History

CURRENT AFFAIRS
(2023-2025)
Subtopics : Ancient and Art &Culture
PRelims2025
By – Rahul Sengar
 VIKRAMSHILA UNIVERSITY
 Established by King Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty during the late 8th to early
9th century AD, as a response to the perceived decline in educational standards
at Nalanda University.
 Vikramshila University emerged as a leading hub for Tantric Buddhism and
Vajrayana Buddhism, playing a pivotal role in the spread of these traditions
 It drew over 1000 students and 100 teachers from across India and beyond,
reflecting its international reputation as a center of learning.
 Bakhtiyar Khalji around 1203 AD, destroyed it
 Brihadeeswarar Temple (tamilnadu)
About Brihadishvara Temple:
 First all-granite temple in the world.
 Built by emperor Rajaraja Chola I (985 CE -1015 CE).
 It has seen only five kumbhabhishekam ceremonies so far.
 Located on the banks of Kaveri river, it is an exemplary example of a fully realised Dravidian architecture.
 Also known as Dhakshina Meru (Meru of south). Famou to have mural of shiva in Dakshinamurthi form
 A part of “Great Living Chola Temples”, along with the Chola dynasty era Gangaikonda Cholapuram
temple and Airavatesvara temple.
 There are several shrines added to the temple by most of the following rulers such as the Pandyas, the
Vijayanagara rulers and the Marathas, too.
Raja Raja Chola I / Arulmozhi Varman (10th-11th century)
Rajaraja is regarded as Ulakalanda Perumel (the great one who measured the earth like Trivikrama) and
as Shiva who established control over the land of Bhargava Rama.
The Cholas undertook military expeditions to Sri Lanka (during the time of Rajaraja I) and SriVijaya (during
the time of Rajendra I).
Titles: Jayangonda, Pandya-kulasani, Singalantaka, Colamartanda, and Telingakulakala.
Stone records: He started prefacing stone records (official prasasti) with a set description of the major
events of his reign.
Encouraged Sri Mara Vijayottungavarman, the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya, to build a Buddhist Vihara at
Nagapattinam
 NMA to submit a report on comprehensive development of
MAHULI GROUP OF TEMPLES KNOWN AS DAKSHIN KASHI,
• 5 temples (11th and 12th CE) in HEMADPANTHI STYLE of architecture
and are located near Satara.
• Samadhis of great Maratha queens Rani Tarabai Bhosle and Rani Yesho
Bai Bhosle in Mahuli (Satara) .
• Sangam Mahuli from its position at the meeting of the Krshna and the
Yenna, is a holy town in great local note about three miles east of
Satara.
Gold makeover of Kedarnath temple’s sanctum sanctorum
completed
• Currently the sanctum sanctorum of one of the famous Char Dham temple is
covered with 230 kilogram of silver, done in 2017
• Garhwal Himalayas , Mandakini River (Runs between Rudraprayag and
Sonorayag)
• temple was believed to be built by Pandavas.
• Modern temple built by Adi Shankaracharya in8th century
• Temple is closed in winter and brought down to a village named ukhimat
• 4 mathas by Shankaracharya : Badrinath Dwarka Puri Sringeri
MAHAKALESHWAR TEMPLE ,Ujjain –Avantika in Ancient Time (MP)
• Anand Tandav Swaroop [a form of dance of Lord Shiva], 200 statues
and murals of Lord Shiva and goddess Shakti.
• Besides Mahakal, these include Somnath and Nageshwar in Gujarat,
Mallikarjuna in Andhra Pradesh, Omkareshwar in Madhya Pradesh,
Kedarnath in Uttarakhand, Bhimashankar, Triyambakeshwar and
Grishneshwar in Maharashtra, Viswanath at Varanasi, Baidyanath in
Jharkhand, and Rameshwar in Tamil Nadu.
• Mahakal is the only jyotirlinga facing the south, while all the other
jyotirlingas face east. This is because the direction of death is believed
to be the south. In fact, people worship Mahakaleshwar to prevent an
untimely death.
MAHAKALESHWAR TEMPLE ,Ujjain –Avantika in Ancient Time (MP)
• In the early part of the Meghadutam (Purva Megha) composed in the 4th
century, Kalidasa gives a description of the Mahakal temple. It is described as
one with a stone foundation, with the ceiling on wooden pillars. There would be
no shikharas or spires on the temples prior to the Gupta period.
• Ujjain is geographically situated at a spot where the zero meridian of longitude
and the Tropic of Cancer intersect.
• In the 18th century, an observatory was built here by Maharaja Jai Singh II,
known as the Vedh Shala or Jantar Mantar, comprising 13 architectural
instruments to measure astronomical phenomena.
• In the 13th century, the temple complex was destroyed by Turk ruler Shams-ud-
din Iltutmish during his raid on Ujjain.
• The present five-storeyed structure was built by the Maratha general Ranoji
Shinde in1734, in the Bhumija, Chalukya and Maratha styles of architecture. A
century later, its marble walkways were restored by the Scindias.
Sharda Peeth
• located in the village of Sharda in the valley of Mount Harmukh, along the Neelam River in the
POK.
• As a Centre of Learning: Between the 6th and 12th centuries CE, it was one of the foremost
centres of higher learning, hosting scholars such as Kalhana, Adi Shankara, and Vairotsana.
• It is also said to be where Paṇini and Hemachandra completed and stored their writings on
Sanskrit grammar.
• Sharda is the most revered religious place for Kashmiri Pandits. They believe that Sharada in
Kashmir is a tripartite embodiment of the goddess Shakti: Sharada (goddess of learning),
Saraswati (goddess of knowledge), and Vagdevi (goddess of speech).
• Academics also believe that Raja Lalitaditya had built the Sharada Peeth for containing the
religious and political influence of the Buddhism. The claim is supported by the fact that
Lalitaditya was a master of building massive temples.
• It is one of the 18 Maha Shakti Peethas throughout South Asia that commemorate the location
of fallen body parts of the Hindu deity Sati.
Moidams, : 43rd WHS : Pyramids of Assam
• Time Period: 13th-19th C , resemble Egyptian pyramids & Chinese royal tombs.
• Location: Charaideo district (Royal Moidams) ,Other Moidams found in Jorhat, Dibrugarh, and
eastern Assam.
 Structural Features:
• Design: Earthen mounds with vaulted chambers.
• Covered with a grassy dome and topped with an
octagonal pavilion (Chow Chali).
• Surrounded by a low octagonal wall with a single entrance.
 Burial System:
• Unlike Hindu cremation, the Ahoms (Tai origin) practiced burial.
• It contained kings, grave goods, animals, and even servants for the after life.
 Sacred Elements: Special trees, water bodies, and Tai-Ahom rituals (Me-Dam-Me-Phi) are still
practiced here.
Agra Fort:
