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 Developing Graphics
Frameworks with Python
and OpenGL
 Developing Graphics
Frameworks with Python
and OpenGL

Lee Stemkoski
Michael Pascale
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2022 Lee Stemkoski and Michael Pascale

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write
and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

“The Open Access version of this book, available at www.taylorfrancis.com, has been made
­available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license”

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Stemkoski, Lee, author. | Pascale, Michael, author.
Title: Developing graphics frameworks with Python and OpenGL /
Lee Stemkoski, Michael Pascale.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021002036 | ISBN 9780367721800 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781003181378 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: OpenGL. | Computer graphics—Computer programs. |
Python (Computer program language) | Computer graphics—Mathematics.
Classification: LCC T385 .S7549 2021 | DDC 006.6—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021002036

ISBN: 978-0-367-72180-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-02146-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-18137-8 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003181378

Typeset in Minion Pro

by codeMantra
Contents

Authors, ix

CHAPTER 1 ◾ INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GRAPHICS 1

1.1 CORE CONCEPTS AND VOCABULARY 2
1.2 THE GRAPHICS PIPELINE 8
1.2.1 Application Stage 9
1.2.2 Geometry Processing 10
1.2.3 Rasterization 12
1.2.4 Pixel Processing 14
1.3 SETTING UP A DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT 17
1.3.1 Installing Python 17
1.3.2 Python Packages 19
1.3.3 Sublime Text 21
1.4 SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS 23

CHAPTER 2 ◾ INTRODUCTION TO PYGAME AND OPENGL 25

2.1 CREATING WINDOWS WITH PYGAME 25
2.2 DRAWING A POINT 32
2.2.1 OpenGL Shading Language 32
2.2.2 Compiling GPU Programs 36
2.2.3 Rendering in the Application 42
2.3 DRAWING SHAPES 46
2.3.1 Using Vertex Bufers 46
2.3.2 An Attribute Class 49

v
vi ◾ Contents

2.3.3 Hexagons, Triangles, and Squares 51

2.3.4 Passing Data between Shaders 59
2.4 WORKING WITH UNIFORM DATA 64
2.4.1 Introduction to Uniforms 64
2.4.2 A Uniform Class 65
2.4.3 Applications and Animations 67
2.5 ADDING INTERACTIVITY 77
2.5.1 Keyboard Input with Pygame 77
2.5.2 Incorporating with Graphics Programs 80
2.6 SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS 81

CHAPTER 3 ◾ MATRIX ALGEBRA AND TRANSFORMATIONS 83

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS AND MATRICES 83
3.1.1 Vector Defnitions and Operations 84
3.1.2 Linear Transformations and Matrices 88
3.1.3 Vectors and Matrices in Higher Dimensions 98
3.2 GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS 102
3.2.1 Scaling 102
3.2.2 Rotation 103
3.2.3 Translation 109
3.2.4 Projections 112
3.2.5 Local Transformations 119
3.3 A MATRIX CLASS 123
3.4 INCORPORATING WITH GRAPHICS PROGRAMS 125
3.5 SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS 132

CHAPTER 4 ◾ A SCENE GRAPH FRAMEWORK 133

4.1 OVERVIEW OF CLASS STRUCTURE 136
4.2 3D OBJECTS 138
4.2.1 Scene and Group 141
4.2.2 Camera 142
4.2.3 Mesh 143
4.3 GEOMETRY OBJECTS 144
 Contents ◾ vii

4.3.1 Rectangles 145

4.3.2 Boxes 147
4.3.3 Polygons 150
4.3.4 Parametric Surfaces and Planes 153
4.3.5 Spheres and Related Surfaces 156
4.3.6 Cylinders and Related Surfaces 158
4.4 MATERIAL OBJECTS 164
4.4.1 Base Class 165
4.4.2 Basic Materials 166
4.5 RENDERING SCENES WITH THE FRAMEWORK 172
4.6 CUSTOM GEOMETRY AND MATERIAL OBJECTS 177
4.7 EXTRA COMPONENTS 184
4.7.1 Axes and Grids 185
4.7.2 Movement Rig 188
4.8 SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS 192

CHAPTER 5 ◾ TEXTURES 193

5.1 A TEXTURE CLASS 194
5.2 TEXTURE COORDINATES 201
5.2.1 Rectangles 202
5.2.2 Boxes 202
5.2.3 Polygons 203
5.2.4 Parametric Surfaces 204
5.3 USING TEXTURES IN SHADERS 206
5.4 RENDERING SCENES WITH TEXTURES 212
5.5 ANIMATED EFFECTS WITH CUSTOM SHADERS 215
5.6 PROCEDURALLY GENERATED TEXTURES 221
5.7 USING TEXT IN SCENES 228
5.7.1 Rendering Text Images 228
5.7.2 Billboarding 232
5.7.2.1 Look-At Matrix 232
5.7.2.2 Sprite Material 236
5.7.3 Heads-Up Displays and Orthogonal Cameras 241
viii ◾ Contents

5.8 RENDERING SCENES TO TEXTURES 247

5.9 POSTPROCESSING 254
5.10 SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS 265

CHAPTER 6 ◾ LIGHT AND SHADOW 267

6.1 INTRODUCTION TO LIGHTING 268
6.2 LIGHT CLASSES 271
6.3 NORMAL VECTORS 274
6.3.1 Rectangles 274
6.3.2 Boxes 275
6.3.3 Polygons 276
6.3.4 Parametric Surfaces 276
6.4 USING LIGHTS IN SHADERS 280
6.4.1 Structs and Uniforms 280
6.4.2 Light-Based Materials 282
6.5 RENDERING SCENES WITH LIGHTS 291
6.6 EXTRA COMPONENTS 295
6.7 BUMP MAPPING 298
6.8 BLOOM AND GLOW EFFECTS 302
6.9 SHADOWS 312
6.9.1 Teoretical Background 312
6.9.2 Adding Shadows to the Framework 317
6.10 SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS 328

INDEX, 331
Authors

Lee Stemkoski is a professor of mathematics and computer science.

He earned his Ph.D. in mathematics from Dartmouth College in 2006 and
has been teaching at the college level since. His specialties are computer
graphics, video game development, and virtual and augmented reality
programming.

Michael Pascale is a sofware engineer interested in the foundations of

computer science, programming languages, and emerging technologies.
He earned his B.S. in Computer Science from Adelphi University in 2019.
He strongly supports open source sofware and open access educational
resources.

ix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction to
Computer Graphics

T he importance of computer graphics in modern society is

illustrated by the great quantity and variety of applications and their
impact on our daily lives. Computer graphics can be two-dimensional (2D)
or three-dimensional (3D), animated, and interactive. Tey are used in
data visualization to identify patterns and relationships, and also in scien-
tifc visualization, enabling researchers to model, explore, and understand
natural phenomena. Computer graphics are used for medical applications,
such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography
(CT) scans, and architectural applications, such as creating blueprints or
virtual models. Tey enable the creation of tools such as training simu-
lators and sofware for computer-aided engineering and design. Many
aspects of the entertainment industry make use of computer graphics to
some extent: movies may use them for creating special efects, generat-
ing photorealistic characters, or rendering entire flms, while video games
are primarily interactive graphics-based experiences. Recent advances in
computer graphics hardware and sofware have even helped virtual reality
and augmented reality technology enter the consumer market.
Te feld of computer graphics is continuously advancing, fnding new
applications, and increasing in importance. For all these reasons, combined
with the inherent appeal of working in a highly visual medium, the feld
of computer graphics is an exciting area to learn about, experiment with,
and work in. In this book, you’ll learn how to create a robust framework

DOI: 10.1201/9781003181378-1 1
2 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

capable of rendering and animating interactive three-dimensional scenes

using modern graphics programming techniques.
Before diving into programming and code, you’ll frst need to learn
about the core concepts and vocabulary in computer graphics. Tese ideas
will be revisited repeatedly throughout this book, and so it may help to
periodically review parts of this chapter to keep the overall process in
mind. In the second half of this chapter, you’ll learn how to install the
necessary sofware and set up your development environment.

1.1 CORE CONCEPTS AND VOCABULARY

Our primary goal is to generate two-dimensional images of three-
dimensional scenes; this process is called rendering the scene. Scenes
may contain two- and three-dimensional objects, from simple geometric
shapes such as boxes and spheres, to complex models representing real-
world or imaginary objects such as teapots or alien lifeforms. Tese objects
may simply appear to be a single color, or their appearance may be afected
by textures (images applied to surfaces), light sources that result in shading
(the darkness of an object not in direct light) and shadows (the silhouette
of one object's shape on the surface of another object), or environmen-
tal properties such as fog. Scenes are rendered from the point of view of
a virtual camera, whose relative position and orientation in the scene,
together with its intrinsic properties such as angle of view and depth of
feld, determine which objects will be visible or partially obscured by
other objects when the scene is rendered. A 3D scene containing multiple
shaded objects and a virtual camera is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Te region
contained within the truncated pyramid shape outlined in white (called a
frustum) indicates the space visible to the camera. In Figure 1.1, this region
completely contains the red and green cubes, but only contains part of the
blue sphere, and the yellow cylinder lies completely outside of this region.
Te results of rendering the scene in Figure 1.1 are shown in Figure 1.2.
From a more technical, lower-level perspective, rendering a scene
produces a raster—an array of pixels (picture elements) which will be
displayed on a screen, arranged in a two-dimensional grid. Pixels are typi-
cally extremely small; zooming in on an image can illustrate the presence
of individual pixels, as shown in Figure 1.3.
On modern computer systems, pixels specify colors using triples of
foating-point numbers between 0 and 1 to represent the amount of red,
green, and blue light present in a color; a value of 0 represents no amount
of that color is present, while a value of 1 represents that color is displayed
 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 3

FIGURE 1.1 Tree-dimensional scene with geometric objects, viewing region

(white outline) and virtual camera (lower right).

FIGURE 1.2 Results of rendering the scene from Figure 1.1

FIGURE 1.3 Zooming in on an image to illustrate individual pixels.

