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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

1. Which of the following is NOT true about criterion-referenced testing?

a. They are used when one whishes to compare a test score to a predetermined value or a set criterion.
b. Many states have gone to using criterion-referenced testing as a result of the recent passing of No Child Left
Behind legislation.
c. They are useful when one is wishing to compare a score to an individual's peer group.
d. As compared to norm-referenced testing, they are an alternative way of understanding test scores.

ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Norm Referencing Versus Criterion Referencing

2. If you have the raw scores of two individuals on a norm-referenced test, which of the following is important in terms
of making meaning of those scores?
a. Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
b. The relative positions of the scores to the rest of the group
c. Whether higher scores are better than lower scores
d. How an individual feels about his or her score
e. All of these are important.

ANSWER: e
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Norm Referencing Versus Criterion Referencing

3. On normally distributed curves, which of the following is NOT true?

a. The percentile rank mean is always p = 50.
b. The mean of z scores is always 0.
c. The mean of the standard deviation is 0.
d. The mean of standard scores vary as a function of the type of standard score (e.g., T score mean is 50, DIQ
mean is 100).
e. The mean of the publisher type score varies as a function of the publisher.

ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

4. Which of the following is NOT always true?

a. If you know the z score, you can determine a percentile by looking at a conversion chart.
b. If you know the z score, you can determine most common standard scores (e.g., T score, DIQ, SAT, NCE,
etc.).
c. If you know the z score, you can determine the standard deviation of the test.
d. All of these are true.

ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

5. Which of the following is NOT true?

a. DIQs are generally used with tests of intelligence.
b. T scores are generally used with personality tests.
c. Sten scores are generally used with personality inventories and questionnaires.
d. Stanines are generally used with achievement tests.
e. All of these are true.

ANSWER: e
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

6. Jill Jacobs receives a grade equivalent score of 10.6 on a national reading test. She is in the ninth grade. Which
statement is most true about Jill?
a. Her reading ability is equal to students at the 10th grade level.
b. Based on this score, no conclusions can be drawn.
c. Jill is doing better than the average student in her grade level.
d. Jill is doing worse than the average student in her grade level.
e. None of these are true.

ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

7. If you convert a group of z-scores to DIQ's, you will:

a. change the distribution on the curve.
b. decrease the mean.
c. decrease the median.
d. keep the original shape of the raw score distribution.

ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

8. Which statement is usually NOT true about all norm-referenced standardized achievement tests?
a. About 50 percent of all those who take the test will be below the median.
b. The higher the standard error of measurement, the lower the reliability.
c. The standard deviations are always the same, regardless of test publishing company.
d. All of these are true.

ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

9. Given N = 600, M = 40, SD = 10 (Normal Distribution), approximately how many individuals would you expect to
score between 20 and 30?
a. 12
b. 204
c. 300
d. 84

ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

10. Which of the following represents the best description of a DIQ?

a. z(Mean) + SD (M = 15, SD = 100)
b. z(Mean) + SD (M = 100, SD = 15)
c. z(SD) + Mean (M = 15, SD = 100)
d. z(SD) + Mean (M = 100, SD = 15)

ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

11. If z = −2.0, which of the following is NOT correct?

a. T = 30
b. DIQ = 70
c. Percentile = 2
d. SAT = 200
e. Stanine = 1

ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

12. If z = 3.0, which of the following is NOT correct?

a. T = 80
b. DIQ = 145
c. SAT = 800
d. NCE = 99
e. Sten = 9

ANSWER: e
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

13. A test to measure psychotic tendencies was given to a group of 1,000 potential air force cadets who wished to work
in nuclear silos. Any cadet who scored at or over 64 would be eliminated. The mean of the test was 52 and the
standard deviation was 12. Out of the 1,000 cadets how many were accepted?
a. 160
b. 340
c. 560
d. 840

ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

14. A test to measure psychotic tendencies was given to a group of 1,000 potential air force cadets who wished to work
in nuclear silos. Any cadet who scored at or over 64 would be eliminated. The mean of the test was 52 and the
standard deviation was 12. Of the following scores, which is the highest z-score someone could receive and still be
accepted to work in the silos?
a. 0
b. 1.5
c. 2
d. 2.5
e. 3

ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

15. A personality test that measures self-actualizing values uses T-scores. On the "self-awareness" scale, Bethany
receives a score of 70 while Edwina obtains a score of 40. At approximately which percentiles do these scores fall?
a. Bethany: 98; Edwina: 34
b. Bethany: 95; Edwina: 16
c. Bethany: 95; Edwina: 34
d. Bethany: 98; Edwina: 16

ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

16. Joshua obtained a score of 550 on the SATs (M=500, SD=100) and a score of 95 on the WAIS-III (M=100,
SD=15). On which test did he do better?
a. WAIS-III
b. SATs
c. He performed equally well on both tests.
d. This cannot be determined.

ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

17. An individual receives a DIQ score of 73. Taking into account standard error of measurement (SEM), what is his
"true score" 68 percent of the time if test-retest reliability is .96?
a. 61 - 85
b. 67 - 79
c. 70 - 76
d. 71.5 - 74.5
e. None of these

ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Measurement

18. An individual receives a DIQ score of 73. Taking into account standard error of measurement (SEM), what is his
"true score" 95 percent of the time if test-retest reliability is .96?
a. 12 points
b. 6 points
c. 3 points
d. 1.5 points
e. None of these

ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Measurement

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

19. An individual receives a T score of 73 on a test that measures empathic ability. Taking into account standard error of
measurement (SEM), what is his "true score" 68 percent of the time if test-retest reliability is .75?
a. 25 points
b. 10 points
c. 5 points
d. 2.5 points
e. None of these

ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Measurement

20. An individual receives a T score of 73 on a test that measures empathic ability. Taking into account standard error of
measurement (SEM), what is his "true score" 95 percent of the time if test-retest reliability is .75?
a. 25 points
b. 10 points
c. 5 points
d. 2.5 points
e. None of these

ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Measurement

21. An individual being tested for a gifted program scores a 132 on the Cognitive Ability Test (CogAT), which has a
mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 16. There is a .40 correlation between the CogAT score and success as
measured by GPA in the gifted program, which has a weighted mean of 4.3 with a SD of .2. Use the Standard Error
of the Estimate (SEest) to predict where this students GPA will fall 68 percent of the time.
a. 4.7 ± .18
b. 4.3 ± .2
c. 4.5 ± .4
d. 4.7 ± .15
e. None of these

ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Estimate

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

22. An individual being tested for a gifted program scores a 132 on the Cognitive Ability Test (CogAT), which has a
mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 16. There is a .40 correlation between the CogAT score and success as
measured by GPA in the gifted program, which has a weighted mean of 4.3 with a SD of .2. Use the Standard Error
of the Estimate (SEest) to predict where this students GPA will fall 95 percent of the time.
a. 4.7 ± .36
b. 4.3 ± .4
c. 4.5 ± .8
d. 4.7 ± .28
e. None of these

ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Estimate

23. Which scale of measurement is being used when comparing achievement test scores of different school systems?
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
c. Interval
d. Ratio

ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Scales of Measurement

24. Which scale of measurement is being used if assigning numbers based on different professional affiliation (e.g.,
counselors, social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists)?
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
c. Interval
d. Ratio

ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Scales of Measurement

25. Which scale of measurement would you use if measuring height and weight differences among ethnic groups?
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
c. Interval
d. Ratio

ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Scales of Measurement

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

26. In norm referencing, test scores are compared to a group of individuals called the norm group or peer group.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Norm Referencing Versus Criterion Referencing

27. If an individual's percentile rank is 84, he or she got 84 percent of the items correct.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

28. A standard deviation of 2 is a percentile rank of about 98.

a. True
b. False

ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

29. Percentiles are a reflection of the distribution of scores along a curve.

a. True
b. False

ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

30. NCEs range from 1 to 99 along the bell-shaped curve, but as opposed to percentiles, they are in equal units along
curve.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

31. If a child is in grade 4.3 and receives a grade equivalent of 7.2 on an achievement test, he or she is achieving at the
7.2 grade level.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

32. A stanine of 4 falls at the same percentile as a DIQ of 72.

a. True
b. False

ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

33. The area between +1 and −1 standard deviations on a normal curve would include approximately 84 percent of the
population.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

34. Using z-scores gives an individual the potential of comparing test scores on different types of tests.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

35. A student received a score on a norm-referenced standardized test that was −2 z-scores below the mean. This
person scored better than approximately 16 percent of his or her norm group.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

36. Though the common usages of DIQs, percentiles, stanines, T-scores, and Grade Equivalents may imply a different
type of test, they all measure the relative position of an individual as compared to the norm group.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

37. On a normally distributed curve, raw scores may become meaningful if you know the standard deviation and mean
of the group.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

38. If your score on a test is 85 and the mean is 50, you have to have scored above the 84th percentile.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

39. Age comparisons allow a person to compare his or her score at a specific age to the mean and standard deviation of
individuals in his or her age peer group.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: True
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

40. No Child Left Behind shows how norm-referenced testing can be used to increase student scores and shows the
government's financial commitment to assuring that all children can achieve.
a. True
b. False

ANSWER: False
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Norm Referencing Versus Criterion Referencing

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

Exhibit 7-1
Assume a normal curve and that the mean of the raw scores is 8, the standard deviation is 2.65, and the test-retest
reliability is .84. If an individual who is in grade 5.6 received a score of 10, answer the following questions:

4 7 8 8
14 12 10 9
8 8 7 4
9 10 12 14
41. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the z score?
ANSWER: .75
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

42. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the individual's approximate percentile?

ANSWER: 77
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

43. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the T score?

ANSWER: 57.5
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

44. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the Deviation IQ?

ANSWER: 111.25
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

45. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the stanine?

ANSWER: 7
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

46. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the sten score?

ANSWER: 7
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

47. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the SAT Type Score?

ANSWER: 575
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores
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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

48. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the ACT Type Score?

ANSWER: 24.75
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

49. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the National Curve Equivalent (NCE)?
ANSWER: 65.8
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

50. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. What is the Publisher Type Score (given that the M = 80 and SD = 20)?
ANSWER: 95
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

51. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. Make a statement about the individual's Grade Equivalent.
ANSWER: Since the individual scored higher than the mean, his or her grade equivalent is higher than 5.6.
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

52. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. Based on a person's Publisher Type Score (where the M = 80 and SD = 20), what range will
this person's score likely fall within 68 percent of the time?
ANSWER: 87 through 103
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Measurement

53. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. Based on a person's Publisher Type Score (where the M = 80 and SD = 20), what range will
this person's score likely fall 96 percent of the time?
ANSWER: 79 through 111
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Measurement

54. Refer to Exhibit 7-1. Scores with this instrument correlate .50 with 6th grade GPA. If the 6th grade GPA has a mean
of 3.0 and a SD of .3, predict the GPA range this students grades will fall 68 percent of the time.

ANSWER: SEest = = .26. Conversion = .75(.3) + 3.0 = 3.23, hence, 3.32 ± .26 or 2.97 to 3.49.
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Estimate

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

Exhibit 7-2
In order to evaluate a graduate program in psychology, a decision is made to compare the scores of the recent
graduates on the national licensure exam to scores nationally. The internal consistency reliability of the test = .84.
The program therefore follows up with their students and finds 24 students who have taken the exam in its most
recent form. The scores of the students in the program are as follows:

140 135 141 142 122 142

142 119 168 157 156 132
164 157 147 156 136 149
138 142 138 137 142 154

Given information:
Mean = 144; Median = 142; Mode = 142; Range = 50
55. Refer to Exhibit 7-2. Find the interquartile range.
ANSWER: (154 − 137)/2 = 17/2 = 8.5
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Measures of Variability

56. Refer to Exhibit 7-2. Find the standard deviation of the students in the graduate program.
ANSWER: 11.72
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Measures of Variability

57. Refer to Exhibit 7-2. Knowing that the national mean is 134 with a SD of 19.0, write a statement as to how this
school's students have done as compared to the national group.
ANSWER: Although the national groups mean is lower, its variability (standard deviation) is considerably
higher. Thus, there is quite a lot of overlap between the two groups. It would be difficult to say
which group did "better" as the national group had a larger percentage of individuals scoring higher
(and lower), while the graduate program had a larger number of students score in the mid range
and somewhat higher than mid range.
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Norm Referencing Versus Criterion Referencing

58. Refer to Exhibit 7-2. Use the national mean of 134 and national standard deviation of 19.0. If an individual received a
raw score of 142, what is his or her standard score (publisher score) on the national test if the mean and standard
deviation of the publisher score was 150 and 20 respectively?
ANSWER: (142 − 134)/19 = .42
z(20) + 150 = 158.4
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

59. Refer to Exhibit 7-2. If a decision was made to use NCE type scores, what score would the individual who obtained
a raw score of 142 receive?
ANSWER: .42(21.06) + 50 = 58.85
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

60. Refer to Exhibit 7-2. Approximately what percentage of the group scored higher than this individual?

ANSWER: approximately 34% (since student is in the 66th percentile)

POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

61. Refer to Exhibit 7-2. Considering the fact that all tests have error, what is this individual's standard score (publisher
score; M= 150, SD = 20) 68 percent of the time?