• It is a large 16th-century fortress of red sandstone located on the Yamuna River in the historic
city of Agra, west-central Uttar Pradesh.
• It is about 5 km northwest of its more famous sister monument, the Taj Mahal.
• It was built under the commission of Emperor Akbar in 1565.
• It was only during the reign of Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan, that the site took on its current
state.
• It was the main residence of the emperors of the Mughal Dynasty till 1638, when the capital
was shifted from Agra to Delhi.
• ▪️Features:
• The fort is crescent-shaped, with a long, nearly straight wall facing the Yamuna river on the
east side.
• The Agra Fort has four main gateways- the Khizri Gate, Amar Singh Gate, Delhi Gate and Ghazni
Gate.
• The fort complex was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.
Kumbhalgarh Fort (UDAIPUR)
• Second most important citadel after Chittorgarh in the Mewar region.
• The fort was built in the 15th century AD by Rana Kumbha.
• It is the second-longest wall of the world after the Great Wall of China.
• designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the group of Hill Forts of
Rajasthan.
• It is strategically located on the western Aravalli hills.
• The fort contains seven fortified gateways and several Jain temples, as well as
the Lakhola Tank, the most famous tank within the fort, which was built by
Rana Lakha.
• Birthplace of Mewar's legendary king Maharana Pratap.
• Its defences could be breached only once by the combined armies of the Mughal
and of Amber primarily for scarcity of drinking water.
Modhera Sun temple,
Gujarat
• Built in 1026–27 by Bhima-I of
Solanki Dynasty
• Solanki School/ Maru-Gurjara style
• It is situated on the bank of the river
Pushpavati.
• No worship is offered now and is
protected monument maintained by
Archaeological Survey of India.
• The temple complex has three
components: Gudhamandapa, the
shrine hall; Sabhamandapa, the
assembly hall and Kunda, the
reservoir.
 Thotlakonda (andhrapradesh)
Context : Mahastupa of the Buddhist heritage site of
Thotlakonda collapsed last year .
About :
Remnants of stupas, chaitya grihas and viharas atop Thotlakonda
Hill, Andhra Pradesh.
Hinyana Buddhist mahastupa
 SAMBHAL MOSQUE Row
5th century BC, Sambhal was home to the Panchal rulers and was subsequently a part of
king Ashoka’s empire.”
Delhi sultanate: Important place under Qutb-ud-din Aibak’s ,Tughlaq and Lodis.
After 1st Battle of Panipat in 1526 : came under the Mughals
Sambhal mosque : built by Hindu Beg in 1526, an official under Babur. Only three
mosques built during Babur’s reign survived into modern times — the Jama Masjid in
Sambhal, the Kabuli Bagh mosque in Panipat (1527-28 AD), and the Babri Masjid of
Ayodhya (1529)
Claimed to be Hari mandir by other group and some of claim was based on ACL Carlleyle,
First Assistant of the ASI, titled ‘Tours in the Central Doab and Gorakhpur’ which was not
agreed by alexander Cunningham
Even some claim are that hindu beg renovated an existing mosque as features are more
like pathan architecture than Mughal
Abul Fazl’s Ain-e-Akbari, showed awareness of Sambhal as the place where the last avatar of Vishnu
would be born.
SCULPTUREs
STATUE OF ONENESS
 PM to bring home 157 artefacts &
antiquities from the US
Bas relief panel of Revanta in sandstone
of the 10th CE
Three headed Brahma,
Chariot Driving Surya, Vishnu and his
Consorts
Siva as Dakshinamurti,
Dancing Ganesha,
Boddhisattva Majushri, Tara
Jaina Choubisi
Amorphous couple in Samabhanga,
Chowri Bearer,
Female playing drum
Guru Hargovind Singh
Forms of Shiva
• Panchanana Shiva : with five faces , each face representing Isana , Tatpurusha ,
Aghora , Vamadeva & Sadyojata .
• Anugrahamurthy : is most peaceful aspect when he is surrounded by his
ardent devotees and family members .
• Ugramurthy : in the most ferocious state of anger when he ventures out to
destroy all the evil forces that come to exist .
• Thandavamurthy : known as Nataraja , he performs the tandava which is a
dance form characterised by dynamic rhythmic movement . He performs his
various dance forms to reduce the sufferings of his devotees , as well as to
defuse the negative forces in the universe .
• Bhikshathana murthy : in the form of an ascetic , wandering from place to
place , with a human skull , begging bowl in hand , lost in meditation and in his
own thoughts .
• Hridaya murthy in a state of friendliness with Lord Vishnu , with the images
depicting of Shiva on the righthand side and Vishnu on the lefthand side .
.
* Dakshinamurthy .. this form represents
him as a teacher of all the mystic secrets
of the various art forms , such as alchemy ,
yantras , tantras , etc .
* Lingodbhavamurthy signifying the
infinite form of Shiva with no beginning
and no end , and the Lord in this form of
Linga depicts the Supreme Self .
• Ardhanariswara : Half man+ Half
Woman
PAINTINGS
Kangra School
• Early patronage by Raja Govardhan Singh in
1774
• It first evolved in Guler then came to Kangra.
• Reached its zenith under Raja Sansar Chand
• Paintings were marked with a sensuality and
intelligence that the other schools lack.
• Theme: Gita Govinda, Bhagwata Purana, Satsai
of Biharilal and Nal Damyanti. Love scenes of
Krishna
• Famous group of paintings :‘Twelvemonths’
• The Kangra school became the parent school
to the other ateliers which developed in the
region of Kullu, Chamba and Mandi.
Contemporary artist and collector
Amit Ambalal on the commerce-led
revival of Pichwai art
Pichwai’s iconic cow and lotus motifs
are seeing a revival almost
everywhere, from fashion to interior
design
Nathdwara School is a subset of
the Mewar School of painting(17th-
18th-century
Pichhwai paintings are the most
popular.
Most works produced in this style
revolve around the figure of
Shrinathji as a manifestation of as a
7 year-old child (Balak).
Krishna and refer to the incident of
him holding the Govardhan hill on
his last finger.
 SANTHALI SOHRAI MURALS
•Time Period : 10,000–4,000 BC.
• Themes : forest, people, and animals.
1. Keonjhar and Mayurbhanj districts of Odisha;
2. East Singhbhum and Seraikela-Kharsawan districts of Jharkhand;
3. Purulia district of West Bengal.
• Occasion –Sohrai, a harvest festival coinciding with Diwali or Kali Puja.
• Communities : Apart from the Santhals, the Bhumij community
• Morrum is thought to be termite resistant and does not fade easily with rain.
 KARUPPUR KALAMKARI PAINTINGS
KALLAKURICHI WOOD CARVINGS :GI TAGs (TAMILNADU)
 KAAVI ART (GOA, MAHARSHTRA ,
KARNATAKA )