4 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

FIGURE 1.4 Various colors and their corresponding (R, G, B) values.

at full (100%) intensity. Tese three colors are typically used since photore-
ceptors in the human eye take in those particular colors. Te triple (1, 0, 0)
represents red, (0, 1, 0) represents green, and (0, 0, 1) represents blue. Black
and white are represented by (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1), respectively. Additional
colors and their corresponding triples of values specifying the amounts of
red, green, and blue (ofen called RGB values) are illustrated in Figure 1.4.
Te quality of an image depends in part on its resolution (the number of
pixels in the raster) and precision (the number of bits used for each pixel).
As each bit has two possible values (0 or 1), the number of colors that can
be expressed with N-bit precision is 2 N . For example, early video game
8
consoles with 8-bit graphics were able to display 2 = 256 diferent colors.
Monochrome displays could be said to have 1-bit graphics, while modern
displays ofen feature “high color” (16-bit, 65,536 color) or “true color”
(24-bit, more than 16 million colors) graphics. Figure 1.5 illustrates the
same image rendered with high precision but diferent resolutions, while
Figure 1.6 illustrates the same image rendered with high resolution but
diferent precision levels.
In computer science, a bufer (or data bufer, or bufer memory) is a part
of a computer's memory that serves as temporary storage for data while
it is being moved from one location to another. Pixel data is stored in a
region of memory called the framebufer. A framebufer may contain mul-
tiple bufers that store diferent types of data for each pixel. At a minimum,
the framebufer must contain a color bufer, which stores RGB values.
When rendering a 3D scene, the framebufer must also contain a depth
bufer, which stores distances from points on scene objects to the virtual
camera. Depth values are used to determine whether the various points
on each object are in front of or behind other objects (from the camera’s
perspective), and thus whether they will be visiblewhen the scene is ren-
dered. If one scene object obscures another and a transparency efect is
 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 5

FIGURE 1.5 A single image rendered with diferent resolutions.

FIGURE 1.6 A single image rendered with diferent precisions.

6 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

desired, the renderer makes use of alpha values: foating-point numbers

between 0 and 1 that specifes how overlapping colors should be blended
together; the value 0 indicates a fully transparent color, while the value
1 indicates a fully opaque color. Alpha values are also stored in the color
bufer along with RGB color values; the combined data is ofen referred to
as RGBA color values. Finally, framebufers may contain a bufer called
a stencil bufer, which may be used to store values used in generating
advanced efects, such as shadows, refections, or portal rendering.
In addition to rendering three-dimensional scenes, another goal in
computer graphics is to create animated scenes. Animations consist of a
sequence of images displayed in quick enough succession that the viewer
interprets the objects in the images to be continuously moving or chang-
ing in appearance. Each image that is displayed is called a frame. Te
speed at which these images appear is called the frame rate and is mea-
sured in frames per second (FPS). Te standard frame rate for movies and
television is 24 FPS. Computer monitors typically display graphics at 60
FPS. For virtual reality simulations, developers aim to attain 90 FPS, as
lower frame rates may cause disorientation and other negative side efects
in users. Since computer graphics must render these images in real time,
ofen in response to user interaction, it is vital that computers be able to
do so quickly.
In the early 1990s, computers relied on the central processing unit (CPU)
circuitry to perform the calculations needed for graphics. As real-time 3D
graphics became increasingly common in video game platforms (including
arcades, gaming consoles, and personal computers), there was increased
demand for specialized hardware for rendering these graphics. Tis led to
the development of the graphics processing unit (GPU), a term coined by the
Sony Corporation that referred to the circuitry in their PlayStation video
game console, released in 1994. Te Sony GPU performed graphics-related
computational tasks including managing a framebufer, drawing polygons
with textures, and shading and transparency efects. Te term GPU was
popularized by the NVidia Corporation in 1999 with their release of the
GeForce 256, a single-chip processor that performed geometric transfor-
mations and lighting calculations in addition to the rendering computa-
tions performed by earlier hardware implementations. NVidia was the frst
company to produce a GPU capable of being programmed by developers:
each geometric vertex could be processed by a short program, as could
every rendered pixel, before the resulting image was displayed on screen.
Tis processor, the GeForce 3, was introduced in 2001 and was also used
 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 7

in the Xbox video game console. In general, GPUs feature a highly parallel
structure that enables them to be more efcient than CPUs for rendering
computer graphics. As computer technology advances, so does the quality
of the graphics that can be rendered; modern systems are able to produce
real-time photorealistic graphics at high resolutions.
Programs that are run by GPUs are called shaders, initially so named
because they were used for shading efects, but now used to perform many
diferent computations required in the rendering process. Just as there are
many high-level programming languages (such as Java, JavaScript, and
Python) used to develop CPU-based applications, there are many shader
programming languages. Each shader language implements an application
programming interface (API), which defnes a set of commands, functions,
and protocols that can be used to interact with an external system—in this
case, the GPU. Some APIs and their corresponding shader languages include

• Te DirectX API and High-Level Shading Language (HLSL), used on

Microsof platforms, including the Xbox game console
• Te Metal API and Metal Shading Language, which runs on modern
Mac computers, iPhones, and iPads
• Te OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) API and OpenGL Shading
Language (GLSL), a cross-platform library.

Tis book will focus on OpenGL, as it is the most widely adopted graphics
API. As a cross-platform library, visual results will be consistent on any
supported operating system. Furthermore, OpenGL can be used in con-
cert with a variety of high-level languages using bindings: sofware librar-
ies that bridge two programming languages, enabling functions from one
language to be used in another. For example, some bindings to OpenGL
include

• JOGL (https://jogamp.org/jogl/www/) for Java

• WebGL (https://www.khronos.org/webgl/) for JavaScript
• PyOpenGL (http://pyopengl.sourceforge.net/) for Python

Te initial version of OpenGL was released by Silicon Graphics, Inc. (SGI)

in 1992 and has been managed by the Khronos Group since 2006. Te
Khronos Group is a non-proft technology consortium, whose members
8 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

include graphics card manufacturers and general technology companies.

New versions of the OpenGL specifcation are released regularly to support
new features and functions. In this book, you will learn about many of the
OpenGL functions that allow you to take advantage of the graphics capa-
bilities of the GPU and render some truly impressive three-dimensional
scenes. Te steps involved in this rendering process are described in detail
in the sections that follow.

1.2 THE GRAPHICS PIPELINE

A graphics pipeline is an abstract model that describes a sequence of steps
needed to render a three-dimensional scene. Pipelining allows a compu-
tational task to be split into subtasks, each of which can be worked on
in parallel, similar to an assembly line for manufacturing products in a
factory, which increases overall efciency. Graphics pipelines increase
the efciency of the rendering process, enabling images to be displayed
at faster rates. Multiple pipeline models are possible; the one described
in this section is commonly used for rendering real-time graphics using
OpenGL, which consists of four stages (illustrated by Figure 1.7):

• Application Stage: initializing the window where rendered graphics

will be displayed; sending data to the GPU
• Geometry Processing: determining the position of each vertex of the
geometric shapes to be rendered, implemented by a program called
a vertex shader
• Rasterization: determining which pixels correspond to the geometric
shapes to be rendered
• Pixel Processing: determining the color of each pixel in the rendered
image, involving a program called a fragment shader

Each of these stages is described in more detail in the sections that follow;
the next chapter contains code that will begin to implement many of the
processes described here.

FIGURE 1.7 Te graphics pipeline.

 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 9

1.2.1 Application Stage

Te application stage primarily involves processes that run on the CPU.
One of the frst tasks is to create a window where the rendered graphics
will be displayed. When working with OpenGL, this can be accomplished
using a variety of programming languages. Te window (or a canvas-like
object within the window) must be initialized so that the graphics are read
from the GPU framebufer. In the case of animated or interactive appli-
cations, the main application contains a loop that re-renders the scene
repeatedly, typically aiming for a rate of 60 FPS. Other processes that may
be handled by the CPU include monitoring hardware for user input events,
or running algorithms for tasks such as physics simulation and collision
detection.
Another class of tasks performed by the application includes read-
ing data required for the rendering process and sending it to the GPU.
Tis data may include vertex attributes (which describe the appearance
of the geometric shapes being rendered), images that will be applied to
surfaces, and source code for the vertex shader and fragment shader pro-
grams (which will be used later on during the graphics pipeline). OpenGL
describes the functions that can be used to transmit this data to the GPU;
these functions are accessed through the bindings of the programming
language used to write the application. Vertex attribute data is stored in
GPU memory bufers called vertex bufer objects (VBOs), while images
that will be used as textures are stored in texture bufers. It is important
to note that this stored data is not initially assigned to any particular pro-
gram variables; these associations are specifed later. Finally, source code
for the vertex shader and fragment shader programs needs to be sent to
the GPU, compiled, and loaded. If needed, bufer data can be updated dur-
ing the application's main loop, and additional data can be sent to shader
programs as well.
Once the necessary data has been sent to the GPU, before rendering
can take place, the application needs to specify the associations between
attribute data stored in VBOs and attribute variables in the vertex shader
program. A single geometric shape may have multiple attributes for each
vertex (such as position and color), and the corresponding data is streamed
from bufers to variables in the shader during the rendering process. It
is also frequently necessary to work with many sets of such associations:
there may be multiple geometric shapes (with data stored in diferent buf-
fers) that are rendered by the same shader program, or each shape may be
rendered by a diferent shader program. Tese sets of associations can be
10 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

FIGURE 1.8 Wireframe meshes representing a sphere and a teapot.

conveniently managed by using vertex array objects (VAOs), which store

this information and can be activated and deactivated as needed during
the rendering process.

1.2.2 Geometry Processing

In computer graphics, the shape of a geometric object is defned by a mesh:
a collection of points that are grouped into lines or triangles, as illustrated
in Figure 1.8.
In addition to the overall shape of an object, additional information
may be required to describe how the object should be rendered. Te prop-
erties or attributes that are specifc to rendering each individual point are
grouped together into a data structure called a vertex. At a minimum, a
vertex must contain the three-dimensional position of the corresponding
point. Additional data contained by a vertex ofen includes

• a color to be used when rendering the point

• texture coordinates (or UV coordinates), which indicate a point in an
image that is mapped to the vertex
• a normal vector, which indicates the direction perpendicular to a
surface and is typically used in lighting calculations

Figure 1.9 illustrates diferent renderings of a sphere that make use of these
attributes. Additional vertex attributes may be defned as needed.
During the geometry processing stage, the vertex shader is applied to
each of the vertices; each attribute variable in the shader receives data
from a bufer according to previously specifed associations. Te pri-
mary purpose of the vertex shader is to determine the fnal position of
 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 11

FIGURE 1.9 Diferent renderings of a sphere: wireframe, vertex colors, texture,

and with lighting efects.