ANSWER: SEM = = 8; so 158.4 ± 8 or 150.4 to 166.4

POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Measurement

62. Refer to Exhibit 7-2. Considering the fact that all tests have error, what is this individual's standard score (publisher
score; M = 150, SD = 20) 95 percent of the time?

ANSWER: SEM = = 8; so 158.4 ± 8 ± 8 = 142.4 through 174.4

POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Measurement

63. Refer to Exhibit 7-2. A graduate psychology student has a 3.65 GPA, where the psychology program's mean is 3.6
and SD is .1. Faculty have found a .60 correlation between students' GPA and their national licensure exam
publisher score (M = 150, SD = 20). Knowing our students GPA, we could predict her score to fall in what range on
the national licensure exam 68 percent of the time?

ANSWER: SEest = = 16; z score = = .5; convert = .5(20) + 150 = 160; so 160 ±
16 or 144 to 176 (68% of the time)
POINTS: 1
REFERENCES: Standard Error of Estimate

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

64. Fill in the blanks for the information listed below. Please note that the publisher uses the same mean and standard
deviation for the three types of tests. For grade equivalent, simply state if Charlie Brown scored at his grade
equivalent, or higher or lower than his grade equivalent. (Given: publisher mean = 120).

Name of Student: Charlie Brown Date of Birth: 1/8/80 Grade: 10.1

Raw Publisher NCE Nat'l Stanine GE

Score Score Score Percentile
Reading: 52 120 _____ _____ _____ _____
Math: 83 _____ _____ 84 _____ _____
Vocabulary: 22 100 _____ 16 _____ _____

Name of Student: Charlie

Date of Birth: 1/8/80 Grade: 10.1
ANSWER: Brown

Raw Publisher NCE Nat'l Stanine GE

Score Score Score Percentile
Reading: 52 120 50 50 5 10.1
Math: 83 140 71.06 84 7 > 10.1
Vocabulary: 22 100 28.94 16 3 < 10.1
POINTS: 11
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

65. Fill in the blanks for the information listed below.

TRUST Test
(Test of Relationship Understanding Under Stress)

T-Score Sten Score Percentile Raw Score

TRAIT
Empathy 63 _____ _____ _____ (M = 30, SD = 3)
Commitment _____ _____ 16 _____ (M = 40, SD = 5)
Love _____ _____ _____ 45 (M = 35, SD = 4)
Intimacy _____ 5.5* _____ _____ (M = 23, SD = 2)

* Sten scores are generally rounded off, however, in this case, use the non-rounded number given.

ANSWER: TRUST Test

(Test of Relationship Understanding Under
Stress)

T-Score Sten Score Percentile Raw Score

TRAIT
Empathy 63 8 90 33.9 (M = 30, SD = 3)
Commitment 40 3 or 4* 16 35 (M = 40, SD = 5)
Love 75 10 99 45 (M = 35, SD = 4)
Intimacy 50 5.5 50 23 (M = 23, SD = 2)

* Accept a score of 3 or 4 as it is very close to the line which separates the two scores.
POINTS: 12
REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

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Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

Match the standard score with its mean and standard deviation.
a. Mean = 21, SD = 5
b. Mean = 50, SD = 10
c. Mean = 50, SD = 21.06
d. Mean = 5, SD = 2
e. Mean = 5.5, SD = 2
f. Mean = 100, SD = 15
g. Mean = 500, SD = 100
h. Mean = ?, SD = ?

REFERENCES: Normative Comparisons and Derived Scores

66. T score
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
67. DIQ
ANSWER: f
POINTS: 1
68. Stanine
ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
69. Sten score
ANSWER: e
POINTS: 1
70. SAT
ANSWER: g
POINTS: 1
71. ACT

ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1
72. NCE
ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
73. Publisher Type Score
ANSWER: h
POINTS: 1

Powered by Cognero Page 17

Chapter 7 — Statistical Concepts: Creating New Scores to Interpret Test Data

Match the type of scale with the definition.

a. This scale has a meaningful zero point and equal intervals; therefore, it can be manipulated by all
mathematical principles.
b. In this scale, numbers are arbitrarily assigned to represent different categories or variables.
c. This scale establishes equal distances between measurements but has no absolute zero reference point.
d. With this scale, magnitude or rank order is implied; however, the distance between measurements is unknown.

REFERENCES: p. 146
74. Nominal scale
ANSWER: b
POINTS: 1
75. Ordinal scale
ANSWER: d
POINTS: 1
76. Interval scale
ANSWER: c
POINTS: 1
77. Ratio scale
ANSWER: a
POINTS: 1