Prime Minister spoke about a dying

form of art known as Kaavi Art.
Form of murals found in Konkan region
Kaav : Indian red pigment which is the
only color used in this painting, is
obtained from the laterite soil.
The painting is done on wet plaster in
a manner similar to frescoes.
 Madhubani Paintings/Mithila paintings
• Theme : Religious motifs of the Hindus,
including Krishna, Rama, Durga, Lakshmi and
Shiva.
• The figures used symbolic Ex: fish depicts
good luck and fertility
• Also made depicting auspicious occasions like
birth, marriage and festivals.
• Flowers, trees, animals, etc. are used to fill any
gaps in the painting.
• Traditionally painted on walls using rice paste
and vegetable colours on a base of cow dung
and mud.
• Now: handmade paper, clothes and canvas, still
the natural colours were used.
• No shading Paintings are two-dimensional.
• Double line border, bold use of colours, ornate
floral patterns and exaggerated facial features
• Given GI (geographical indication) status.
PM Modi gifts hand-carved box with Rogan painting of GUJRAT
to Japan's Fumio Kishida
Rogan(Persian words mean oil varnishing) painting is an art of cloth
printing practised in Kutch district of Gujarat. In the craft, paint made
from boiled oil and vegetable dyes is laid down on fabric using either a
metal block (printing) or a stylus (painting). The craft nearly died out in
the late 20th century, with Rogan painting being practised by only one
family.
A spectacular ‘Mandala’ art
Literally meaning : the “circle” or the “centre” in
Sanskrit, mandala is defined by a geometric
configuration that usually incorporates the
circular shape or can be created in the shape of a
square, a mandala pattern is essentially
interconnected.
Time period : Mandala is rooted in Hinduism
and Buddhism. Mandala imagery first appeared
in the Vedas (c. 1500-500 BC), and Buddhist
missionaries travelling along the Silk Road are
believed to have taken it to regions outside
India.
Hindu Philosophical Systems : a mandala is
usually in the shape of a square with a circle at its
centre.
Traditional Buddhist Mandala : a circular
painting that is meant to help its creator discover
their true self.
.
A spectacular ‘Mandala’
art .
There are various elements incorporated
within the mandala, each of which has its
own meaning. For instance, the eight spokes
of the wheel (the Dharmachakra) represent
the eight-fold path of Buddhism that brings
liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
The lotus flower depicts balance, and the sun
represents the universe. Facing up, triangles
represent action and energy, and facing
down, they represent creativity and
knowledge.
While it continues to appear in Buddhist
Thangka paintings, it has a central place in the
works of even mainstream artists associated
with tantric and neo-tantric spiritual
movements.Also adopted by modern artist
like SH Raza etc .
 DANCE
(CLASSICAL AND FOLK)
Kathak (Uttar Pradesh)
• Kathakars or story-tellers, are the people
who narrate stories,
• largely based on episodes from the epics,
myths and legends.
• Early Phase: oral tradition
• Later Phase: Mime and gestures added
make the recitation more effective
• Vaishnavism (15th century) became the
prominent range of lyrics and musical forms
– Krishna and his leela
• Dance in Raslila was mainly an extension of
the basic mime and gestures of the
Kathakars
• In both Hindu and Muslim courts, Kathak
became highly popular source of
entertainment.
Elements of Kathak
• Equal distribution of Body weight along the horizontal and vertical
axis.
• Full foot contact is of prime importance with no sharp bends of the
upper or lower part of the body
• Only classical dance of India having links with Muslim
cultureunique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art.
• Only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North
Indian music.
• #Jugalbandi is the main attraction of kathak recital which shows a
competitive play between the dancer and the table player
• World famous spectacular footwork, amazing spins, Nazakat and
Padhant (Chanting of bols, toda, tukdas by dancer himself and then
performing). A distinctive feature of Kathakcreates a nexus
between the dancer and audience.
• #Kramalaya is the concluding piece comprising of intricate and fast
footwork.
• #Gat bhaav is dance without any music or chanting. This is used to
outline different mythological episodes.
• The heavy ghunghroos are worn by the Dancers
• A Wide variety of sounds are hidden in these ghunghroos like
running train, heavy rains, Sound of Horse riding,( Ghode ki chaal)
and much more. This adds more beauty to the performance.
Sattriya (Assam)
• Introduced by the great Vaishnava saint,
Mahapurusha Sankaradeva in Assam
around 15th century.
• Nurtured and preserved till today with
great commitment by the Sattras in
Vaishnava monasteries.
• Sattras are the dance community halls
(namghar) of monastery temples.
Elements
Themes and styles
• Performed are mostly on Radha-
Krishna and other myths.
• Dramas written by Sankardev are
typically presented.
• Sattriya performance integrated two styles:
• Masculine (Paurashik Bhangi — energetic and with jumps)
• Feminine (Stri Bhangi—Lasya or delicate).
Costumes:
• Male—Dhoti, chadar, paguri (turban).
• Female—Ghuri, chadar, Kanchi (waist cloth) made up of materials
manufactured in Assam.
• The play and Character specific costumes are also seen in Sattriya.
• Masks are used for special characters (like demons) sometimes.
• Traditional Assamese jewelry is employed.
Music: Borgeet of Sankardev and Madhavdev.
Instruments: Khol (two faced asymmetrical drum), Cymbals- Manjira
Bhortal, Flute, Violin, Harmonium etc.
Demise of classical dancer Yamini Krishnamurti
who was trained in Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi
and wrote a book Passion for Dance
• Bharatnatyam can be broken down into- Bha (bhaav/
expression); Ra(raag/ melody), Ta (taal/rhythm).
• Silappatikaram (its existence was mentioned in this
ancient Tamil epic).
• Brihaddeshwara temple was a major center for
Bharatnatyam since 1000CE.
• The Gopurams of Chidambaram(Natraja) display the
poses of Bharatnatyam, chaaris, and Karanas that are
carved in the stones.
• One dancer takes on many roles in a single
performance → Also known as Poetry in
motion‘Ekcharya lasyam’
• Style was kept alive by the devadasis (young girls ‘gifted’ by their parents to the
temples and married to the gods). So known as DASSIATTAM
• Devadasis performed music and dance as offerings to the deities, in the temple
courtyards
• Abhinaya Darpan and Sangeet Ratnakar guide the technique and grammar of
body movements.
• leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance → Dancer expresses the
sahitya through movement.
• #four Thanjavur teachers‘Tanjor quartet’, are Chiniah, Ponniah, Vadivelu and
Shivanandam. Tanjore natyam.
• #Bharatnatyam is often referred to as the ‘fire dance’
• #One of the principal mudras is ‘Kataka Mukha Hasta’ in which the three fingers
are joined to symbolise ‘Om’.
Instruments: The accompanying
orchestra consists of a vocalist, a
mridangam player, a violinist or veena
player, a flautist and a cymbal player.
NattuvanarThe person who
conducts the dance recitation
 CHAM DANCE
Origin: Yogachara School Kashmir
in the 4th century by Asanga and
Vasubandhu. This developed into
the sophisticated Vajrayana form of
Buddhism, which incorporated the
Cham dance.
From Ladakh to Mongolia, the
Cham is the deepest form of
meditation of the Lamas.
Started : 8th century by
Padmasambhava (who introduced
Tantric Buddhism to Tibet)
It is an elaborate masked and
Costumed dance.
MARTIAL ART
FORMS
Kalaripayattu :
✅ Martial Art based on the ancient knowledge of the human body.
✅ Originated - Kerala
✅ Considered as : The father of modern Kung - Fu
✅ Kalaripayattu is composed of two words, kalari means “place of combat”
and payattu means “fighting” in Malayalam.
✅ The four stages of Payattu are :
• Maippayattu - Body conditioning exercises
• Kolthari - Use of wooden weapons
• Angathari: Use of sharp metallic weapons
• Verumkai : Bare-handed defense and attack.
✅ It can be said that Kalarippayattu is Yoga in action.
 SILAMBAM (TAMILNADU)
• Ancient weapon-based martial art
• It is one of the oldest martial arts in the world.
• Silam stands for a ‘mountain’ and bam stands for bamboo It is
• 16 Foot movement are key elements to silambam and kutta
varisai (empty hand version)
• Closely linked to the Kerala martial art Kalaripayattu.
Origin:
• believed to have originated somewhere around 1000 BC and it was
brought by the sage Agastya Munivar.
• Mentioned in Sillappadikkaram and many other works of Sangam
literature
• recent surveys and archaeological excavations: practiced from at
least 10,000 BC.
Thangka art