FIGURE 1.10 One scene rendered from multiple camera locations and angles.

each point being rendered, which is typically calculated from a series of

transformations:

• the collection of points defning the intrinsic shape of an object may

be translated, rotated, and scaled so that the object appears to have
a particular location, orientation, and size with respect to a virtual
three-dimensional world. Tis process is called the model transfor-
mation; coordinates expressed from this frame of reference are said
to be in world space
• there may be a virtual camera with its own position and orientation
in the virtual world. In order to render the world from the camera’s
point of view, the coordinates of each object in the world must be
converted to a frame of reference relative to the camera itself. Tis
process is called the view transformation, and coordinates in this
context are said to be in view space (or camera space, or eye space).
Te efect of the placement of the virtual camera on the rendered
image is illustrated in Figure 1.10
• the set of points in the world considered to be visible, occupying
either a box-shaped or frustum-shaped region, must be scaled to and
aligned with the space rendered by OpenGL: a cube-shaped region
consisting of all points whose coordinates are between −1 and 1.
12 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

FIGURE 1.11 A series of cubes rendered with orthogonal projection (a) and
perspective projection (b).

Te position of each point returned by the vertex shader is assumed

to be expressed in this frame of reference. Any points outside this
region are automatically discarded or clipped from the scene; coor-
dinates expressed at this stage are said to be in clip space. Tis task is
accomplished with a projection transformation. More specifcally, it is
called an orthographic projection or a perspective projection, depend-
ing on whether the shape of the visible world region is a box or a
frustum. A perspective projection is generally considered to produce
more realistic images, as objects that are farther away from the vir-
tual camera will require greater compression by the transformation
and thus appear smaller when the scene is rendered. Te diferences
between the two types of projections are illustrated in Figure 1.11.

In addition to these transformation calculations, the vertex shader may

perform additional calculations and send additional information to the
fragment shader as needed.

1.2.3 Rasterization
Once the fnal positions of each vertex have been specifed by the vertex
shader, the rasterization stage begins. Te points themselves must frst be
grouped into the desired type of geometric primitive: points, lines, or tri-
angles, which consist of sets of 1, 2, or 3 points. In the case of lines or
triangles, additional information must be specifed. For example, consider
an array of points [A, B, C, D, E, F] to be grouped into lines. Tey could
be grouped in disjoint pairs, as in (A, B), (C, D), (E, F), resulting in a set
of disconnected line segments. Alternatively, they could be grouped in
overlapping pairs, as in (A, B), (B, C), (C, D), (D, E), (E, F), resulting in a
set of connected line segments (called a line strip). Te type of geometric
 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 13

primitive and method for grouping points is specifed using an OpenGL

function parameter when the rendering process begins. Te process of
grouping points into geometric primitives is called primitive assembly.
Once the geometric primitives have been assembled, the next step is to
determine which pixels correspond to the interior of each geometric prim-
itive. Since pixels are discrete units, they will typically only approximate
the continuous nature of a geometric shape, and a criterion must be given
to clarify which pixels are in the interior. Tree simple criteria could be

1. the entire pixel area is contained within the shape

2. the center point of the pixel is contained within the shape
3. any part of the pixel is contained within the shape

Tese efects of applying each of these criteria to a triangle are illustrated

in Figure 1.12, where the original triangle appears outlined in blue, and
pixels meeting the criteria are shaded gray.
For each pixel corresponding to the interior of a shape, a fragment is
created: a collection of data used to determine the color of a single pixel in
a rendered image. Te data stored in a fragment always includes the raster
position, also called pixel coordinates. When rendering a three-dimensional
scene, fragments will also store a depth value, which is needed when points
on diferent geometric objects would overlap from the perspective of the
viewer. When this happens, the associated fragments would correspond
to the same pixel, and the depth value determines which fragment’s data
should be used when rendering this pixel.
Additional data may be assigned to each vertex, such as a color, and
passed along from the vertex shader to the fragment shader. In this case, a
new data feld is added to each fragment. Te value assigned to this feld at

FIGURE 1.12 Diferent criteria for rasterizing a triangle.

14 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

FIGURE 1.13 Interpolating color attributes.

each interior point is interpolated from the values at the vertices: calculated
using a weighted average, depending on the distance from the interior
point to each vertex. Te closer an interior point is to a vertex, the greater
the weight of that vertex’s value when calculating the interpolated value.
For example, if the vertices of a triangle are assigned the colors red, green,
and blue, then each pixel corresponding to the interior of the triangle will
be assigned a combination of these colors, as illustrated in Figure 1.13.

1.2.4 Pixel Processing

Te primary purpose of this stage is to determine the fnal color of each
pixel, storing this data in the color bufer within the framebufer. During
the frst part of the pixel processing stage, a program called the fragment
shader is applied to each of the fragments to calculate their fnal color. Tis
calculation may involve a variety of data stored in each fragment, in com-
bination with data globally available during rendering, such as

• a base color applied to the entire shape

• colors stored in each fragment (interpolated from vertex colors)
 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 15

FIGURE 1.14 An image fle (a) used as a texture for a 3D object (b).

• textures (images applied to the surface of the shape, illustrated by

Figure 1.14), where colors are sampled from locations specifed by
texture coordinates
• light sources, whose relative position and/or orientation may lighten
or darken the color, depending on the direction the surface is facing
at a point, specifed by normal vectors

Some aspects of the pixel processing stage are automatically handled by

the GPU. For example, the depth values stored in each fragment are used
in this stage to resolve visibility issues in a three-dimensional scene, deter-
mining which parts of objects are blocked from view by other objects.
Afer the color of a fragment has been calculated, the fragment’s depth
value will be compared to the value currently stored in the depth bufer
at the corresponding pixel coordinates. If the fragment's depth value is
smaller than the depth bufer value, then the corresponding point is closer
to the viewer than any that were previously processed, and the fragment’s
color will be used to overwrite the data currently stored in the color bufer
at the corresponding pixel coordinates.
Transparency is also handled by the GPU, using the alpha values stored
in the color of each fragment. Te alpha value of a color is used to indicate
how much of this color should be blended with another color. For example,
when combining a color C1 with an alpha value of 0.6 with another color
C2, the resulting color will be created by adding 60% of the value from
each component of C1 to 40% of the value from each component of C2.
Figure 1.15 illustrates a simple scene involving transparency.
16 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

FIGURE 1.15 Rendered scene with transparency.

However, rendering transparent objects has some complex subtleties.

Tese calculations occur at the same time that depth values are being
resolved, and so scenes involving transparency must render objects in a
particular order: all opaque objects must be rendered frst (in any order),
followed by transparent objects ordered from farthest to closest with respect
to the virtual camera. Not following this order may cause transparency
efects to fail. For example, consider a scene, such as that in Figure 1.15,
containing a single transparent object close to the camera and multiple
opaque objects farther from the camera that appear behind the transparent
object. Assume that, contrary to the previously described rendering order,
the transparent object is rendered frst, followed by the opaque objects in
some unknown order. When the fragments of the opaque objects are pro-
cessed, their depth value will be greater than the value stored in the depth
bufer (corresponding to the closer transparent object), and so the opaque
fragments’ color data will automatically be discarded, rather than blended
with the currently stored color. Even attempting to use the alpha value of
the transparent object stored in the color bufer in this example does not
resolve the underlying issue, because when the fragments of each opaque
object are being rendered, it is not possible at this point to determine if
they may have been occluded from view by another opaque fragment (only
the closest depth value, corresponding to the transparent object, is stored),
and thus, it is unknown which opaque fragment's color values should be
blended into the color bufer.
 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 17

1.3 SETTING UP A DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT

Most parts of the graphics pipeline discussed in the previous section—
geometry processing, rasterization, and pixel processing—are handled
by the GPU, and as mentioned previously, this book will use OpenGL for
these tasks. For developing the application, there are many programming
languages one could select from. In this book, you will be using Python
to develop these applications, as well as a complete graphics framework
to simplify the design and creation of interactive, animated, three-
dimensional scenes.

1.3.1 Installing Python

To prepare your development environment, the frst step is to download
and install a recent version of Python (version 3.8 as of this writing) from
http://www.python.org (Figure 1.16); installers are available for Windows,
Mac OS X, and a variety of other platforms.
• When installing for Windows, check the box next to add to path.
Also, select the options custom installation and install for all users;
this simplifes setting up alternative development environments later.

Te Python installer will also install IDLE, Python’s Integrated

Development and Learning Environment, which can be used for devel-
oping the graphics framework presented throughout this book. A more

FIGURE 1.16 Python homepage: http://www.python.org.

18 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

sophisticated alternative is recommended, such as Sublime Text, which

will be introduced later on in this chapter, and some of its advantages
discussed. (If you are already familiar with an alternative Python
development environment, you are of course also welcome to use that
instead.)
IDLE has two main window types. Te frst window type, which auto-
matically opens when you run IDLE, is the shell window, an interactive
window that allows you to write Python code which is then immediately
executed afer pressing the Enter key. Figure 1.17 illustrates this win-
dow afer entering the statements 123 + 214 and print("Hello,
world!"). Te second window type is the editor window, which func-
tions as a text editor, allowing you to open, write, and save fles containing
Python code, which are called modules and typically use the.py fle exten-
sion. An editor window can be opened from the shell window by selecting
either File > New File or File > Open... from the menu bar. Programs may
be run from the editor window by choosing Run > Run Module from the
menu bar; this will display the output in a shell window (opening a new
shell window if none are open). Figure 1.18 illustrates creating a fle in the
editor window containing the following code:

print("Hello, world!")
print("Have a nice day!")

FIGURE 1.17 IDLE shell window.

FIGURE 1.18 IDLE editor window.

 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 19

FIGURE 1.19 Results of running the Python program from Figure 1.18.

Figure 1.19 illustrates the results of running this code, which appear in a
shell window.