Powered by Cognero Page 18

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
perhaps the merit of the impeachment itself which gave it birth; a
question which the Commons, as prosecutors of Mr. Hastings, should
in common prudence have avoided; unless, regretting the unwieldy
length of their prosecution against him, they wished to afford him
the opportunity of this strange anomalous defence. For although I
am neither his counsel, nor desire to have any thing to do with his
guilt or innocence, yet in the collateral defence of my client I am
driven to state matter which may be considered by many as hostile
to the impeachment. For if our dependencies have been secured,
and their interests promoted, I am driven in the defence of my client
to remark, that it is mad and preposterous to bring to the standard
of justice and humanity, the exercise of a dominion founded upon
violence and terror. It may, and must be true, that Mr. Hastings has
repeatedly offended against the rights and privileges of Asiatic
government, if he was the faithful deputy of a power which could
not maintain itself for an hour without trampling upon both; he may
and must have offended against the laws of God and nature, if he
was the faithful Viceroy of an empire wrested in blood from the
people to whom God and nature had given it; he may and must
have preserved that unjust dominion over timorous and abject
nations by a terrifying, overbearing, insulting superiority, if he was
the faithful administrator of your government, which, having no root
in consent or affection, no foundation in similarity of interests, nor
support from any one principle which cements men together in
society, could only be upheld by alternate stratagem and force. The
unhappy people of India, feeble and effeminate as they are from the
softness of their climate, and subdued and broken as they have
been by the knavery and strength of civilization, still occasionally
start up in all the vigour and intelligence of insulted nature. When
governed at all, they must be governed with a rod of iron; and our
empire in the east would long since have been lost to Great Britain,
if civil skill and military prowess had not united their efforts, to
support an authority which Heaven never gave, by means which it
never can sanction.
“Gentlemen, I think I can observe that you are touched with this
way of considering the subject, and I can account for it. I have not
been considering it through the cold medium of books, but have
been speaking of man and his nature, and of human dominion, from
what I have seen of them myself among reluctant nations submitting
to our authority. I know what they feel, and how such feelings can
alone be repressed. I have heard them in my youth, from a naked
savage, in the indignant character of a prince surrounded by his
subjects, addressing the Governor of a British colony, holding a
bundle of sticks in his hand, as the notes of his unlettered
eloquence. ‘Who is it,’ said the jealous ruler over the desert,
encroached upon by the restless foot of English adventure; ‘who is it
that causes this river to rise in the high mountains, and to empty
itself into the ocean? Who is it that causes to blow the loud winds of
winter, and that calms them again in the summer? Who is it that
rears up the shade of these lofty forests, and blasts them with the
quick lightning at his pleasure? The same Being, who gave to you a
country on the other side of the waters, and gave ours to us; and by
this title we will defend it,’ said the warrior, throwing down his
tomahawk on the ground, and raising the war-cry of his nation.
These are the feelings of subjugated man all round the globe; and
depend upon it, nothing but fear will control, where it is vain to look
for affection.
“These reflections are the only antidotes to those anathemas of
superhuman eloquence which have lately shaken these walls that
surround us; but which it unaccountably falls to my province,
whether I will or no, a little to stem the torrent of, by reminding you
that you have a mighty sway in Asia which cannot be maintained by
the finer sympathies of life, or the practice of its charities and
affections. What will they do for you when surrounded by two
hundred thousand men with artillery, cavalry, and elephants, calling
upon you for their dominions which you have robbed them of?
Justice may, no doubt, in such a case forbid the levying of a fine to
pay a revolting soldiery; a treaty may stand in the way of increasing
a tribute to keep up the very existence of the government; and
delicacy for women may forbid all entrance into a zenana for money,
whatever may be the necessity for taking it. All these things must
ever be occurring. But under the pressure of such constant
difficulties, so dangerous to national honour, it might be better
perhaps to think of effectually securing it altogether, by recalling our
troops and merchants, and abandoning our Oriental empire. Until
this be done, neither religion nor philosophy can be pressed very far
into the aid of reformation and punishment. If England, from a lust
of ambition and dominion, will insist on maintaining despotic rule
over distant and hostile nations, beyond all comparison more
numerous and extended than herself, and gives commission to her
Viceroys to govern them, with no other instructions than to preserve
them, and to secure permanently their revenues; with what colour of
consistency or reason can she place herself in the moral chair, and
affect to be shocked at the execution of her own orders; adverting
to the exact measure of wickedness and injustice necessary to their
execution, and complaining only of the excess as the immorality;
considering her authority as a dispensation for breaking the
commands of God, and the breach of them only punishable when
contrary to the ordinances of man.
“Such a proceeding, Gentlemen, begets serious reflections. It would
be better perhaps for the masters and the servants of all such
governments to join in supplication, that the great Author of violated
humanity may not confound them together in one common
judgment.”
These speeches, on constructive treason, and on subjects relating to
the liberty of the press, fill four octavo volumes. A fifth was
subsequently published, containing speeches on miscellaneous
subjects; among which those in behalf of Hadfield and for Mr.
Bingham are especially worthy of attention. The latter is one of the
most affecting appeals to the feelings ever uttered. Hadfield is
notorious for having discharged a pistol at George III. in Drury Lane
Theatre. He was a soldier, who had been dreadfully wounded in the
head, and other parts of the body; and no doubt could be
entertained but that he was of unsound mind. Whether his insanity
was of such a nature, that it could be pleaded in excuse for an
attempt to murder, was a harder question to decide; and the speech
in his behalf, besides many passages of much power and pathos,
contains a masterly exposition of the principles by which a court of
law should be guided in examining the moral responsibility of a
person labouring under alienation of mind. Hadfield, we need hardly
say, was acquitted.
No life of Lord Erskine has yet been written on a scale calculated to
do justice to the subject. The fullest which we have seen is
contained in the ‘Lives of British Lawyers,’ in Lardner’s Cyclopædia:
there is also a scanty memoir in the Annual Biography and Obituary,
from which the facts contained in this sketch are principally derived.

Statue of Lord Erskine in

Lincoln’s Inn Hall.
 DOLLOND.

The parents of this eminent discoverer in optics, to whom we are

chiefly indebted for the high perfection of our telescopes, were
French Protestants resident in Normandy, whence they were driven
by the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. With many others
of their class, they took up their residence in Spitalfields, where John
Dollond, the subject of this memoir[1], was born, June 10, 1706. It
has been supposed, and among others by Lalande, that the name is
not French; if we were to hazard a conjecture, we should say that it
might have been an English corruption of D’Hollande. While yet very
young, John Dollond lost his father; and he was obliged to gain his
livelihood by the loom, though his natural disposition led him to
devote all his leisure hours to mathematics and natural philosophy.
Notwithstanding the cares incumbent upon the father of a family (for
he married early) he contrived to find time, not only for the above-
mentioned pursuits, but for anatomy, classical literature, and divinity.
He continued his quiet course of life until his son, Peter Dollond, was
of age to join him in his trade of silk-weaving, and they carried on
that business together for several years. The son, however, who was
also of a scientific turn, and who had profited by his father’s
instructions, quitted the silk trade to commence business as an
optician. He was tolerably successful, and after some years his father
joined him, in 1752.

1. For the details of this life, we are mostly indebted to the

Memoir of Dr. Kelly, his son-in-law, from which all the existing
accounts of Dollond are taken. This book has become very
scarce, and we are indebted for the opportunity of perusing it
to the kindness of G. Dollond, Esq.

Engraved by J. Posselwhite.

DOLLOND.

From an original Picture

in the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich.