Thangka is a Tibetan Buddhist painting on cotton, silk, or

canvas. Thangkas are usually scroll paintings, but they can
also be mounted on a board. They typically depict
religious subjects, such as Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and
mandalas. Thangkas are used for meditation, worship,
and teaching.
 INDIAN
THEATRE
Theyyam(Kerala)
• It is similar to a practice in
Karnataka, called Bhuta Kola
• open theatre performed in
front of the local temples to
mainly honor the spirit of the
ancestors besides gods.
• Themes of Vaishnavism, Shaktism
and Shaivism are now common.
• The actors wear elaborate
headgear and colorful costumes
• Kantara: What is the controversy over the practice of ‘bhoota
kola’ in the Kannada movie?
• Bhoota Kola is an annual ritual performance where local spirits
or deities are worshipped. It is believed that a person
performing the ritual has temporarily become a god himself.
This performer is both feared and respected in the community
and is believed to give answers to people’s problems, on behalf
of the god. There are several ‘Bhootas’ who are worshipped in
the Tulu-speaking belt of Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada
and Udupi districts. It is usually performed in small local
communities and rural areas.
INDIAN MUSIC
Amir Khusrau(1253-1325): “Tuti-yi-Hind”- The Parrot of India
Context: The Prime Minister of India attended the 25th edition of Jahan-e-
Khusrau, a Sufi music festival celebrating Amir Khusrau’s contributions
About :
• Born in Patiyali, Etah (Uttar Pradesh) with Turkish father and Indian mother
• 13th-century poet, musician (popularizing Qawwali), blending Persian & Hindavi )
precursor to Hindi & Urdu) traditions.
• Disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, balancing his role as a court poet with
devotion to the Chishti Sufi order.
• Served five Delhi Sultans: Muizuddin Qaiqabad ,Jalaluddin Khalji (Bestowed title
Amir) , Alauddin Khalji , Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah ,Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
Contributions of Amir Khusrau:
Literary Contributions:
• Works include Masnavi Nuh Siphir(nine skies): Mubarak Shah of the Khalji Dynasty.
vivid portrayal of India, including its landscapes, flora, fauna, and cultural aspects,
which he often referred to as a "Paradise on Earth"
• Qiran-us-Saadain-the historic meeting of Bughra khan and Son sulan Qaiqabad), Ghazals,
Riddles, & Folk Poetry. Influenced early Hindi & Urdu literature with riddles & proverbs.