1.3.2 Python Packages

Once Python has been successfully installed, your next step will be to
install some packages, which are collections of related modules that pro-
vide additional functionality to Python. Te easiest way to do this is by
using pip, a sofware tool for package installation in Python. In particular,
you will install

• Pygame (http://www.pygame.org), a package that can be used to

easily create windows and handle user input
• Numpy (https://numpy.org/), a package for mathematics and scientifc
computing
• PyOpenGL and PyOpenGL_accelerate (http://pyopengl.sourceforge.
net/), which provide a set of bindings from Python to OpenGL.

If you are using Windows, open Command Prompt or PowerShell (run

with administrator privileges so that the packages are automatically avail-
able to all users) and enter the following command, which will install all
of the packages described above:

py -m pip install pygame numpy PyOpenGL

PyOpenGL_accelerate

If you are using MacOS, the command is slightly diferent. Enter

python3-m pip install pygame numpy PyOpenGL

PyOpenGL_accelerate
20 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

To verify that these packages have been installed correctly, open a new
IDLE shell window (restart IDLE if it was open before installation). To
check Pygame, enter the following code, and press the Enter key:

import pygame

You should see a message that contains the number of the Pygame
version that has been installed, such as "pygame 1.9.6", and a greet-
ing message such as "Hello from the pygame community". If
instead you see a message that contains the text No module named
'pygame', then Pygame has not been correctly installed. Furthermore,
it will be important to install a recent version of Pygame—at least a
development version of Pygame 2.0.0. If an earlier version has been
installed, return to the command prompt and in the install command
above, change pygame to pygame==2.0.0.dev10 to install a more
recent version.
Similarly, to check the Numpy installation, instead use the code:

import numpy

In this case, if you see no message at all (just another input prompt), then
the installation was successful. If you see a message that contains the text
No module named 'numpy', then Numpy has not been correctly
installed. Finally, to check PyOpenGL, instead use the code:

import OpenGL

As was the case with testing the Numpy package, if there is no message
displayed, then the installation was successful, but a message mentioning
that the module is not installed will require you to try re-installing the
package.
If you encounter difculties installing any of these packages, there is
additional help available online:

• Pygame: https://www.pygame.org/wiki/GettingStarted
• Numpy: https://numpy.org/install/
• PyOpenGL: at http://pyopengl.sourceforge.net/documentation/
installation.html
 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 21

1.3.3 Sublime Text

When working on a large project involving multiple fles, you may want to
install an alternative development environment, rather than restrict your-
self to working with IDLE. Te authors particularly recommend Sublime
Text, which has the following advantages:

• lines are numbered for easy reference

• tabbed interface for working with multiple fles in a single window
• editor supports multi-column layout to view and edit diferent fles
simultaneously
• directory view to easily navigate between project fles in a project
• able to run scripts and display output in console area
• free, full-featured trial version available

To install the application, visit the Sublime Text website (https://www.

sublimetext.com/), shown in Figure 1.20, and click on the “download”
button (whose text may difer from the fgure to reference the operating
system you are using). Alternatively, you may click the download link in
the navigation bar to view all downloadable versions. Afer downloading,
you will need to run the installation program, which will require
administrator-level privileges on your system. If unavailable, you may
alternatively download a “portable version” of the sofware, which can

FIGURE 1.20 Sublime Text homepage

22 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

FIGURE 1.21 Sublime Text editor window.

FIGURE 1.22 Output from Figure 1.21.

be found via the download link previously mentioned. While a free trial
version is available, if you choose to use this sofware extensively, you are
encouraged to purchase a license.
Afer installation, start the Sublime Text sofware. A new editor window
will appear, containing an empty fle. As previously mentioned, Sublime
Text can be used to run Python scripts automatically, provided that Python
has been installed for all users of your computer and it is included on the
system path. To try out this feature, in the editor window, as shown in
Figure 1.21, enter the text:

print("Hello, world!")

Next, save your fle with the name test.py; the.py extension causes
Sublime Text to recognize it as a Python script fle, and syntax highlighting
will be applied. Finally, from the menu bar, select Tools > Build or press
the keyboard key combination Ctrl + B to build and run the application.
Te output will appear in the console area, as illustrated in Figure 1.22.
 Introduction to Computer Graphics ◾ 23

1.4 SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS

In this chapter, you learned about the core concepts and vocabulary used
in computer graphics, including rendering, bufers, GPUs, and shaders.
Ten, you learned about the four major stages in the graphics pipeline: the
application stage, geometry processing, rasterization, and pixel processing;
this section introduced additional terminology, including vertices,
VBOs, VAOs, transformations, projections, fragments, and interpolation.
Finally, you learned how to set up a Python development environment. In
the next chapter, you will use Python to start implementing the graphics
framework that will realize these theoretical principles.
 CHAPTER 2

Introduction to
Pygame and OpenGL

I n this chapter, you will learn how to create windows with Pygame
and how to draw graphics in these windows with OpenGL. You will
start by rendering a point, followed by lines and triangles with a single
color. Ten, you will draw multiple shapes with multiple colors, create a
series of animations involving movement and color transitions, and imple-
ment interactive applications with keyboard controlled movement.

2.1 CREATING WINDOWS WITH PYGAME

As indicated in the discussion of the graphics pipeline, the frst step in
rendering graphics is to develop an application where graphics will be
displayed. Tis can be accomplished with a variety of programming lan-
guages; throughout this book, you will write windowed applications using
Python and Pygame, a popular Python game development library.
As you write code, it is important to keep a number of sofware
engineering principles in mind, including organization, reusability, and
extensibility. To support these principles, the sofware developed in this
book uses an object-oriented design approach. To begin, create a main
folder where you will store your source code. Within this folder, you will
store the main applications as well as your own packages: folders contain-
ing collections of related modules, which in this case will be Python fles
containing class defnitions.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003181378-2 25
26 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

First, you will create a class called Base that initializes Pygame and
displays a window. Anticipating that the applications created will eventu-
ally feature user interaction and animation, this class will be designed to
handle the standard phases or “life cycle” of such an application:

• Startup: During this stage, objects are created, values are initialized,
and any required external fles are loaded.
• Te Main Loop: Tis stage repeats continuously (typically 60 times
per second), while the application is running and consists of the
following three substages:
• Process Input: Check if the user has performed any action that
sends data to the computer, such as pressing keys on a keyboard
or clicking buttons on a mouse.
• Update: Changing values of variables and objects.
• Render: Create graphics that are displayed on the screen.
• Shutdown: Tis stage typically begins when the user performs an
action indicating that the program should stop running (for example,
by clicking a button to quit the application). Tis stage may involve
tasks such as signaling the application to stop checking for user input
and closing any windows that were created by the application.

Tese phases are illustrated by the fowchart in Figure 2.1.

Te Base class will be designed to be extended by the various
applications throughout this book. In accordance with the principle of
modularization, processing user input will be handled by a separate class
named Input that you will create later.
To begin, in your main folder, create a new folder called core. For Python
to recognize this (or any) folder as a package, within the folder, you need

FIGURE 2.1 Te phases of an interactive graphics-based application.

 Introduction to Pygame and OpenGL ◾ 27

to create a new fle named __init __.py (note the double underscore
characters that occur before and afer init). Any code in the __init __.
py fle will be run when modules from this package are imported into
another program; leave this as an empty fle. Next, also in the core folder,
create a new fle named base.py, and enter the following code (which con-
tains some basic comments that will be explained more fully afer):

import pygame
import sys

class Base(object):

def __init__(self, screenSize=[512, 512]):

# initialize all pygame modules

pygame.init()
# indicate rendering details
displayFlags = pygame.DOUBLEBUF | pygame.
OPENGL
# initialize buffers to perform antialiasing
pygame.display.gl_set_attribute(
pygame.GL_MULTISAMPLEBUFFERS, 1)
pygame.display.gl_set_attribute(
pygame.GL_MULTISAMPLESAMPLES, 4)
# use a core OpenGL profile for cross-platform
compatibility
pygame.display.gl_set_attribute(
pygame.GL_CONTEXT_PROFILE_MASK,
pygame.GL_CONTEXT_PROFILE_CORE)
# create and display the window
self.screen = pygame.display.set_mode(
screenSize, displayFlags )
# set the text that appears in the title bar
of the window
pygame.display.set_caption("Graphics Window")

# determine if main loop is active

self.running = True
# manage time-related data and operations
self.clock = pygame.time.Clock()

# implement by extending class

28 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

def initialize(self):
pass

# implement by extending class

def update(self):
pass

def run(self):

## startup ##
self.initialize()

## main loop ##
while self.running:

## process input ##

## update ##
self.update()

## render ##
# display image on screen
pygame.display.flip()

# pause if necessary to achieve 60 FPS

self.clock.tick(60)

## shutdown ##
pygame.quit()
sys.exit()

In addition to the comments throughout the code above, the following

observations are noteworthy:

• Te screenSize parameter can be changed as desired. At present,

if the screen size is set to non-square dimensions, this will cause the
rendered image to appear stretched along one direction. Tis issue
will be addressed in Chapter 4 when discussing aspect ratios.
• Te title of the window is set with the function pygame.display.
set _ caption and can be changed as desired.
 Introduction to Pygame and OpenGL ◾ 29

