

• Objective: Nazi plan to invade and conquer Britain.

• Steps of Operation:

1. Destroy the RAF to secure air superiority.

2. Use the Luftwaffe to drop paratroopers.

3. Deploy Panzer tank divisions to south-east England.

• Relied on Blitzkrieg tactics, similar to those that overran Europe.

Winston Churchill’s Appointment as Prime Minister

• Date: 10 May 1940.

• Controversial Appointment:

• Churchill was 65 and criticized for:

• Switching political parties.

• The failed Gallipoli campaign (WWI).

• Opposing Indian independence.

• Seen as a war-monger and disliked by much of the nation, including the royal family.

• Rival: Lord Halifax, Foreign Secretary, was preferred by many.

• Churchill’s Strengths:

• Opposed Neville Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement.

• Warned against Hitler’s rise in the 1930s.

• Refused to negotiate peace, inspiring the nation with speeches like:

“We shall fight on the beaches… we shall never surrender.”

The Battle of Britain (July–October 1940)

• Overview:

• First major campaign fought entirely by air forces.

• Mostly over Hellfire Corner (southern England, near Kent).

• Luftwaffe vs RAF:

• Luftwaffe:

• 2800 planes (4x more than the RAF).

• Bombers were large, slow, and poorly protected.

• RAF:

• 900 fighter planes (Spitfires and Hurricanes).

• Spitfires were fast and deadly against bombers.

• Personnel:

• 3000 RAF pilots: British, Commonwealth, and volunteers from occupied Europe (Belgium,
France, Poland, Czechoslovakia).

• Average age of British pilots: 20 years old.

• Key Factors for RAF Victory:

• Radar Invention:

• Detected German planes an hour before they arrived.

• Real-time communication allowed accurate interceptions.

• Aircraft Production:

• Luftwaffe failed to destroy RAF production centers.

• Quotes:

• Churchill praised the RAF:

“Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.”

The Home Guard

• Purpose: Secondary defense force against Nazi invasion.

• Members:

• Men aged 17–65 (older/injured soldiers, young men, men in reserved occupations).

• Total: 1.5 million men.

• Roles:

• Operated anti-aircraft guns during the Battle of Britain.

• Inspected unexploded bombs.

• Rescued people from bomb-damaged buildings.

5.5 The Home Front, 1939-45

The Home Front During the Second World War

• Total War:

• Britain imposed “total war,” mobilizing all areas of society.

• Rationing: Staple foods except potatoes and bread were rationed using ration books. Spare
land, such as parks and fields, was used to grow food.

• Higher taxes and longer working hours were implemented.

• Ministry of Information:

• Controlled news and public communication.

• Used posters and leaflets to inform people how to support the war effort.

• Censored press content to maintain morale and even redacted private letters.

• National Service Act (1941):

• Made it compulsory for men under 50 and women under 30 to join war work.

• By 1943, 7.25 million women worked in various roles:

• Mechanics, engineers, munitions workers, air-raid wardens, and fire engine drivers.

• 80,000 women served in the Women’s Land Army.

• 640,000 women worked in auxiliary units of the armed forces abroad.

• After the war, women were pushed back into traditional domestic roles.

Evacuation (1939):

• Why Evacuate?:

• Fear of heavy bombing on industrial cities.

• September 1939: 1.5 million children evacuated from cities to the countryside.

• Evacuee Experiences:

• Positive: Many children formed happy bonds with host families.

• Negative: Others suffered abuse, neglect, or were forced to work.

• Homesickness was common, and many were orphaned due to bombing raids.

The Blitz (1940–1941):

• What Happened?:

• Bombing campaign aimed to destroy Britain’s morale.

• German bombers targeted strategic sites: factories, docks, railways.

• Cities affected: London, Bristol, Birmingham, Glasgow, and Liverpool.

• September 7, 1940: The first day of the Blitz in London caused a fire more destructive than
the Great Fire of 1666.

• Impact:

• Over 60,000 civilians killed; thousands injured.

• In London alone, 116,000 houses destroyed; 2 million damaged.

• Coventry Cathedral and other landmarks destroyed.

• German Weapons:

• 1944: Germans used V-1 flying bombs (“doodlebugs”) and V-2 rockets, pilotless missiles that
were almost impossible to intercept.

The Home Guard:

• Created 600 underground bases to resist potential Nazi occupation.

• Tasks included sabotaging supply lines, disabling vehicles, and assassinating Nazi officers.