Musical Legacy:
• Introduced & popularized Qawwali, merging Persian, Arabic & Indian traditions.
• Crafted ragas, khayal singing, & bol-bant in Hindustani classical music.
• Believed to have invented the Sitar & Tabla (debated).
Legacy & Enduring Influence:
• His Qawwalis (e.g., *Chhaap Tilak, Zehal-e-Maskeen, Sakal Ban Phool Rahi
Sarson*) remain popular.
• Influenced later Persian, Urdu, & Hindi poets, shaping India’s composite culture.
• Buried near Nizamuddin Auliya’s Dargah, symbolizing their spiritual bond.
• He also compiled “Tughlaq Nama” and lauded Kashmir as a paradise on earth.
TABLA (demise of Jakir Hussain- winner of 4 Grammy awards )
(Percussion instrument /Awanaad vaadya: Tabla (right) -Bayan or Dagga (left)
Center of the Tabla is having wodden body covered with animal skin whose
center part is covered with syahi paste, which helps in tuning the drum.
Bayan has a clay or metal body covered with animal skin with syahi paste.
Prominent Musicians: Famous tabla players include Ustad Alla Rakha Khan, his son
Zakir Hussain, Shafat Ahmed, and Samta Prasad.
Khyal
• Derived from Persian and means “idea or imagination”
• Origin of this style was attributed to Amir Khusrau
• Popular  greater scope for improvisation
• Most unique features of Khyal  use of taan in the
compositionAlap is given lesser room as compared to Dhrupad
• Based on the repertoire of short songs ranging from two to eight lines
• Khyal composition is also referred to as a ‘Bandish’.
• Bada Khyal: sung in the slow tempo
• Chhota Khyal: sung in the fast tempo
Khayal Gharanas
Gwalior Gharana:
• Ex: Nathu Khan and Vishnu Palushkar.
Kirana Gharana
• After the town named Kirana in Uttar Pradesh
• Better known for their mastery over the slow tempo ragas
• Most famous : Pandit Bhimsen Joshi and Gangubai Hangal.

Bhendibazaar Gharana: Chhajju Khan, Nazir Khan and Khadim Hussain Khan
founded it in the 19th century. They gained popularity and fame as the singers
were trained to control their breath for a long period. Using this technique,
these artists could sing long passages in a single breath. Furthermore, they are
unique as they use some Carnatic ragas in their envious repertoire.
Agra Gharana:
• Historians  19the century,established by Khuda Baksh
• Musicologists Haji Sujan Khan founded it
• Faiyaz Khan revived the Gharana by giving it a fresh and lyrical touch. Since
then it has been renamed as the Rangeela Gharana.
• Composition: Blend of Khyal and Dhrupad style. special emphasis to Bandish
Major expounders :Mohsin Khan Niazi and Vijay Kichlu.
Patiala Gharana:
• Bade Fateh Ali khan and Ali Baksh khan started the Gharana in the 19th
century.
• Gathered a reputation for ghazal, thumri and khayal. .
• Use of greater rhythm,emotions (tend to use ornamentation or alankaras in
their music). They stress on intricate tanas.
• Bade Ghulam Ali Khan Sahab one of India’s greatest Hindustani classical
vocalists well known for his rendition of the Raga Darbari.
Man Singh Tomar (1486-1516 AD) of Gwalior
• consolidated the Dhrupad style of classical music.
• responsible for compiling the Mankutuhal, a comprehensive treatise on various
forms of music prevalent at the time.
• Has given patronage to Baiju bawara and tansen .
• built the Gujari Mahal for his Gujar queen, Mrignayani, as a separate palace with
a constant water supply from the River Ria He also constructed the Man Mandir
Palace within the Gwalior Fort, which was once a center for music and learning.
Dhrupad
Context : Ramakant Gundecha died, dhrupad genre of the
Dagar Vani
About: Mentioned even in Natyashastra (2nd CBC-2ndCAD)
 Dhrupad owes its roots to older forms like Prabhanda and
Dhruvapada
 Origination ‘dhruva’ and ‘pada,’  denotes both verse form of
the poetry and the style od Singing. Dhruva literally means
‘unmoving’ return of the Swara (tonal), Kala (time) and Shabda
(textual) trajectories to a fixed point.
 Starts with Alap Sung without words
 At least four stanzas, called Sthayi (or Asthayi), Antara, Sancari and
Sthayi: Melody, Sanchari: development phase, Abhoga: concluding
section
• Dhrupad includes use of sanskrit syllables  temple origin
• Compositions  4 to 5 stanzas and are performed by a duo.
• Tanpura and Pankhawaj usually accompany them
• Although Dhrupad consolidated in 13th Century but reached its
zenith in the court of emperor Akbar(patronised musical
masters like Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas and Mian Tansen)
Famous Gharanas:
 Dagari Gharana:
Sings in Dagar Vani,
 great emphasis on alap,
Dagars are Muslims but usually sing Hindu texts of Gods and
Goddesses.
Ex: Gundecha Brothers from Jaipur
Darbhanga Gharana:
Khandar Vani and Gauhar Vani.
Emphasize on the raga alap and composed songs over an
improvised alap.
Improvise it by incorporating a variety of layakari
Ex:Mallik familyRam Chatur Mallik, Prem Kumar Mallik and Siyaram
Tewari
Bettiah Gharana:
Perform the Nauhar and Khandar vani
Mishras Family . The living member who performs regularly is Indra
Kishore Mishra.
Form of Dhrupad prevalent in the Bettiah and Darbhanga schools
is known as the Haveli style.
Talwandi Gharana:
Sing the Khandar vani but as the family is based in Pakistan
it has become difficult to keep that within the system of Indian
music.
KAMAICHA
Bowed instrument
Manganiyar community.
Muslim musicians
Manganiyars are also referred to as the Merasi.
Material : Mango Tree and Stick portion of the bow is made
from the Khejari wood and the hair from the tail of the horse.
The bow is concave in shape.
Kamaicha consists of 17 strings, of which three are the main
ones( prepared from the goat's intestine called Roda and Joda.)
The other 14 strings are called Jhara, out of which five are made
of copper while the rest are made of steel wire.
 INDIAN
FESTIVALS
Putola Nach(String Puppet -Assam)
Context: The COVID-19 pandemic has provided an Assam-based trust
the opportunity to focus on a near-forgotten form of string puppetry
called Putola Nach.
About Putola Nach(also called putala bhaona )
Themes : The Ramayana and contemporary educational themes
Dialogues : From bhaona, the local traditional theatre.
Areas : Barpeta-Nalbari in western Assam, Kalaigaon in northern Assam
and Majuli “island” in eastern Assam.
Jivitputrika Festival: 46 people, including 37 children,
tragically drowned during the Jivitputrika celebrations in
Bihar.