• Te displayFlags variable is used to combine constants rep-

resenting diferent display settings with the bitwise or operator
'|'. Additional settings (such as allowing a resizable window) are
described at https://www.pygame.org/docs/ref/display.html.
• Te pygame.DOUBLEBUF constant indicates that a rendering tech-
nique called double bufering will be used, which employs two image
bufers. Te pixel data from one bufer is displayed on screen while
new data is being written into a second bufer. When the new image
is ready, the application switches which bufer is displayed on screen
and which bufer will be written to; this is accomplished in Pygame
with the statement pygame.display.flip(). Te double bufer-
ing technique eliminates an unwanted visual artifact called screen
tearing, in which the pixels from a partially updated bufer are dis-
played on screen, which happens when a single bufer is used and the
rendering cycles are not synchronized with the display refresh rate.
• Antialiasing is a rendering technique used to remove the appear-
ance of jagged, pixelated lines along edges of polygons in a rasterized
image. Te two lines of code beneath the antialiasing comment indi-
cate that each pixel at the edge of a polygon will be sampled multiple
times, and in each sample, a slight ofset (smaller than the size of a
pixel) is applied to all screen coordinates. Te color samples are aver-
aged, resulting in a smoother transition between pixel colors along
polygon edges.
• Starting in OpenGL version 3.2 (introduced in 2009), deprecation
was introduced: older functions were gradually replaced by more
efcient versions, and future versions may no longer contain or sup-
port the older functions. Tis led to core and compatibility profles:
core profles are only guaranteed to implement functions present
in the current version of the API, while compatibility profles will
additionally support many functions that may have been deprecated.
Each hardware vendor decides which versions of OpenGL will be
supported by each profle. In recent versions of Mac OS X (10.7 and
later) at the time of writing, the core profle supported is 3.2, while
the compatibility profle supported is 2.1. Since some of the OpenGL
features (such as vertex array objects or VAOs) that will be needed
in constructing the graphics framework in this book were intro-
duced in GLSL version 3.0, a core profle is specifed for maximum
30 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

cross-platform compatibility. Te corresponding line of code also

requires at least Pygame version 2.0 to run.
• Te function pygame.display.set _ mode sets the properties
of the window and also makes the window appear on screen.
• Te Clock object (initialized with pygame.time.Clock()) has
many uses, such as keeping track of how much time has passed since
a previous function call, or how many times a loop has run during the
past second. Each iteration of the main loop results in an image being
displayed, which can be considered a frame of an animation. Since
the speed at which these images appear is the speed at which the main
loop runs, both are measured in terms of frames per second (FPS).
By default, the main loop will run as fast as possible—sometimes
faster than 60 FPS, in which case the program may attempt to use
nearly 100% of the CPU. Since most computer displays only update
60 times per second, there is no need to run faster than this, and the
tick function called at the end of the main loop results in a short
pause at the end of the loop that will bring the execution speed down
to 60 FPS.
• Te initialize and update functions are meant to be imple-
mented by the applications that extend this class. Since every func-
tion must contain at least one statement, the pass statement is used
here, which is a null statement—it does nothing.
• Te run function contains all the phases of an interactive graphics-
based application, as described previously; the corresponding code is
indicated by comments beginning with ##.

Te next task we need to address is basic input processing; at a minimum,

the user needs to be able to terminate the program, which will set the vari-
able self.running to False in the code above. To this end, in the core
folder, create a new fle named input.py containing the following code:

import pygame

class Input(object):

def __init__(self):
 Introduction to Pygame and OpenGL ◾ 31

# has the user quit the application?

self.quit = False

def update(self):
# iterate over all user input events (such as
keyboard or
# mouse)that occurred since the last time
events were checked
# for event in pygame.event.get():
# quit event occurs by clicking button to
close window
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
self.quit = True

At present, the Input class only monitors for quit-type events; in later
sections, keyboard functionality will be added as well. For now, return to
the Base class. Afer the import statements, add the code:

from core.input import Input

Tis will enable you to use the Input class from the input module
in the core package. It should be noted that the import statements
are written assuming that your application fles (which will extend the
Base class) will be stored in the main directory (which contains all the
packages).
Next, at the end of the init function, add the code:

# manage user input

self.input = Input()

Tis will create and store an instance of the Input class when the Base
class is created.
Finally, in the run function, afer the comment ## process input
##, add the code:

self.input.update()
if self.input.quit:
self.running = False

Tis will enable the user to stop the application, as described prior to the
code listing for the Input class.
32 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

You will next write an application that uses these classes to create a win-
dow. Te general approach in this and similar applications will to extend
the Base class, implement the initialize and update functions, and
then, create an instance of the new class and call the run function. To
proceed, in your main folder, create a new fle named test-2-1.py with
the code:

from core.base import Base

class Test(Base):

def initialize(self):
print("Initializing program...")

def update(self):
pass

# instantiate this class and run the program

Test().run()

In this program, a message is printed during initialization for illustra-

tive purposes. However, no print statements are present in the update
function, as attempting to print text 60 times per second would cause
extreme slowdown in any program. Run this program, and you should see
a blank window appear on screen (as illustrated in Figure 2.2) and the text
"Initializing program..." will appear in the shell. When you click
on the button to close the window, the window should close, as expected.

2.2 DRAWING A POINT

Now that you are able to create a windowed application, the next goal is
to render a single point on the screen. You will accomplish this by writing
the simplest possible vertex shader and fragment shader, using OpenGL
Shading Language. You will then learn how to compile and link the shad-
ers to create a graphics processing unit (GPU) program. Finally, you will
extend the framework begun in the previous section to use GPU programs
to display graphics in the Pygame application window.

2.2.1 OpenGL Shading Language

OpenGL Shading Language (GLSL) is a C-style language, and is both
similar to and diferent from Python in a number of ways. Similar to
 Introduction to Pygame and OpenGL ◾ 33

FIGURE 2.2 Te Pygame window.

Python, there are “if statements” to process conditional statements, “for

loops” to iterate a group of statements over a range of values, "while loops"
to iterate a group of statements as long as a given condition is true, and
functions that take a set of inputs and perform some computations (and
optionally return an output value). Unlike Python, variables in GLSL
must be declared with an assigned type, the end of each statement must
be indicated with a semicolon, statements are grouped using braces (as
opposed to indentation), comments are preceded by "//" (rather than "#"),
and functions must specify the types of their input parameters and return
value. Te details of the diferences in Python and GLSL syntax will be
illustrated and indicated as the features are introduced in the examples
throughout this book.
Te basic data types in GLSL are boolean, integer, and foating point
values, indicated by bool, int, and float, respectively. GLSL has vector
data types, which are ofen used to store values indicating positions, colors,
and texture coordinates. Vectors may have two, three, or four components,
indicated by vec2, vec3, and vec4 (for vectors consisting of foats). As
a C-like language, GLSL provides arrays and structs: user-defned data
34 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

types. To facilitate graphics-related computations, GLSL also features

matrix data types, which ofen store transformations (translation, rota-
tion, scaling, and projections), and sampler data types, which represent
textures; these will be introduced in later chapters.
Te components of a vector data type can be accessed in multiple ways.
For example, once a vec4 named v has been initialized, its components
can be accessed using array notation ( v[0], v[1], v[2], v[3] ), or using
dot notation with any of the following three systems: ( v.x, v.y, v.z, v.w )
or ( v.r, v.g, v.b, v.a ) or ( v.s, v.t, v.p, v.q ). While all these systems
are interchangeable, programmers typically choose a system related to the
context for increased readability: (x, y, z, w) are used for positions, (r, g, b,
a) are used for colors (red, green, blue, alpha), and (s, t, p, q) are used for
texture coordinates.
Every shader must contain a function named main, similar to the C
programming language. No values are returned (which is indicated by
the keyword void), and there are no parameters required by the main
function; thus, every shader has the general following structure:

void main()
{
// code statements here
}

In the description of the graphics pipeline from the previous chapter, it

was mentioned that a vertex shader will receive data about the geometric
shapes being rendered via bufers. At this point, you may be wondering
how vertex attribute data is sent from bufers to a vertex shader if the
main function takes no parameters. In general, data is passed in and
out of shaders via variables that are declared with certain type qualifers:
additional keywords that modify the properties of a variable. For example,
many programming languages have a qualifer to indicate that the value of
a variable will remain constant; in GLSL, this is indicated by the keyword
const. Additionally, when working with shaders, the keyword in indi-
cates that the value of a variable will be supplied by the previous stage of
the graphics pipeline, while the keyword out indicates that a value will be
passed along to the next stage of the graphics pipeline. More specifcally,
in the context of a vertex shader, in indicates that values will be supplied
from a bufer, while out indicates that values will be passed to the frag-
ment shader. In the context of a fragment shader, in indicates that values
 Introduction to Pygame and OpenGL ◾ 35

will be supplied from the vertex shader (interpolated during the rasteriza-
tion stage), while out indicates values will be stored in one of the various
bufers (color, depth, or stencil).
Tere are two particular out variables that are required when writ-
ing shader code for a GPU program. First, recall that the ultimate goal
of the vertex shader is to calculate the position of a point. OpenGL uses
the built-in variable gl _ Position to store this value; a value must be
assigned to this variable by the vertex shader. Second, recall that the ulti-
mate goal of the fragment shader is to calculate the color of a pixel. Early
versions of OpenGL used a built-in variable called gl _ FragColor to
store this value, and each fragment shader was required to assign a value
to this variable. Later versions require fragment shader code to explic-
itly declare an out variable for this purpose. Finally, it should be men-
tioned that both of these variables are vec4 type variables. For storing
color data, this makes sense as red, green, blue, and alpha (transparency)
values are required. For storing position data, this is less intuitive, as a
position in three-dimensional space can be specifed using only x, y, and
z coordinates. By including a fourth coordinate (commonly called w and
set to the value 1), this makes it possible for geometric transformations
(such as translation, rotation, scaling, and projection) to be represented
by and calculated using a single matrix, which will be discussed in detail
in Chapter 3.
As indicated at the beginning of this section, the current goal is to write
a vertex shader and a fragment shader that will render a single point on
the screen. Te code presented will avoid the use of bufers and exclusively
use built-in variables. (You do not need to create any new fles or enter any
code at this time.) Te vertex shader will consist of the following code:

void main()
{
gl_Position = vec4(0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 1.0);
}

In early versions of OpenGL, the simplest possible fragment shader could

have consisted of the following code:

void main()
{
gl_FragColor = vec4(1.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0);
}
36 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

For more modern versions of OpenGL, where you need to declare a vari-
able for the output color, you can use the following code for the fragment
shader:

out vec4 fragColor;

void main()
{
fragColor = vec4(1.0, 1.0, 0.0, 1.0);
}

Taken together, the vertex shader and the fragment shader produce a
program that renders a point in the center of the screen, colored yellow. If
desired, these values can be altered within certain bounds. Te x, y, and z
components of the position vector may be changed to any value between
−1.0 and 1.0, and the point will remain visible; any values outside this range
place the point outside of the region rendered by OpenGL and will result
in an empty image being rendered. Changing the z coordinate (within this
range) will have no visible efect at this time, since no perspective trans-
formations are being applied. Similarly, the r, g, and b components of the
color vector may be changed as desired, although dark colors may be dif-
fcult to distinguish on the default black background color. It should also
be noted that the number types int and float are not interchangeable;
entering just 1 rather than 1.0 may cause shader compilation errors.