Under the Superintendance

of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street, & Pall Mall East.
The first improvement made by the elder Dollond in the telescope,
was the addition of another glass to the eye-piece, making the
whole number of glasses in the instrument (the object-glass
included) six instead of five. This he communicated to the Royal
Society in 1753, through his friend James Short, well known as an
optician and astronomer, who also communicated all his succeeding
papers. By his new construction, an increase in the field of view was
procured, without any corresponding augmentation of the
unavoidable defects of the instrument. In May, 1753, Dollond
communicated to the Royal Society his improvement of the
micrometer. In 1747 Bouguer proposed to measure the distance of
two very near objects (the opposite edges of a planet, for example)
by viewing them through a conical telescope, the larger end of which
had two object-glasses placed side by side, the eye-glass being
common to both. The distance of the objects was determined by
observing how far it was necessary to separate the centres of the
object-glasses, in order that the centre of each might show an image
of one of the objects. Mr. Dollond’s improvement consisted in making
use of the same object-glass, divided into two semicircular halves
sliding on one another, as represented in the diagrams in page 18;
the first of which is an oblique perspective view of the divided glass,
and the second a side view of the same, in such a position, that the
images of the stars A and B coincide at C.
If the whole of an object-glass were darkened, except one small
portion, that portion would form images similarly situated to those
formed by the whole glass, but less illuminated. Each half of the
object-glass, when separated from the other, forms an image of
every object in the field; and the two images of the same object
coincide in one of double brightness, when the halves are brought
together so as to restore the original form. By placing the divided
diameter in the line of two near objects, A and B, whose distance is
to be measured, and sliding the glasses until the image of one
formed by one half comes exactly into contact with the image of the
other formed by the other half, the angular distance of the two
objects may be calculated, from observation of the distance between
the centres of the two halves. This last distance is measured on a
scale attached to the instrument; and when found, is the base of the
triangle, the vertex of which is at C, and the equal sides of which are
the focal lengths of the glasses. This micrometer Dollond preferred
to apply to the reflecting telescope; his son afterwards adapted it to
the refracting telescope; and it is now, under the name of the
divided object-glass micrometer, one of the most useful instruments
for measuring small angles.
But the fame of Dollond principally rests upon his invention of
achromatic, or colourless telescopes, in which the surrounding fringe
of colours was destroyed, which had rendered indistinct the images
formed in all refracting telescopes previously constructed. He was
led to this practical result by the discovery of a principle in optics,
that the dispersion of light in passing through a refracting medium,
that is, the greater or less length through which the coloured
spectrum is scattered, is not in proportion to the refraction, or angle
through which the rays are bent out of their course. Newton
asserted that he had found by experiments, made with water and
glass, that if a ray of light be subjected to several refractions, some
of which correct the rest, so that it emerges parallel to its first
direction, the dispersion into colours will also be corrected, so that
the light will be restored to whiteness. This is not generally true: it is
true if one substance only be employed, or several which have the
same, or nearly the same, dispersive power[2]. Mr. Peter Dollond
afterwards satisfactorily explained the reason of Newton’s mistake,
by performing the same experiment with Venetian glass, which, in
the time of the latter, was commonly used in England; from which he
found that the fact stated by Newton was true, as far as regarded
that sort of glass. Had Newton used flint glass, he would have
discovered that dispersion and refraction are not necessarily
corrected together: he would then have been led to the difference
between refractive and dispersive power, and would have concluded
from his first experiment that Venetian glass and water have their
dispersive powers very nearly equal. As it was, he inferred that the
refracting telescope could never be entirely divested of colour,
without entirely destroying the refraction, that is, rendering the
instrument no telescope at all; and, the experiment being granted,
the conclusion was inevitable. It is well known that he accordingly
turned his attention entirely to the reflecting telescope.