About Jivitputrika Festival

 Jivitputrika (also known as Jitiya Vrat) is a Hindu festival observed primarily in
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Nepal.
 Purpose: Mothers pray for their children's safety, long life, and prosperity.
 Timing: Celebrated on Ashtami Tithi of Krishna Paksha in the month of Ashwin
(September–October).
 Mythology: Inspired by the selflessness of King Jimutavahana, who gave his life
to save others.

 Rituals
 ✅ Nahai-Khai: Participants take a purifying bath and enjoy a nutritious meal.
 ✅ Khur-Jitiya: A strict nirjala fast (no food or water) is observed.
 ✅ Paaran: The fast ends with a meal to conclude the ritual.
Namdhari Sect : Clashes between rival factions of the Namdhari sect in Haryana's

 About : Founded By Satguru Ram Singh on Baisakhi in 1857.

 Opposed British Rule & Social Injustices:
 Led resistance against British Raj.
 Promoted social reforms.
 Also Known As: "Kukas", due to their distinctive Gurbani recitation style.
 British Repression:
o Harsh punishments for resistance.
o Ram Singh was exiled to Rangoon & never returned.

 Beliefs & Practices

 Guru Granth Sahib revered, but also follow a living human Guru.
 Followers believe Ram Singh is still alive & will return.
 Wear white garments in his memory.
 Sacred Practices: Cows are revered ,No alcohol, tea, or coffee consumption.
 PERSONALITIES
AND
RELATED INFORMATION
Guru Padmasambhava(8th CAD):International Conference
on His Legacy
• Known as "Second Buddha" & Guru Rinpoche, revered as
a Himalayan saint.
• One of the Founder of Tibetan Buddhism in 749 AD,
spreading Vajrayana traditions along with Acharya Shanta
Rakshita and prevalent King Thisong Deotsen.
• Founded Nyingma Sect, emphasizing Dzogchen (Great
Perfection).
• His teachings blend Yogic & Tantric practices, meditation,
art, music, dance, and religious doctrine.
• Buddha Shakya Muni’s prophecy about the emanation of
Padmasambhava in this world was found recorded in
various Sutra and Tantra Texts.
Tibetan Buddhism (9th century AD)
• It evolved from the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of Buddhism, incorporating many
tantric and shamanic practices of both post-Gupta period Buddhism in India.
• Tibetan Buddhism also incorporates the Bon religion which was spread across Tibet before
Buddhism’s arrival.
• 4 major schools: Nyingma (8th century), Kagyu (11th century), Sakya (1073) and Gelug (1409)
• The Janang school (12th century) is one of the smaller schools that grew as an offshoot of the
Sakya school.
Gelug School :
• The Dalai Lama belongs to Gelug School (‘Dalai’ means ‘ocean’ in Mongol).
• Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso(5th grand lama of the school), was 1st conferred title of Dalai Lama.
• Claimed to be the reincarnation of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva
• Among literary texts, we find Therigatha, an early collection of verses composed by elder
Nuns(women).
• Code for Buddhist monks, Vinaya, has more rules for women than men, In Jatakas, Buddha
takes 550 forms. Not one is that of a woman.
 MIHIRA BHOJA ( 836-885AD)
called King Baura by another Arab traveler, Al-Masudi.
Mihir Bhoja's epithet was Srimad-Adivaraha (the fortunate primeval
boar incarnation of Vishnu), and thus scholars generally agree on the
attribution of adivaraha drama billion coins to him.
Thakkar pheru, the mint master under Alauddin khilji, mentioned
Adivaraha coins in his 13th-century text Dravya-Pariksha.
Ahilyabai Holkar(1725- Queen of Indore within the Maratha Confederacy)
• Established Maheshwar (in Madhya Pradesh) on the banks of the Narmada River as
the capital of the Holkar Dynasty.
• Her father, Mankoji Shinde, was from a respectable Dhangar (Gadariya) family who served as
the Patil (title like village head).He taught her to read and write.
• She excelled at administrative and military strategies under the guidance of her father-in-law,
who believed she should lead her people and not die by Sati after demise of husband Khande
Rao Holkar in the 1754 Battle of Kumbher against the King of Bharatpur Surajmal
• She carried out renovations in Somnath temple, Kashi Vishwanath temple Varanasi (1780),
Trambak, Gaya, Pushkar, Vrindavan, Nathdwara, Haridwar, Badrinath, Kedarnath and many
other sacred sites.
• Ahilyabai repealed a traditional law that allowed the state to confiscate the property of
childless widows.
• Titles /praise : “a very able ruler and organiser” by Jawaharlal Nehru in ‘A Discovery of India’.
• ‘The Philosopher Queen’ - John Keay, the British histoian
Rani Chennamma(1778-1829) – A commemorative stamp to mark the 200th
anniversary of Kittur Kittur Vijayotsava (Karnataka).