2.2.2 Compiling GPU Programs

Now that you’ve learned the basics about writing shader code, the next
step is to learn how to compile and link the vertex and fragment shaders
to create a GPU program. To continue with the goal of creating a reusable
framework, you will create a utility class that will perform these tasks. In
this section and those that follow, many of the functions from PyOpenGL
will be introduced and described in the following style:

functionName( parameter1 , parameter2 , … )

Description of function and parameters.

Many of these functions will have syntax identical to that presented in

the ofcial OpenGL reference pages maintained by the Khronos Group
at https://www.khronos.org/registry/OpenGL-Refpages/. However, there
will be a few diferences, because the OpenGL Shading Language (GLSL)
 Introduction to Pygame and OpenGL ◾ 37

is a C-style language, and PyOpenGL is a Python binding. In particular,

arrays are handled diferently in these two programming languages, which
is ofen refected in the Python functions requiring fewer arguments.
Te frst step towards compiling GPU programs centers on the indi-
vidual shaders. Shader objects must be created to store shader source code,
the source code must be sent to these objects, and then the shaders must be
compiled. Tis is accomplished using the following three functions:

glCreateShader( shaderType )
Creates an empty shader object, which is used to store the source code of
a shader, and returns a value by which it can be referenced. Te type of
shader (such as a vertex shader or a fragment shader) is specifed with
the shaderType parameter, whose value will be an OpenGL constant
such as GL_VERTEX_SHADER or GL_FRAGMENT_SHADER.
glShaderSource( shaderRef, shaderCode )
Stores the source code in the string parameter shaderCode in the shader
object referenced by the parameter shaderRef.
glCompileShader( shaderRef )
Compiles the source code stored in the shader object referenced by the
parameter shaderRef.

Since mistakes may be made when writing shader code, compiling a shader
may or may not succeed. Unlike application compilation errors, which are
typically automatically displayed to the programmer, shader compila-
tion errors need to be checked for specifcally. Tis process is typically
handled in multiple steps: checking if compilation was successful, and if
not, retrieving the error message, and deleting the shader object to free up
memory. Tis is handled with the following functions:

glGetShaderiv( shaderRef, shaderInfo )

Returns information from the shader referenced by the parameter
shaderRef. Te type of information retrieved is specifed with the
shaderInfo parameter, whose value will be an OpenGL constant
such as GL_SHADER_TYPE (to determine the type of shader)
or GL_COMPILE_STATUS (to determine if compilation was
successful).
38 ◾ Developing Graphics Frameworks with Python and OpenGL

glGetShaderInfoLog( shaderRef )
Returns information about the compilation process (such as errors and
warnings) from the shader referenced by the parameter shaderRef.
glDeleteShader( shaderRef )
Frees the memory used by the shader referenced by the parameter
shaderRef, and makes the reference available for future shaders that
are created.

With an understanding of these functions, coding in Python can begin.

Te Python binding PyOpenGL provides access to the needed functions
and constants through the OpenGL package and its GL namespace. To
begin, in the core folder, create a new fle named openGLUtils.py
with the following code:

from OpenGL.GL import *

# static methods to load and compile OpenGL shaders

and link to create programs
class OpenGLUtils(object):

@staticmethod
def initializeShader(shaderCode, shaderType):

# specify required OpenGL/GLSL version

shaderCode = '#version 330\n' + shaderCode

# create empty shader object and return reference

value
shaderRef = glCreateShader(shaderType)
# stores the source code in the shader
glShaderSource(shaderRef, shaderCode)
# compiles source code previously stored in the
shader object
glCompileShader(shaderRef)

# queries whether shader compile was successful

compileSuccess = glGetShaderiv(shaderRef,
GL_COMPILE_STATUS)
 Introduction to Pygame and OpenGL ◾ 39

if not compileSuccess:
# retrieve error message
errorMessage = glGetShaderInfoLog(shaderRef)
# free memory used to store shader program
glDeleteShader(shaderRef)
# convert byte string to character string
errorMessage = '\n' + errorMessage.
decode('utf-8')
# raise exception: halt program and print
error message
raise Exception( errorMessage )

# compilation was successful; return shader

reference value
return shaderRef

Note that in the code above, initializeShader is declared to be static

so that it may be called directly from the OpenGLUtils class rather than
requiring an instance of the class to be created.
Next, a program object must be created and the compiled shaders must
be attached and linked together. Tese tasks require the use of the following
functions:

glCreateProgram( )
Creates an empty program object, to which shader objects can be
attached, and returns a value by which it can be referenced.

glAttachShader( programRef, shaderRef )

Attaches a shader object specifed by the parameter shaderRef to the
program object specifed by the parameter programRef.

glLinkProgram( programRef )
Links the vertex and fragment shaders previously attached to the pro-
gram object specifed by the parameter programRef. Among other
things, this process verifes that any variables used to send data from
the vertex shader to the fragment shader are declared in both shaders
consistently.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
of her future. He must find just the right thing for her. "I know, of course,
that you wish to become self-supporting as soon as possible," he said. "Will
you tell me a little more about yourself and your capabilities? You came to
Benham a few months before your marriage to fit yourself to be a
kindergarten teacher, if I remember aright?"

During the momentary pause which preceded this inquiry her conscience
had been reasserting itself. She had longed for counsel and here it was. If
she had erred, there was yet time to repair her fault. "Before we talk of that,
may I ask you one question, Mr. Prentiss? I wish to know if you think it was
selfish of me to keep both the children. I desire to do what is right this time,
whatever it cost me." She clasped her hands resolutely in her lap as though
she were nerving herself for a sacrifice. "I hope you will tell me exactly
what you think."

The clergyman's heart warmed at this revelation of spiritual vigor. "Here

is a soul worth helping," he reflected. Then, in answer to her appeal, he
exclaimed with righteous emphasis: "Ask your own heart, my dear woman.
Would you dare trust these babies to your husband's keeping? This is a
problem of right and wrong, and demands a severing of the sheep from the
goats. You may banish that doubt forever."

Constance dropped her eyes to hide the tears of satisfaction which had
sprung into them at his words. Her children were safe. The counsel given
was the very echo of the test by which she had justified herself toward
Emil. "Excuse me," she said in apology for her emotion. Then looking up
she added with tremulous brightness, "I felt that I must be sure before
anything else was decided. And now to answer your question as to my own
capabilities: I have none. I am eager to learn, and I have had some
education—my father was fond of books and had a library—but I tell you
frankly that there is nothing but the simplest manual work for which I am
fitted at the present time. I have thought that all over."

"So far so good. Much of the trouble of this world proceeds from the
inability of people to discern for what they are not fitted. Can you sew?"

"I can do plain sewing satisfactorily."

 "We will begin with that then. It will keep you busy for the time being.
Meanwhile I shall have an opportunity to consider what you had best
undertake." He rose and put out his hand with spontaneous friendliness.
"Good-by. God bless you. You are a brave soul, and He will not desert you
or leave you comfortless."

Constance quickened at the firm pressure, and her own fingers

acknowledged the interest which it expressed. She looked into his eyes with
frank confidence. "You have come to me at a time when I needed someone
more than ever before in my life. I shall never forget it."

Mr. Prentiss nodded and turned to go as though he would disclaim this

expression of everlasting obligation. He felt that he was about his Master's
business, and was seeking neither thanks nor praise. Yet, while he
deprecated her gratitude, her entire mental attitude caused him ethical and
æsthetic satisfaction. The conviction that this ward of the church was worth
saving and helping gave elasticity to his step and erectness to his large
figure as he strode up the street, knocking now and again some bit of orange
peel or other refuse from the sidewalk with a sweep of his cane, which
suggested a spirit eager to do battle in behalf of righteousness.

VII

Two days later the Rev. George Prentiss dined at the house of another of
his parishioners, Mrs. Randolph Wilson. She was a widow of about forty-
five, the sister of Carleton Howard, reputedly the wealthiest and most
sagacious of Benham's financial magnates, and a generous benefactress of
St. Stephen's. Her bounty had enabled the rector from time to time to carry
out his cherished plans for the æsthetic adornment of the church property.
The reredos, two stained-glass windows, and the baptismal font in the
enlarged edifice had been provided by her; and in the matter of charity she
never failed to respond by munificent subscriptions to the various causes in
aid of which he appealed to his congregation. They were friends and allies;
interested mutually in St. Stephen's, and interested also, as they both liked
to feel, in promoting American civilization outside of church work. Her
house, or palace, as it should more properly be termed, a counterpart to that
of her brother's which adjoined it, stood in the van of progress, in Benham's
fashionable new quarter beyond the River Drive. No pains or expense had
been spared to make these mansions impressive and magnificent. Architects
of repute had been employed to superintend their construction, and their
decorations and furnishings had been chosen in consultation with persons
whose business it was to know the whereabouts of admirable objects of art,
and to tempt impecunious noble families abroad to exchange their unique
treasures for dazzling round sums of American gold.

Mrs. Wilson could fairly be termed the leader of social activity in

Benham, if such a term be compatible with the institutions of a country
where every women is supposed to be a law unto herself. Fashions, in the
narrow sense of clothes, are in America set by the dressmakers, but what
Mrs. Wilson wore was always a matter of moment to women who wished to
be in style. She dressed elegantly, and she was able to take liberties with the
dressmakers, doing daring things with colors and materials which justified
themselves, yet were so individual that they were liable to make guys of
those who copied her. Consequently, her wardrobe had a distinction of its
own which proclaimed fashion yet defied it. Yet her clothes, striking and
superb as they often were, constituted only a small part of her social
effectiveness. Her gracious finished manners, and quick, tactful intelligence
were the agents of a spirit perpetually eager to be occupied and to lead, and
which had found a labor of love in directing what may well be called
Benham's æsthetic renaissance.