2. See Penny Cyclopædia, article Achromatic, for this and other

terms employed in this life.
In 1747, Euler, struck by the fact that the human eye is an
achromatic combination of lenses, or nearly so, imagined that it
might be possible to destroy colour by employing compound object-
glasses, such as two lenses with an intermediate space filled with
water. In a memoir addressed to the Academy of Berlin, he
explained his method of constructing such achromatic glasses, and
proposed a new law of refrangibility, different from that of Newton.
He could not, however, succeed in procuring a successful result in
practice. Dollond, impressed with the idea that Newton’s experiment
was conclusive, objected to Euler’s process in a letter to Mr. Short;
which the latter persuaded the author to communicate, first to Euler,
and then, with his answer, to the Royal Society. Assuming Newton’s
law, Dollond shows that Euler’s method would destroy all refraction
as well as dispersion. The latter replies, that it is sufficient for his
purpose that Newton’s law should be nearly true; that the theory
propounded by himself does not differ much from it; and that the
structure of the eye convinces him of the possibility of an achromatic
combination. Neither party contested the general truth of Newton’s
conclusion.
A new party to the discussion appeared in the field in the person of
M. Klingenstierna, a Swedish astronomer, who advanced some
mathematical reasoning against the law of Newton, and some
suspicions as to the correctness of his experiment. The latter being
thus formally attacked, Mr. Dollond determined to repeat it, with a
view of settling the question, and his result was communicated to
the Royal Society in 1758. By placing a prism of flint glass inside one
of water, confined by glass planes, so that the refractions from the
two prisms should be in contrary directions, he found that when
their angles were so adjusted, that the refraction of one should
entirely destroy that of the other, the colour was far from being
destroyed; “for the object, though not at all refracted, was yet as
much infested with prismatic colours, as if it had been seen through
a glass wedge only, whose refracting angle was near thirty degrees.”
It was thus proved that the correction of refraction, and the
correction of dispersion, are not necessarily consequent the one on
the other. Previously to communicating this result, Dollond had, in
1757, applied it to the construction of achromatic glasses, consisting
of spherical lenses with water between them: but finding that the
images, though free from colour, were not very distinct, he tried
combinations of different kinds of glass; and succeeded at last in
forming the achromatic object-glass now used, consisting of a
convex lens of crown, and a concave of flint glass. His son
afterwards, in 1765, constructed the triple object-glass, having a
double concave lens of flint glass in the middle of two double convex
lenses of crown glass. The right of Dollond to the invention has been
attacked by various foreign writers, but the point seems to have
been decided in his favour by the general consent of later times. His
conduct certainly appears more philosophical than that of either of
his opponents. So long as he believed that Newton’s experiment was
correct, he held fast by it, not allowing any mathematical reasoning
to shake his belief, and in this respect he was more consistent than
Euler, who seems to have thought that an achromatic combination
might be made out of the joint belief of an experiment, and of an
hypothesis utterly at variance with it. And the manner in which the
distinguished philosopher just mentioned received the news of
Dollond’s invention, appears singular, considering the side which
each had taken in the previous discussion. Euler, who had asserted
the possibility of an achromatic lens, against Dollond, who appeared
to doubt it, says, “I am not ashamed frankly to avow that the first
accounts which were published of it, appeared so suspicious, and
even so contrary to the best established principles, that I could not
prevail upon myself to give credit to them.” Dollond was the first
who actually resorted to experiment, and he thus became the
discoverer of a remarkable law of optics; while his tact in the
application of his principles, and the selection of his materials, is
worthy of admiration. The reputation of Dollond rests upon the
discovery of the law, and its application to the case in point; for it
has since been proved that he was not absolutely the first who had
constructed an achromatic lens. On the occasion of an action
brought for the invasion of the patent, the defendant proved that
about the year 1750, Dr. Hall, an Essex gentleman, was in the
possession of a secret for constructing achromatic telescopes of
twenty inches focal length: and a writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine
for 1790, has advanced his claim with considerable circumstantial
detail. It is difficult to get any account of that trial, as it is not
reported in any of the books. At least we presume so, from not
finding any reference to it either in the works of Godson or Davis on
Patents, though the case is frequently mentioned; or in H.
Blackstone’s report of Boulton and Watt v. Bull, in which Dollond’s
case forms a prominent feature of the argument. But, from the
words of Judge Buller in the case just cited, it is difficult to suppose
that the account given by Lalande (Montucla, Histoire des
Mathématiques, vol. iii. p. 448, note) can be correct. Lalande asserts
that it was proved that Dollond received the invention from a
workman who bad been employed by Dr. Hall, and that the latter
had shown it to many persons. Judge Buller says, “The objection to
Dollond’s patent was, that he was not the inventor of the new
method of making object-glasses, but that Dr. Hall had made the
same discovery before him. But it was holden that as Dr. Hall had
confined it to his closet, and the public were not acquainted with it,
Dollond was to be considered as the inventor.” The circumstances
connected with the discovery, particularly the previous investigation
of the phenomenon on which the result depends, independently of
the words of Judge Buller, quoted in italics, appear to us to render
the anonymous account very improbable: nor, as far as we know, is
there any other authority for it. That Dr. Hall did construct
achromatic telescopes is pretty certain; but we are entirely in the
dark as to whether he did it on principle, or whether he could even
construct more than one sort of lens: and the assertion that he, or
any one instructed by him, had communicated with Dollond, is
unsupported by any thing worthy the name of evidence. We may
add, that the accounts of this discovery, written by Dollond himself,
possess a clearness and power of illustration, which can result only
from long and minute attention to the subject under consideration.
After this great discovery, for which he received the Copley medal of
the Royal Society, Mr. Dollond devoted himself to the improvement of
the achromatic telescope, in conjunction with his other pursuits. We
are informed by G. Dollond, Esq., that his grandfather, at the latter
end of his life, was engaged in calculating almanacs for various parts
of the world; one of which, for the meridian of Barbadoes, and the
year 1761, is now in his possession.
Mr. Dollond was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1761. In the
same year, November 30, he was struck with apoplexy, while
attentively engaged in reading Clairaut’s Theory of the Moon, which
had then just appeared. He died in a few hours afterwards, in the
fifty-sixth year of his age. His son Peter Dollond, already mentioned,
continued the business in partnership with a younger brother; and it
is now most ably carried on by his daughter’s son, who has, by
permission, assumed the name of Dollond.
The following extract is from the memoir written by Dr. Kelly, in
which we find nothing to regret, except that so few traits of
character are related in it. Those who write memoirs of remarkable
men from personal knowledge, should remember that details of their
habits and conversation will be much more valuable to posterity,
than disquisitions upon their scientific labours and discussions,
which, coming from the pens of friends or relations, will always be
looked upon as ex parte statements. Had the learned author borne
this in mind, we should have been able to give a better personal
account of Dollond than the following; which is absolutely the only
information relative to his private character which we can now
obtain. “He was not content with private devotion, as he was always
an advocate for social worship; and with his family regularly
attended the public service of the French Protestant church, and
occasionally heard Benson and Lardner, whom he respected as men,
and admired as preachers. In his appearance he was grave, and the
strong lines of his face were marked with deep thought and
reflection; but in his intercourse with his family and friends he was
cheerful and affectionate; and his language and sentiments are
distinctly recollected as always making a strong impression on the
minds of those with whom he conversed. His memory was
extraordinarily retentive, and amidst the variety of his reading he
could recollect and quote the most important passages of every
book which he had at any time perused.”

Engraved by W. Holl.

JOHN HUNTER..

From a Picture by Sir

 Joshua Reynolds
in the Royal College of
Surgeons, London.

Under the Superintendance

of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge.

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Pall Mall
East.
 JOHN HUNTER.

