Unit-3: Electric Vehicle Propulsion

3.1 Electric Vehicle Propulsion

Electric propulsion systems consist of electric motors, power converters, and electronic
controllers. The electronic controller commands the power converter by providing control signals
to it, and then it controls the operation of the electric motor to produce proper torque and speed,
according to the command from the driver.

The choice of electric propulsion systems for EVs depends on several factors:
Driver’s perception
Acceleration
Maximum speed
Climbing capability
Braking
Range

Vehicle constraints
Vehicle type
Vehicle weight
Payload

Energy source
Batteries
Fuel cells Ultracapacitors
Flywheels

Unlike the industrial applications of motors, the motors used in EVs usually require frequent
starts and stops, high rates of acceleration/deceleration, high torque and low-speed hill climbing,
low torque and high-speed cruising, and a very wide speed range of operation.
3.2 Classification of Electric motors

Characteristics of Commutator and Commutatorless motors

1.​ Commutator motors are mainly traditional DC motors. DC motor drives have been
prominently used in electric propulsion systems mainly due to mature technology and simple
control. DC motors need commutators and brushes to feed current into the armature, making
them less reliable and unsuitable for maintenance-free operation and high speed.
2.​ Commutatorless electric motors are AC motors that offer advantages of higher efficiency,
higher power density, and lower operating cost. These motors are more reliable and
maintenance-free compared to commutator DC motors.
1)​ Induction motors offer low cost, high reliability, maintenance free operation. When used in
EV, the control is limited due to low efficiency at light loads and a limited constant-power
operating range.

2)​ Permanent magnet(PM) synchronous motor facilitate a wider speed range at constant
power operation.

3)​ PM brushless DC (BLDC) offer ability to produce a large torque, better heat conduction in
armature and higher power density. PM BLDC motors require use of shaft position
sensors for precise control.

4)​ Switched reluctance motors (SRM) offer advantages of simple construction, low
manufacturing cost, and outstanding torque–speed characteristics for EV applications. The
shaft position sensors are sensitive to mechanical shock, temperature and dust.
3.3 Brushed DC motor

3.3.1 Derivation of Brushed DC motor torque:

Force experience by a current carrying conductor under the influence of magnetic field is

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ F = BIl
where
B = magnetic flux density
I = current
l = length of conductor

∴The motor torque T is given by the equation

T = 2nrBIl
where
r = radius of coil
n = number of turns of coil

Substituting ​ 2Blr = B × area = total flux = Փ

 ​ ​ ​ ​ ∴ T = nΦI
However, this is the peak torque, when the coil is fully in the flux and coil is perfectly radial.
Also, it does not take into account the number of poles.
Let constant Km be the factor that takes into account the number of turns in each coil, the number
of pole pairs and other aspects of motor design. Thus we have ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
T = Km ΦI …….(1)

This equation suggests that torque is proportional to the armature current.The armature current
depends on the supply voltage to the motor, Es and resistance of the armature coil Ra .

As the armature revolves under the magnetic field, it also develops a back EMF per side of the
coil as,
Eb = Blv

It depends on the velocity v of the conductor moving through the magnetic field.
The velocity depends on the angular velocity(ω) and the radius(r)
v = rω

Also, the armature coil has two sides, so equation becomes

Eb = 2Blrω

for n turns per coil, we have

Eb = 2nrBlω

The equation gives the voltage or ‘back EMF’ generated by the dynamo effect of the motor as it
turns: ​ ​ ​ Eb = KmΦω ………..(2)

This voltage opposes the supply voltage Es and acts to reduce the current in the motor.

The armature current is thus

…..(3)
The armature current decreases with increase in angular speed.
Substituting I in equation (1), the motor torque is obtained as

​ ……….(4)
This equation shows that the torque from this type of motor has a maximum value at zero speed
and it then falls steadily with increasing speed. Low speed torque is reduced by the controller or
by internal resistance of the battery. Otherwise the current would be extremely high and would
damage the motor.
3.3.2 Torque -Speed characteristics of Brushed DC motor

3.3.3 Regenerative braking of DC Motors

Fig(a) Motoring​​ ​ ​ Fig(b) Dynamic braking

Consider a DC motor is connected to a battery of negligible internal resistance, and voltage Vs,
producing steady state torque T and angular speed ω. The electric machine will run in motoring
mode. To stop the motor, the mechanical frictional braking can be applied. The motor comes to
halt when the kinetic energy of motor is exhausted. The motor can be stopped using the electric
braking method by disconnecting the battery supply and connecting external resistance RL across
it. The back emf will supply reverse current and produce braking torque.

The resulting current will flow out of the motor

​ ​
The negative torque will be produced, which will slow the motor down, will be given by the
equation

​ ​ ​ ​
This torque can be controlled by changing the resistance RL . The value of this torque declines as
the speed ω decreases.

If RL is constant we might expect the speed to decline in an exponential way to zero. This
way of slowing down an electric motor, using a resistor, is known as ‘dynamic braking’.

The kinetic energy of the vehicle will be converted into heat, just like normal friction brakes.
This electrical energy produced by the motor can be stored back to the battery using a system
known as ‘regenerative braking’.

Suppose the voltage of the battery is Vb , and the motor is turning at speed ω; then the current
that will flow out of the motor will be given by the equation.

​ ​ ​ ​
The braking torque tend to become smaller as the motors slows down, hence controlled braking of
vehicle can be achieved by using DC- to-DC converter that provides the required drop in apparent
battery voltage with decreasing speed, to ensure faster braking of vehicle.

The DC/DC converter will take this electrical power (= Vm × Im ) and put it out at an
increased voltage (and reduced current) so that it matches the rechargeable battery or capacitor
that is storing the energy.