For Benham's evolution had been no mere growth of bricks and mortar,
and no mere triumph in census figures over other centres of population.
Even more remarkable and swift than its physical changes had been the
transformation in the point of view of its citizens. Twenty years earlier—in
1870, when Mr. Prentiss was a young man just starting in the ministry—he
had been one of a small group of earnest souls interested in awakening the
public to a consciousness of the paucity of their æsthetic interests, and to
the value of color as a stimulating factor in the every-day life of the
community, and as such he had often deplored the aridity of Benham's point
of view. In those days the city was virtually a hot-bed of republican
simplicity and contempt for social refinements so far as all but a very small
percentage of the inhabitants was concerned. Those who built houses larger
and finer than their neighbors were few in number and were stigmatized, if
not as enemies of the institutions of the country, as purse-proud and
frivolous. Hotels were conducted on the theory that what was good enough
for the landlord was good enough for the guest, and that malcontents could
go elsewhere. In matters appertaining to art, hygiene, education or
municipal management, one man's opinion was regarded as equal to any
other's, provided he could get the job. Special knowledge was sneered at,
and the best patriots in the public estimation were those who did not distrust
the ability of the average citizen to produce masterpieces in the line of his
or her employment by dint of raw genius untrammelled or unpolluted by the
experience of older civilizations. Though solid business men wore solemn-
looking black frock-coats and black wisp ties in business hours, to dress
again in the evening was looked at askance as undemocratic. It would have
been considered an invasion of the rights of the free-born citizen to forbid
expectoration in the street cars. Suggestions that the vicious and
unregenerate adult pauper poor should not be herded with the young, that
busy physicians should cleanse a lancet before probing a wound, and that
sewage should not be emptied into a river used as a source of water supply,
were still sniffed at by those in charge of public affairs as aristocratic
innovations unworthy the attention of a sovereign people. Architectural
beauty both within and without the house was disregarded in favor of
monotonous sober hues and solid effects, which were deemed to be
suggestive of the seriousness of the national character.

While deploring some of these civic manifestations, Mr. Prentiss had

appreciated that the basis of this æsthetic sterility was ethical. When less
discerning persons had attributed it solely to ignorance and self-righteous
superficiality he had maintained that a puritanical, yet moral and sincere,
hostility to extravagance and display was responsible for the preference for
ugly architecture and homely upholstery and decoration, and that
conscience was the most formidable obstacle to progress. As a priest of a
church which fostered beauty and favored rational enjoyment of the fruits
of the earth, he had never sympathized with this public attitude, but he had
understood and, as an American, respected it.
 Now, in the twinkling of an eye, as it were, all was changed, and
Benham was in the throes of a revival; a revival which during the last ten
years had revolutionized Benham's architecture and Benham's point of
view. The public had become possessed by the conviction that they had
outgrown their associations and that the standards hitherto revered were out
of date and unworthy of a nation and a city pledged to enlighten the world,
upon whom prosperity had been bestowed in large measure. The group of
earnest souls who had dared to criticise seemed suddenly to have become a
phalanx—numerically unimportant, still, when compared with the whole
population, that seething army of industrial wage-earners—but assertive
and energetic out of proportion to their numbers. The city had become a
hive of reforming activities. Specialists in the arts and humanities were no
longer classed as traitors, but were welcomed by a growing clientage as
safeguards against bumptious individualism. Though a cheerful optimism in
regard to the city's architectural merits still prevailed at large, a silent
censorship was at work; substituting, in the business quarter, new mammoth
structures adapted to modern industrial needs, erecting in the fashionable
quarter, by the aid of American architects trained in Paris, well-built and
individual-looking residences. Instead of three or four cheerless, barrack-
like caravansaries with sodden cookery, there was a score of modern hotels,
the proprietors of which vied with one another in their endeavors to lure
patronage by costly and sumptuous innovations. There were comfortable
and inviting restaurants. The slap-dash luncheon counter, with its display of
pallid pie and one cadaverous chicken, was waning in the popular esteem,
in favor of neat spas, at which the rush of patronage was alleviated by clean
service and wholesome fare. There were eight theatres, each more spacious
and splendid than its predecessor. A frowsy black coat, worn in the
forenoon, had ceased to be a badge of patriotism or moral worth, and the
community had become alive to the values of spruceness, color, and
comfort in matters of dress. Not only this, but on the streets of Benham
there were many stylish equipages with liveried grooms, and in the superb
homes which the wealthy citizens had established, there were grand
entertainments, where rivalry was rampant and money flowed like
champagne. And last, but not least, there was Mrs. Randolph Wilson, the
quintessence in her own person of all that was best in this revival in favor of
the beautiful things of life, the living embodiment of this newly directed
and freshly inspired energy. For well-to-do Benham and Mr. Prentiss liked
to believe that the impulse behind these materialistic manifestations was
conscience and aspiration, a reaching out for a greater human happiness and
a wider human usefulness than had been possible under the old
dispensation. This access of lavish philanthropy and study of charitable
methods, this zeal of committees promoting new and more thorough
methods in hygiene and education, and all the phases of this new awakening
in quest of Christian beauty signified to him Benham's—and hence
American—originality and fervor refined and spiritualized; Benham's
enterprise and independence informed, chastened, and fortified.

And yet there was another side to this whole matter which had haunted
Mr. Prentiss much of late, and which was in his thoughts to-night as he sat
smoking his cigar after dinner. He had dined sumptuously. Cool oysters,
soup of mushrooms, fish smothered in a luscious sauce, cutlets of venison
with French beans, little pyramids of paté de foie gras encased in jelly,
butter-ball ducks with a salad richly dressed, and a confection of fruit,
cream, and pastry, which was evidently a gastronomic specialty of Mrs.
Wilson's French cook. He had tasted everything; he had drunk two glasses
of champagne, and been pleasantly aware that the cup of black coffee,
served after dinner, was an entrancing concoction which his own kitchen
did not afford; and he felt that his repast had done him good. It was for him
an occasion. Obviously it was for Mrs. Wilson an every-day affair.
Moreover, this rich, delicious dinner, served by noiseless servants on choice
china, was in harmony with the rest of the magnificent establishment, in
harmony with the artistic scheme of color, the soft lustrous draperies, the
striking pictures and other masterpieces of art purchased for large sums
abroad, and Mrs. Wilson's beautiful toilette and exquisite personality. Here
was luxury triumphant and compelling, yet unappeased and seeking fresh
opportunities for æsthetic delight; as witness a Millet, an inlaid table, and a
Japanese idol in the room in which he sat, all new since he had dined there
last.

What a vivid contrast all this to the cheerless often squalid homes which
he was accustomed to visit as a rector of Christ's church! The thought which
haunted him was that one result of the city's marvellous growth and
development had been the accentuation of the distinctions between rich and
poor, between class and class in a community where, until lately, there had
been theoretically no classes. To be sure he had Mr. Carleton Howard's
assertion that there was no country in the world where the poor man was so
well off. This was very likely true, but it did not affect the proposition that
the rich were daily growing richer and more self-indulgent. What was to be
the limit—the outcome of this renaissance of beauty and comfort, which he
had welcomed? Had not the æsthetic reaction almost reached the point
where, both as a priest of God and as a good American, it behooved him to
cry halt against luxury and extravagance? He frowned at this last reflection
for the reason that he was painfully aware that he had fulminated against
this sort of thing from the pulpit for years, formerly as part of the clerical
formula championing the cause of the spirit against the flesh, and latterly
because the Aladdin-like growth of great fortunes all over the land, and
conspicuously in his own community, had often suggested the comparison
between the passage of a camel through the eye of a needle and the rich
man's entrance into the kingdom of heaven as an appropriate text. He had
spoken with fervor and sincerity concerning the responsibilities of those
having great possessions, and sometimes with living pictures in his mind.
Neither Mrs. Wilson nor her brother had ever been among those for whom
these admonitions were intended. They had opened their purse-strings
liberally to every meritorious cause. The goodly size of their cheques was to
him a constant source both of satisfaction and astonishment—astonishment
at the new possibilities open to those interested in God's kingdom.

Yet, though he put from him as ungenerous and unnecessary any positive
criticism of his hostess, in the teeth of her many benefactions and her
personal activity in social undertakings, he could not help realizing that, in
spite of his utterances, the evil which he deprecated was proceeding at a
pace which suggested the course of wild-fire. And the worst of it was that
he—the church—was so helpless. Great fortunes had been accumulated
with a zeal which suggested the inevitable march of destiny—a law which
seemed almost to mock the spirit of Christ—and, even while he was
musing, the city had become a theatre of industrial contrasts, with the pomp
and pride of life in the centre of the stage and poverty and distress in the
ample background. There recurred to him the traditional image of the curate
of his faith—the Church of England—cringing before or patronized by the
titled worshippers of Mammon. This, at least, he could resent as impossible
in his case—he had never hesitated to speak his mind to any of his
parishioners, however important—still, the reminder was disconcerting and
a challenge to his conscience. Nor was the reflection that this wave of
luxury, this more and more exacting reverence for material comforts, was a
part of the movement of the century, and was common to all civilized
countries, a solace. He was an American, but first of all, he was a servant of
the church, and the church was the beacon of civilization. Was she doing
her work, if these terrible inequalities were to continue? What was to be the
outcome of this zest for luxurious personal comfort?

To what extent the church ought to take part in the economic

regeneration of the world was one of the questions which Mr. Prentiss had
always found perplexing. He was well aware that his parishioners as a body
were not fond of hearing him preach on what they called secular subjects.
So long as he confined himself to enumerating spiritual truths, they were
not averse to his illustrating his stigmas upon sin by generalizations from
current worldly abuses; but he knew that many shook their heads and
declared that the cobbler should stick to his last when he ventured to
discourse on political topics or the relations of labor and capital. Mr.
Prentiss was not aware, however, that some of this prejudice proceeded
from the circumstance that he was apt to lose his head on such occasions;
but, on the other hand, much of it was genuine disinclination for advice
from the pulpit on subjects which, to quote the women parishioners, were
not spiritual, and, to quote the men, were none of his business. His
congregation was almost entirely composed of pew owners, people with
vested rights, among which appeared to be the right not to be harrowed by
socialistic doctrines. They were ready to help the poor in any way which he
would suggest, and they had supplied him with a mission church where he
could reach the ignorant and needy more effectively, but they argued that he
had better leave to the politicians all suggestions tending to disturb the
existing industrial order.