A life and character like that of John Hunter has many claims upon
the honourable remembrance of society; the more, because, for
meritorious members of his profession, there is no other public
reward than the general approbation of good men. We look upon
him with that interest which genius successfully directed to good
ends invariably excites; as one whose active labours in the service of
mankind have been attended with useful consequences of great
extent; and whose character it is important to describe correctly, as
a valuable example to his profession.
John Hunter was the son of a small proprietor in the parish of
Kilbride in Lanarkshire, and was born February 13, 1728. His father
died while he was a child; his brothers were absent from home; and,
being left to the care of his mother and aunt, he was spoiled by
indulgence, and remained uneducated, until his natural good sense
urged him to redeem himself in some degree from this reproach.
When a boy he continued to cry like a child for whatever he wanted.
There is a letter extant from an old friend of the family, which has
this curious postscript, “Is Johnny aye greeting yet?” presenting an
unexpected picture to those who are familiar only with the manly
sense, and somewhat caustic manners, of the great physiological
and surgical authority. But the influence of feelings and opinions,
proceeding from respected persons, and accompanied by offices of
affection, is powerful upon the young mind; and the circumstances
of Mr. Hunter’s family were calculated to give such feelings their full
power over such a character as his. They lived retired, in that state
of independence which a small landed property confers on the elder
members, while the young men are compelled to seek their fortunes
at a distance from home. John Hunter neglected books, but he was
not insensible to the pride and gratification expressed by every
member of the family on hearing of his elder brother William’s
success, and the pleasure which that brother’s letters gave to all
around him. These feelings made him ashamed of his idleness, and
inclined him to go to London, and become an assistant to Dr. William
Hunter in his anatomical inquiries. William consented to this
arrangement; and the subject of our memoir quitted his paternal
home in 1748; certainly without that preparation of mind which
should lead us to expect a very quick proficiency in medical pursuits.
At an earlier age he had displayed a turn for mechanics, and a
manual dexterity, which led to his being placed with a cabinet-maker
in Glasgow to learn the profession: but the failure of his master had
obliged him to return home.
Dr. William Hunter had at this time obtained celebrity as a teacher of
anatomy. He won his way by very intelligible modes. His upright
conduct and high mental cultivation gained him friends; and his
professional merits were established by his lectures, which in extent
and depth, as well as eloquence, surpassed any that had yet been
delivered. There was a peculiar ingenuity in his demonstrations, and
he had a happy manner exactly suited to his subject. The vulgar
portion of the public saw no marks of genius in the successful
exertions of Dr. Hunter; his eminence was easily accounted for, and
excited no wonder. They saw John Hunter’s success, without fully
comprehending the cause; and it fell in with their notions of great
genius that he was somewhat abrupt and uncourtly.
Dr. Hunter immediately set his brother to work upon the dissection
of the arm. The young man succeeded in producing an admirable
preparation, in which the mechanism of the limb was finely
displayed. This at once showed his capacity, and settled the relation
between the two brothers. John Hunter became the best practical
anatomist of the age, and proved of the greatest use in forming Dr.
Hunter’s splendid museum, bequeathed by the owner to the
University of Glasgow. He continued to attend his brother’s lectures;
was a pupil both at St. Bartholomew’s, and St. George’s Hospitals;
and had the farther advantage of attending the celebrated
Cheselden, then retired to Chelsea Hospital. And here we must point
out the advantage which John Hunter possessed in the situation and
character of his elder brother, lest his success should encourage a
laxity in the studies of those who think they are following his
footsteps. It would indeed have been surprising that his efforts for
the advancement of physiology commenced at the precise point
where Haller’s stopped, if he had really been ignorant of the state of
science at home and abroad. But he could not have been so, unless
he had shut his eyes and stopped his ears. In addition to his
anatomical collection Dr. Hunter had formed an extensive library, and
possessed the finest cabinet of coins in Europe. Students crowded
around him from all countries, and every one distinguished in
science desired his acquaintance. John Hunter lived in this society,
and at the same time had the advantage of being familiar with the
complete and systematic course of lectures delivered by his brother.
He was thus furnished with full information as to the actual state of
physiology and pathology, and knew in what directions to push
inquiry, whilst the natural capacity of his fine mind was
untrammelled.
In 1755 John Hunter assisted his brother in delivering a course of
lectures; but through life the task of public instruction was a painful
one to him, and he never attained to fluency and clearness of
expression. In 1760 his health seems to have been impaired by his
exertions: and in the recollection that one brother had already died
under similar circumstances, his friends procured him a situation in
the army, as being less intensely laborious than his mode of life. He
served as a staff surgeon in Portugal and at the siege of Bellisle. On
returning to London he recommenced the teaching of practical
anatomy.
In 1767 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, having already
gained the good opinion of its members by several papers on most
interesting subjects. There is this great advantage in the pursuit of
science in London, that a man remarkable for success in any branch
can usually select associates the best able to assist him by their
experience and advice. It was through John Hunter’s influence that a
select club was formed out of the fellows of the Royal Society. They
met in retirement and read and criticised each others papers before
submitting them to the general body. This club originally consisted of
Mr. Hunter, Dr. Fordyce, Sir Joseph Banks, Dr. Solander, Dr.
Maskelyne, Sir George Shuckburgh, Sir Henry Englefield, Sir Charles
Blagden, Mr. Ramsden, and Mr. Watt. To be the associate of such
men could not but have a good effect on a mind like Hunter’s, active
and vigorous, but deficient in general acquirement, and concentrated
upon one pursuit.
At this time, and for many years afterwards, he was employed in the
most curious physiological inquiries; and at the same time forming
that museum, which remains the most surprising proof both of his
genius and perseverance. It is strange that Sir Everard Home should
have considered this collection as a proof of the patronage Hunter
received. He had many admirers, and many persons were grateful
for his professional assistance; but he had no patrons. The extent of
his museum is to be attributed solely to his perseverance; a quality
which is generally the companion of genius, and which he displayed
in every condition of life. Whether under the tuition of his brother, or
struggling for independence by privately teaching anatomy, or
amidst the enticements to idleness in a mess-room, or as an army
surgeon in active service, he never seems to have forgotten that
science which was the chief end of his life. Hence the amazing
collection which he formed of anatomical preparations; hence too
the no less extraordinary accumulation of important pathological
facts, on which his principles were raised.
It was only towards the close of life that Hunter’s character was duly
appreciated. His professional emoluments were small, until a very
few years before his death, when they amounted to £6000 a year.
When this neglect is the portion of a man of distinguished merit, it
has sometimes an unhappy influence on his profession. Men look for
prosperity and splendour as the accompaniments of such merit; and
missing it, they turn aside from the worthiest models, to follow those
who are gaining riches in the common routine of practice. Dr. Darwin
said, that he rejoiced in Hunter’s late success as the concluding act
of a life well spent: as poetical justice. But throughout life he spent
all his gains in the pursuit of science, and died poor.
His museum was purchased by government for £15,000. It was
offered to the keeping of the College of Physicians, which declined
the trust. It is now, committed to the College of Surgeons, in
Lincoln’s Inn Fields; where it is open to the inspection of the public
during the afternoons of Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. The
corporation has enlarged the museum, instituted professorships for
the illustration of it, and is now forming a library. The most valuable
part of the collection is that in the area of the great room, consisting
of upwards of 2000 preparations, which were the results of Mr.
Hunter’s experiments on the inferior animals, and of his researches
in morbid human anatomy. All these were originally arranged as
illustrative of his lectures. The first division alone, in support of his
theory of inflammation, contains 602 preparations. Those illustrative
of specific diseases amount to 1084. There are besides 652 dried
specimens, consisting of diseased bones, joints, and arteries. On the
floor there is a very fine collection of the skeletons of man and other
animals; and if the Council of the College continue to augment this
collection with the same liberal spirit which they have hitherto
shown, it will be creditable to the nation. The osteological specimens
amount to 1936. But the most interesting portion, we might say one
of the most interesting exhibitions in Europe to a philosophical and
inquiring mind, is that which extends along the whole gallery. Mr.
Hunter found it impossible to explain the functions of life by the
investigation of human anatomy, unaided by comparison with the
simpler organization of brutes; and therefore he undertook the
amazing labour of examining and preparing the simplest animals,
gradually advancing from the lower to the higher, until, by this
process of synthesis, the structure of the human body was
demonstrated and explained. Let us take one small compartment in
order to understand the effect of this method. Suppose it is wished
to learn the importance of the stomach in the animal economy. The
first object presented to us is a hydatid, an animal, as it were, all
stomach; being a simple sac with an exterior absorbing surface.
Then we have the polypus, with a stomach opening by one orifice,
and with no superadded organ. Next in order is the leech, in which
we see the beginning of a complexity of structure. It possesses the
power of locomotion, and has brain, and nerves, and muscles, but as
yet the stomach is simple. Then we advance to creatures in which
the stomach is complex: we find the simple membraneous digesting
stomach; then the stomach with a crop attached to macerate and
prepare the food for digestion; then a ruminating stomach with a
succession of cavities, and with the gizzard in some animals for
grinding the food, and performing the office of teeth; and finally, all
the appended organs necessary in the various classes of animals;
until we find that all the chylopoietic viscera group round this, as
performing the primary and essential office of assimilating new
matter to the animal body.
Mr. Hunter’s papers and greater works exhibit an extraordinary mind:
he startles the reader by conclusions, the process by which they
were reached being scarcely discernible. We attribute this in part to
that defective education, which made him fail in explaining his own
thoughts, and the course of reasoning by which he had arrived at his
conclusions. The depth of his reflective powers may be estimated by
the perusal of his papers on the apparently drowned, and on the
stomach digested after death by its own fluids. The importance of
discovering the possibility of such an occurrence as the last is
manifest, when we consider its connexion with medical
jurisprudence, and the probability of its giving rise to unfounded
suspicions of poisoning. His most important papers were those on
the muscularity of arteries; a fine piece of experimental reasoning,
the neglect of which by our continental neighbours threw them back
an age in the treatment of wounded arteries and aneurisms. But the
grand discovery of Mr. Hunter was that of the life of the blood. If this
idea surprise our readers, it did no less surprise the whole of the
medical profession when it was first promulgated. Yet there is no
doubt of the fact. It was demonstrated by the closest inspection of
natural phenomena, and a happy suite of experiments, that the
coagulation of the blood is an act of life. From this one fact, the
pathologist was enabled to comprehend a great variety of
phenomena, which, without it, must ever have remained obscure.
Mr. Hunter died of that alarming disease, angina pectoris: alarming,
because it comes in paroxysms, accompanied with all the feelings of
approaching death. These sensations are brought on by exertion or
excitement. In St. George’s Hospital, the conduct of his colleagues
had provoked him; he made no observations, but retiring into
another room, suddenly expired, October 16, 1793.
After these details no man will deny that John Hunter possessed
high genius, and that he employed his talents nobly. He was indeed
of a family of genius: his younger brother was cut off early, but not
until he had given promise of eminence. Dr. Hunter was, in our
opinion, equal in talents to John, the subject of this memoir, though
his mind received early a different bias. And in the next generation
the celebrated Dr. Baillie, nephew to these brothers, contributed
largely to the improvement of pathology, and afforded an instance of
the most active benevolence joined to a plainness of manner most
becoming in a physician. Joanna Baillie, his sister, still lives,
honoured and esteemed, and will survive in her works as one of our
most remarkable female writers.
The portrait from which the annexed engraving is made was painted
at the suggestion of the celebrated engraver Sharpe, by Sir Joshua
Reynolds, and was among his last works. There could not indeed be
a more picturesque head, nor one better suited to the burin. The
original picture is in the College of Surgeons. It exhibits more
mildness than we see in the engraving of Sharpe.
Surgeons’ Hall in Lincoln’s
Inn Fields.