Family: Daughter of Dhulappa Desai and Padmavati, belonged to the Lingayat

community and Married Raja Mallasarja
Doctrine of Lapse: EIC refused to recognize her adopted son Shivalingappa
First Revolt (1824): Led Kittur army against 20,000 British soldiers, killing British
officer John Thackery and inflicting heavy losses on British forces.
Imprisonment & Death: British forces retaliated, captured her, and imprisoned her
at Bailhongal Fort, where she passed away in 1829.
Legacy:Rani Chennamma remains a symbol of resistance and one of the first Indian
rulers to fight against British colonial rule. Her bravery continues to inspire the
fight for women’s empowerment and national pride.
Raja Ravi Varma's 17the first true copy of his iconic painting Indulekha
was unveiled :The painting depicts the protagonist of Indulekha, the
first modern Malayalam novel by O. Chandu Menon, published in 1889.
About Raja Ravi Varma
Painted portraits of Indians and British officials, blending Western techniques of
perspective with Indian themes ,Used oil colors , known as Raphael of East , father
of modern paintings in India
Recognition:
Kaiser-i-Hind by the British government in 1904.
In 2013, a crater on Mercury was named in his honor.
Notable Works:
Damayanti Talking to a Swan ,Shakuntala Looking for Dushyanta ,Nair Lady
Adorning Her Hair ,Shantanu and Matsyagandha , Ravan kidnapping Sita , lady in
moonlight
 THIRUVALLUVR/VALLUVAR(Tamil Poet-Saint)
• Popular work : “Thirukkural” is a collection of couplets on
politics, ethics, economy, and love
• Period - Debatable,Popular belief 8th and 9th centuries.
• Religion - probably a Jain ascetic+ Both Buddhists and
Shaivites, however, claim him as their own, and he is especially
revered by those of low caste.
• Statues – Kanyakumari , Ulsoor( Bengaluru),Russell Square(
London), A temple Inside the Ekambareswarar temple complex
in Chennai,
• In 1976, a temple-memorial called Valluvar Kottam was built in
Chennai.
GI TAGS
NETTUR PETTI(KERALA)
• A handcrafted, ornamental box
with brass embellishments
•Lid: Traditionally( NO JOINTS -
single wood ) But now, 4 pieces of
wood
• Material : Traditionally only in
teak or rosewood, but now jack,
wild jack and mahogany also.
• Uses : royals, wealthy families
and aristocrats and temples as a
safe box
ETIKOPPAKA BOMMALU: GI TAG(A.P.)
•lacquer(application of Turned Wood Lacquer
Coating) toys made of soft wood in this region.
CHANNAPATNA TOYS :GI TAG (KARANTAKA)
• Channapatna -Gombegala Ooru (toy-town) of
Karnataka.
• Material : lacquering the Wrightia tinctoria
wood (Aale mara or ivory-wood) / sandalwood
/rosewood.
• Origin: Tipu Sultan who invited artisans from
Persia to train the local artisans in toy making.
• Bavas Miyan is the father of Channapatna Toy,
who used Japanese technology for toys making.
 NIRMAL ART :GI TAG(TELENGANA)
• 400-year-old : wood toys + attractive
duco paintings (Shiny paintings) +
furniture.
• 17th Century : Rajasthan’s Naqqash
families brought this art to Nirmal.
• Material: Ponkichekka or white
sander.
Other Toys
• Wooden toys and dolls of Varanasi,
Budhni and Chitrakoot
• Clay toys of Rajasthan
• Doll of East Medinipur, Dingla and
Dingli of the Kutch
• Terracotta toys of Dhubri-Assam
 NARASINGHAPETTAI NAGASWARM
:GI TAG(Kumbhakonam, TN)
• Traditional wind instrument,.
• Nagaswaram now used by artists
throughout is called parinaggeswaram and
is longer than Thimiri.
• Matarial : aacha maram ( Hardwickia
binate , Indian Blackwood). a type of
ebony.should be 75-100 year old
Top portion : metal staple into which a
small metallic cylinder is inserted to hold
the mouthpiece made of reed locally
grown plant called 'naanal' -a variety of
bamboo.
 POCHAMPALLY (TELENGANA)
This style, Pochampally Saree Ikat, received a
Geographical Indicator (GI Status) in 2004.
Pochampally saree has traditional, geometric
patterns in the characteristic blurry design.
Ikat
• A yarn-resist dyeing process that involves the
process of wrapping (or tying) and dyeing
sections of bundled yarn to a predetermined
colour pattern before they are woven.
• The dye penetrates into exposed sections while
the wrapped section remains undyed.

18th April 1951: Bhoodan Movement by Acharya

Vinobha Bhave
 NAMDA- TRADITIONAL CRAFT OF KASHMIR

Carpet weaving- form of matting.