Unit 6.1 The Chinese Nationalists

1. Collapse of the Qing Dynasty (1911)

• The Chinese Empire, ruled by emperors for over 2,000 years, collapsed in 1911.

• The Chinese Nationalist movement, led by Sun Yat-Sen, aimed to establish a democratic
republic.

• 10 October 1911: A revolt in Wuhan by army officers triggered widespread rebellion.

• The rich gentry sided with the rebels, leading to the fall of the Qing Dynasty.

• December 1911: Sun Yat-Sen declared a provisional Chinese Republic in Nanjing, with
himself as president.

• The last emperor, Puyi, abdicated a few months later.

2. Weakness of Sun Yat-Sen’s Government

• Sun’s government lacked support from the military and the general population.

• Sun handed over the presidency to Yuan Shikai, a popular army general.

• Yuan Shikai blocked democratic reforms and eventually lost control.

• By 1916, China fragmented into territories controlled by warlords.

3. Warlord Era (1916–1926)

• China was officially a republic but lacked central authority.

• Most warlords focused on maintaining power rather than improving living standards.

• Up to 40% of the population lived in poverty, with little industry or infrastructure.

4. Formation of the Guomindang (GMD)

• The Nationalists reorganized themselves in Guangzhou (Canton), forming the GMD

(Nationalist Party).

• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was established and formed a united front with the
GMD to modernize China.

5. Leadership of Chiang Kai-Shek

• 1925: Sun Yat-Sen died, and Chiang Kai-Shek became the GMD leader.

• Chiang was intelligent, ambitious, and disciplined but also had ties to criminal organizations.

6. The Northern Expedition (1926–1928)

• July 1926: Chiang launched the Northern Expedition to reunite China.

• By 1928, Chiang defeated or allied with warlords, establishing a new Chinese Republic with
himself as president.

• Chiang’s forces were disciplined, well-trained, and supported by Chinese citizens and
Shanghai businessmen.

7. The Split Between the GMD and CCP (1927)

• Chiang distrusted Communism and feared CCP influence in his government.

• 1927: Chiang launched brutal purges, killing thousands of Communists and labor union
members.

• The CCP retreated to the countryside, becoming bitter enemies of the GMD.

8. The Threat of Japan

• Chiang’s regime faced an external threat from the expansionist ambitions of Japan.

6.2 Nationalist, Communist or Japanese?

The Guomindang (GMD) Government

• Corruption and Weak Reforms:

• The GMD failed to modernize China successfully, despite some efforts.

• Chiang Kai-shek ruled as a military autocrat, suppressing critics with imprisonment and
torture.

• Issues included widespread corruption, ignored reforms (e.g., child labor ban), and officials
taking bribes.

• Education and healthcare were inadequate: only half a million secondary students and 5,000
doctors for 450 million people.

• Threat from Japan:

• In 1931, Japan annexed Manchuria, using the last Chinese emperor, Puyi, as a puppet ruler.

• Japan threatened further territorial expansion, distracting the GMD from internal issues.

The Communists (CCP)

• Rise of Leaders:

• Mao Zedong became the leader in 1935, supported by Zhou Enlai (intellectual) and Lin Biao
(general).

• Mao’s innovation: mobilizing rural peasants as the revolutionary class, diverging from
traditional Marxism focused on urban workers.

• Mao’s Leadership Style:

• Firm belief in violence as necessary for revolution.

• Ordered the torture and killing of dissenting Communists.

• Long March (1934–1935):

• The Communists escaped Nationalist forces, trekking 5,000 km to Shaanxi province.

• Only a small fraction survived, but it became a legendary symbol of Communist resilience and
determination.

The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)

• Japanese Aggression:

• Japan launched a full-scale invasion in 1937, beginning the Sino-Japanese War.

• Key events:
• Capture of Shanghai.

• “Rape of Nanjing” (Dec 1937): 300,000 killed in mass rape and murder.

• Chiang’s Response:

• Withdrew inland to Chongqing, abandoning the coastal provinces.

• Turning Point:

• The USA entered the war after Pearl Harbor (1941), providing funds, supplies, and military aid
to the GMD.

• Japan surrendered in 1945, marking the end of the war.

Communist Success by 1945

• Support from Peasants:

• CCP soldiers treated locals with respect, contrasting with the GMD’s abusive tactics.

• Membership grew from 50,000 to 1.2 million during the war.

• Weakening of the GMD:

• Exhausted and unpopular after a decade of war, the GMD had little chance to resist the
Communists.