Engraved by Robt. Hart.

PETRARCH.

From a Print by Raffaelle

Morghen,
after a Picture by Tofanelli.

Under the Superintendance

 of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge.

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Ludgate
Street, & Pall Mall East.
 PETRARCH.

Francesco Petrarca, whose real name is said to have been Petracco,

was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany, July 20, 1304. His father was a
notary at Florence, who had been employed in the service of the
state; but in the civil strife excited by Corso Donati, chief of the
faction of the Neri, he, with the rest of the Bianchi, including Dante,
whose friend he is recorded to have been, was banished from the
Republic in 1302. When the death of the Emperor Henry VII.
deprived the exiles of all hope of return, Petracco took his family to
Avignon, at that period the seat of the Pontifical Court. The boy
Francesco then saw for the first time scenes and objects, with which
his destiny was irrevocably connected; and he has left on record the
impression which at ten years of age the fountain and wild solitude
of Vaucluse had made upon his imagination. He was sent to study
the canon law at the University of Montpellier, where he remained
four years, devoting his time to Cicero, Virgil, and the Provençal
writers, much more than to the doctors of jurisprudence. From
Montpellier he went to Bologna; and formed an acquaintance with
the celebrated Cino da Pistoia, from whom, although distinguished
no less as a jurist than as a poet, Petrarch learned more poetry than
law. On his father’s death, which occurred when he was about
twenty years old, he returned to Avignon. His mother died soon
after; and the moderate patrimony which he inherited was so much
diminished by the dishonesty of his guardians, that at the age of
twenty-two, he found himself without fortune or profession, and with
no resource, but that of entering the church.
Avignon was then the chosen abode of fashion, luxury, and vice.
Petrarch mingled in its gay society, without yielding to its
corruptions, or withdrawing himself from the philosophical studies
which interested him above all other pursuits. A great conformity of
tastes, and a common superiority to the low objects of ambition with
which they were surrounded, made him the friend of Jacopo
Colonna, afterwards Bishop of Lombez. This prelate introduced
Petrarch to his brother, the Cardinal Colonna, who resided at
Avignon; and in whose palace, in 1331, the poet acquired the
friendship of old Stefano Colonna, the illustrious head of that family,
and drew from his discourse a stronger love of Italy, of freedom, and
of glory. But his affectionate, enthusiastic temper was not to be
exhausted even by these objects: soon, without ever being entirely
diverted from the interest of friendship or patriotism, he became the
vassal of that long and illustrious passion to which he owes the
immortality of his name. April 6, 1327, on Easter Monday, in the
church of the Nuns of Santa Clara, Petrarch, being then twenty-three
years of age, saw for the first time, and loved at sight, Laura de
Noves, the bride of Hugo de Sade, a young patrician of Avignon.
From this time his life was passed in wandering from place to place,
sometimes at the several courts of Italian princes; sometimes in
solitary seclusion at Vaucluse; often at Avignon itself, where from the
lofty rock on which stands the old Pontifical Palace, he could see
Laura walking in the gardens below, which with all the adjacent part
of the town belonged to the family of de Sade.
Few subjects have been discussed more largely, with greater
minuteness of examination, or with greater licence of conjecture,
than the history of the love of Petrarch. Some have chosen to treat
with ridicule the idea of a passion, subsisting through a long and
eventful life, without gratification, and nearly without hope; others
have thought the difficulty obviated by supposing, in defiance of all
apparent evidence, that Laura was not so insensible as the laws of
morality required. A few have wished to rescue the character of the
poet from the imputation of having loved a married woman, and
have dragged certain obscure spinsters out of doubtful epitaphs and
registers, to dispute the claim of Laura de Sade. A few more, and
but a few, although the race is not extinct, have denied the