Material : Wool
Usually a sandwich of many layers of wool flattened over each
other. After a layer is spread, it is sprinkled homogenously with
water and pressed with a tool known as ‘pinjra’(woven willow
wicker)
CYCLOPEAN WALL OF RAJGIR :Proposal to include in UNESCO
• 40 km long wall of undressed stone is believed to be built in pre mauryan
period(before 3rd century BC.) to encircle Rajgir
• Wall is among the oldest examples of cyclopean masonry in the world
• It is believed that the Cyclopean Wall at Rajgir is similar to “Frontiers of
the Roman Empire” that runs through Germany, UK and Northern Ireland,
which was included on UNESCO’s world heritage list in 1987.
Pashmina Shawl:
✅Originating from Kashmir, these shawls are known for their exceptional
craftsmanship and the use of fine Ladakhi Cashmere wool.
✅The word "Pashmina" is derived from the Persian word "Pashm," which
means "soft gold" or "soft wool."
✅A cashmere wool itself is obtained from the undercoat of the
Changthangi goat (Capra aegagrus hircus), also known as the Pashmina
goat, which is native to the high altitudes of the Himalayas in regions like
Ladakh in India, Nepal, and Tibet.
✅These goats develop a unique undercoat to withstand the harsh winters,
and it is this undercoat that is meticulously collected to create Pashmina
shawls.
✅Kashmir’s Pashmina has earned G.I certification or G.I Tag due to the
unique traditional process used by local artisans in the Kashmir valley.
India’s 5 new classical languages : Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, and Bengali.
In response to demands from various states, in 2004, the then government
established the category of "classical languages" and set criteria for this status
Latest criteria by Linguistic Experts Committee (LEC):
 High antiquity of early texts, and recorded history over a period of 1500- 2000
years;
 A body of ancient literature/ texts, which is considered a heritage by
generations of speakers;
 Knowledge texts, especially prose texts in addition to poetry; and Epigraphic
and inscriptional evidence;
 Classical languages and literature could be distinct from its current form or
could be discontinuous with later forms of its offshoots.
 Kinnal Craft: GI TAG (Karnataka )
Traditional wood craft which has been done on local
wood(known as Polki Maran.)
The intricate carvings in the Hampi Chariot are believed to be a
Kinnal Craft.
have a signature gold and silver colour which is done by using a
special technique named as Lajwara Technique.
GI TAGS
• Sohrai
Kho(cave)var(bride)
painting (Jharkhand)
• Telangana’s Telia
Rumal (Telengana)
• Gamosa (Assam)
• Chendamangalam
Saree(Kerala)
• Risa Handwoven cloth
(Tripura )
New GI Tagged Products:
 Kutch Ajrakh(Indigo) : a traditional hand-block printing art from the Kutch region of Gujarat.
 Unique varieties of rice beer
 ‘Bodo Jou Gwran’: It has the highest percentage of alcohol (about 16.11%) when compared
with other varieties of rice beer made by the Bodo community.
 ‘Maibra Jou Bidwi’: It is known locally as ‘Maibra Jwu Bidwi’ or ‘Maibra Zwu Bidwi’, is revered
and served as a welcome drink by most Bodo tribes. It’s prepared by fermenting half-cooked
rice (mairong) with less water and adding a little ‘amao’ (a potential source of yeast) to it.
 ‘Bodo Jou Gishi’: It is also a traditionally fermented rice-based alcoholic beverage.
 Traditional Food Products
 Bodo Napham’: It is an important and favourite dish of fermented fish prepared anaerobically
in a tightly sealed container in a process that requires about two-three months.
 Bodo Ondla’: A rice powder curry flavoured with garlic, ginger, salt, and alkali.
 Bodo Gwkha’: It is locally also known as ‘Gwka Gwkhi’, it’s prepared during the Bwisagu
festival.
 ‘Bodo Narzi’: It is a semi-fermented food prepared with jute leaves (Corchorus capsularis), a
rich source of Omega 3 fatty acids, vitamins and essential minerals, including calcium and
magnesium.
 Bodo Aronai’: It is a small, beautiful cloth (1.5-2.5 meters long and 0.5 meter wide)
Kannadippaya
• first tribal handicraft product from Kerala to receive the GI tag.
• The product derives its name (literally meaning mirror mat) from its
unique reflective pattern. Made from the soft inner layers of reed
bamboo, the mat stands out for its unique properties — providing
warmth during winter and cooling effect in summer
Three Indian literary works — Ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra, and Sahṛdayaloka-
Locana — were added to UNESCO’s Memory of the World Asia-Pacific Regional
Register. The decision was made during the 10th MOWCAP meeting in Ulaanbaatar,
Mongolia.
The Indian Literary Works
Ramcharitmanas
Composed by Goswami Tulsidas in the 16th century in the Awadhi language. Known
as the "lake of the deed of Rama," it is a revered Hindu literary masterpiece. Divided
into seven Kands (books): Bal Kand, Ayodhya Kand, Aranya Kand, Kiskindha Kand,
Sundar Kand, Lanka Kand, and Uttar Kand.
Panchatantra
An ancient collection of animal fables written by Pandit Vishnu Sharma. Known for its
universal moral values and teachings through engaging stories.
Sahṛdayaloka-Locana
A 15th-century work by Kashmiri scholars Acharya Anandvardhan and
Abhinavagupta. Focused on poetics, dramaturgy, and theatrical insights, emphasizing
aesthetics.
 PATOLA SAREE (Gujrat)
 Context: Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) has
inaugurated a first Silk Processing Plant at Surendranagar in Gujarat
that will help to increase the sale and availability of raw material for
Gujarati Patola Sarees locally.
 About:
 Patola is a double ikat woven sari, usually made from
silk, made in Patan, Gujarat.
 Patola-weaving is a closely guarded family tradition.
 Takes 6 -12 months to make one sari due to the long
process of dying each strand separately before weaving
them together. Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2013.
PM gifted UK PM Sunak Mata Ni
Pachedi, a handmade textile of
Gujarat.
Meaning : Behind the mother
goddess
Community : Vaghari who were not
allowed to enter temple created
their own places of worship with
illustrations of mother goddess
A three-day Indo-Bangla music festival was held in Sherpur, Bangladesh
to mark the 250th birth anniversary of Saint Lalan Shah Fakir.
About him :
 Born in 1774 , Bengali Baul(folk music) saint, philosopher, song composer, and
social reformer.
 Inspired thinkers like Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam, and Allen
Ginsberg.
 Philosophy: Preached humanity over divisions of caste, creed, and religion.
 Advocated soul-searching and rejected worldly distractions, blending Bhakti
and Sufi ideals.
 Battle of Saragarhi (1897)
Punjab declared September 12 as Saragarhi Day in 2017 to honor the
battle.
21 soldiers of the 36th Sikhs (now 4 Sikh regiment) led by Havildar Ishar Singh
defended Saragarhi post against 8,000 Afridi and Orakzai militants.
Strategic Importance
Saragarhi served as a communication post between Fort Lockhart & Fort Gulistan
(housed British troops).
Located in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) (now Pakistan), originally built
by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, later renamed by the British.
Honors & Recognition
Queen Victoria awarded the Indian Order of Merit (similar to the Victoria Cross) to
all 21 soldiers, an unprecedented honor.
Legacy
Saragarhi is remembered as one of the greatest last stands in military history,
inspiring generations with its valor and sacrifice.
Vattezhuthu
syllabic alphabet of south India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Sri Lanka used for writing the Tamil
and Malayalam languages.
The name Vatteluttu is thought to mean either 'rounded script', 'northern script', or 'chiseled
script'.
It first appeared in stone inscriptions in southern India dating from the 4th century AD.
It probably developed from the Tamil-Brahmi script; a variant of the Brahmi script used to write
Old Tamil between from about the 3rd century BC until the 1st century AD.
Vatteluttu was used to write Tamil and Malayalam in Tamil Nadu until the 9th century.
In Kerala, Vatteluttu continued to be used until the 15th century. It changed over time to become
theMalayalam script, with some letters borrowed from the Grantha script.
Vatteluttu also developed into the Koleluttu script, which was used, especially by Christians and
Muslims, in Kerala until the 19th century.
Thank You
All the Best