Mr. Prentiss sometimes sighed over these limitations, but he had become
used to them, and in a measure, with advancing years, he had, in his
endeavor to be a man of the world in order to remain a more useful
Christian, accepted the doctrine that he had no plan to substitute for the
present economic system, and that he must make the best of the existing
situation. So, in practical, daily life, he exhorted the rich to give their
money and themselves to the advancement of their fellow men, and the
poor to shun vice and bear their privations with patience, while he held
forth the promise of the church of an existence hereafter for the pure in
heart where all the seeming inconsistencies of this mortal life would be
explained and justified. Not being endowed with much sense of humor, Mr.
Prentiss, as he waxed in years, and St. Stephen's became the fashionable
church of the city, had found less and less difficulty in accommodating
himself to this point of view, and in devoting all his ardor to reclaiming
souls for Christ. After all, was not his mission to help men and women as he
found them? First of all to minister to their souls, and in the name of
Christianity to lift them from the slough of human suffering and misfortune
that he might expound to them the loving mercies of the Lord? The things
of the earth were not the things of the spirit, and he was more tenacious
than in his youth of the prerogatives of the church as an institution
controlling human consciences by standards of its own, founded on the
teachings of the Prince of Peace. Nevertheless, being reasonably clear-
headed and fearless, he was not without the suspicion at times that this
reasoning was mystical, and in the face of facts he had every now and then
his unpleasant quarters of an hour.

This was one of them to-night. His hostess, when the dinner was over,
had left him to a cigar and his own devices in the library. He was to join her
presently and be shown her daughter's wedding presents. He had been
invited to dine in order that he might see them, but Mrs. Wilson and he both
knew that this was an excuse for a quiet evening together in which they
might compare notes concerning their mutual interests. Reaching out to
knock off the ash of his cigar into a dainty porcelain wheelbarrow, he
noticed a new photograph on the mantel-piece and rose to examine it. He
recognized it as one of Clarence Waldo, the New Yorker to whom Miss
Lucille Wilson was betrothed. The sight of this young man's countenance
did not serve to restore Mr. Prentiss's serenity. On the contrary, he stood
gazing at the photograph with an expression which suggested that his soul
was still perturbed. The face was that of a man of twenty-seven or eight
with delicate features—thin lips, a long nose and an indefinable haughtiness
of expression which was made up of weariness and disdain. He had large
eyes which lacked lustre, and his sparse hair gave the effect of having been
carefully brushed. The clergyman had met him only a few times, and Mr.
Prentiss had never forgotten the first occasion, which was at Lucille's
coming-out ball three years before. He had happened to find himself in Mr.
Waldo's path when the young man was in the act of carrying everything
before him with a plate of salad for his partner, and he had never forgotten
the cold impertinence of the New Yorker's stare. Paul Howard, Lucille's
cousin, who witnessed the encounter, said afterward that Clarence had
given Mr. Prentiss the dead eye, which was a telling description of the
stoniness of the fashionable New Yorker's gaze. Mr. Prentiss had never
heard this diagnosis, but he had remembered the episode. He regarded it,
however, merely as additional evidence of the lack of reverence on the part
of the young men of the day—and the young women, too, for the matter of
that—not merely for sacred things, but for everything and everybody which
were in their way or did not happen to appeal to their fancy. But though he
considered this absence of social politeness as one of the cardinal failings of
the age, his present thoughts regarding Lucille's future husband were not
concerned with it.

Since the engagement had been announced four months ago he had been
making inquiries, and the information which he had received was in his
mind and troubled his soul as a corollary of the other problems which had
just been haunting him. It was not of a character to justify him in forbidding
the bans—not even in remonstrating with Mrs. Wilson, unless she were to
ask his advice or provide him with an opportunity. But he deplored
sincerely that this young man was to marry his friend's daughter. Was this to
be the outcome, the crowning of the wealth of love and solicitude which
had been lavished on this only child—a child brought up in his church? Was
it for this that Lucille had been made the central figure of costly
entertainments for the last three years, in the hope that she might make a
brilliant match? Decidedly, it was a puzzling world, and circumstances
seemed to be conspiring to cloud his horizon and disturb his digestion at a
time when he ought to be enjoying himself and taking his ease.

"What does he offer her?" he said to himself. "Twelve months of

sporting life—American sporting life. A superb stable, a four-in-hand coach
and steam yacht, polo, golf, the horse show, cards, six months every third
year in Europe, their summers at Newport, their winters at Palm Beach. The
fortune which she will bring him will enable them to live in the lap of
luxury all the year round, and he will teach her to regard those who are not
rich and who do not imitate their manner of life as beneath their notice. I
know the kind—I know the kind."

Soft footsteps interrupted his mental soliloquy. "No, thank you," he

exclaimed in a tone which was almost militant to the waiters who
approached him with a tray. Mr. Prentiss supposed that another form of
stimulant was being offered him, for Madeira, liqueurs and coffee had been
successively brought in and solemnly presented to him by the two men
servants, one of whom seemed to him as superfluous as a plumber's helper.
Then as his gaze, which had been inward, appreciated that the silver gilt
tumbler contained apollinaris water, he called them back and emptied the
glass. He had finished his cigar and it was time to rejoin his hostess.

VIII

Mr. Prentiss continued his monologue on his way to the drawing-room.

He imagined himself saying to Mrs. Wilson, "You know that I believe in
toleration, and that I would not set or preach an ascetic standard of life. I
believe—my church believes—that it is not profitable to the human soul to
mortify the flesh in every-day life or refuse to enjoy the comforts of
civilization. But the set of people to which this young man belongs are
cumberers of the soil and a menace to society. It is not merely a question of
taste, but of Christian morals. We have nothing to do with other nations; our
concern is with the social life of this nation and whether we are to foster
and encourage a pleasure-loving, self-indulgent, and purposeless leisure
class."

Yet though his thoughts thus shaped themselves in fervent words, he was
conscious that in the absence of a cue his lips must remain sealed. There
was a limit imposed by society on the priestly office which he could not
overstep without appearing officious, and thus weakening his influence.
Were it a case of notorious dissipation or some palpable fault or blemish, it
would be his duty to speak. But he had no such data at his command.
Clarence Waldo was simply a fastidious idler, pretentious, and indifferent to
the vital interests of life. It could not even be charged that he was marrying
Lucille for her money, as he had a competency of his own. They would be
able to buy all the dogs and horses in the country if they saw fit. But his
own tongue was tied. To all appearances Mrs. Wilson was content. At the
time she had announced her daughter's engagement to him, she had said, in
response to his earnest inquiry if she were satisfied—said it with a blithe
smile, as though, on the whole, the best had happened—"I should have been
glad of course, if Lucille had chosen a man of conspicuous talent, a future
United States Senator or successful artist or author. If she had loved her
lord, I should not have objected to a title, because, after all, even to a free-
born American, there is a certain compensation in becoming the mother of
dukes and regenerating an ancient line. But Clarence is well connected, and
the child is in love with him. So long as she is happy, that is the essential
thing."

Since then he had become better informed as to the young man's

tendencies. But if Lucille was in love with him and her mother acquiescent,
what was there to do? The church could not interfere beyond a certain point
without giving offence.

Mrs. Wilson was not in the drawing-room, but Mr. Prentiss caught a
glimpse of her at her desk in a smaller room which led out of it. She called
to him that she was answering a note and would join him presently. The
clergyman seated himself and picking up from a low teak table beside him a
paper-cutter fashioned on a Japanese sword hilt he compressed his fingers
on the handle as an outlet to his perplexity. Had he been walking in the
fields, he would have cut off the heads of the dandelions with his cane.
Marriage was a sacrament, the most solemn undertaking in life, yet how
impossible it was to regulate matrimony for others. He glanced around the
room admiringly. Already the musical notes of his hostess's voice had
served to dissipate partially the miasma of doubt which had been assailing
him. This main apartment was one of a series of drawing-rooms, each
furnished with an exquisite magnificence suggestive of the salons of France
in the days of Louis XIV, save that there was a superabundance of artistic
furnishings; hence the sight was confused by the array of costly tapestries,
marbles, bronzes, china, and gilt or otherwise illuminated ornaments which
almost contended for space with one another, though the rooms were of
large proportions. One feature of Benham's renaissance was the ambition to
outdo the past in size and gorgeousness, but Mrs. Wilson's advisers had
been animated also by the desire for artistic success, and it was only in its
wealth of material that their and her—for she had been the leading spirit
after all—performance was open to criticism. Here in Benham, where
twenty years before the horse-hair sofa was still an object of admiring
regard in the homes of the well-to-do, the desert had blossomed with the
rose, and a veritable palace had been established. And, as Mr. Prentiss
reflected, joining his finger-tips across his waist-band, all this lavish
expenditure meant the return by the rich of accumulated wealth into
circulation for the benefit of those who labored for their bread, which was
another of Mr. Carleton Howard's telling truths.

The swift, animated, but noiseless glide of Mrs. Wilson into the room
and onto a sofa, from which she flashed at him a gracious, electric look of
attention with the words, "And now, my friend, I am entirely at your
disposal. It was a note which had to be answered at once"—restored Mr.
Prentiss's serenity. She was one of those pleasant persons in whose presence
the world seems justified. When she entered a room people were apt to pay
tribute by a pause in whatever they were doing, and she became the focus of
attention. The effect of her graceful energy was largely responsible for this,
suggesting the forceful but silent sweep of a ship. She had lost the figure
and the countenance of youth, but though her abundant crinkly hair was
grizzled no one ever thought of her age except to observe that she was
handsomer than as a younger woman. She had never been a beauty; she was
now a distinguished looking, comely, and effective matron. She was tall and
rather willowy, but not thin, with a proud, resolutely carried head, an
agreeable straight nose, short rather than long (her best feature) a spirited,
sympathetic smile, eyes fundamentally gray, which changed as her thoughts
changed, and ingratiating but elegant manners. Her face, notably the cheeks
and lips, was a trifle full, suggesting dimples, and possibly to the critical a
too-manifest desire to please. Her obvious pose—which, though deliberate
was entirely genuine—was to be exquisite, sympathetic, and intellectual,
and for the expression of this range of qualities she had serviceable allies in
her musical voice, a bewitching way of showing just enough of her teeth,
when she became vivacious, and her ornamental clothes, which always
suited her. On this evening she wore an old-gold gown with jet and lace
accompaniments, an aigrette of crimson gauze with which the plumage of
her fan was in harmony, a band of magnificent pearls around her neck, and
on her breast, though such ornaments were not strictly in fashion, a large
brooch of fine workmanship containing a miniature of two children of
tender age. Of these children one had died shortly after the miniature was
painted, the other was her daughter Lucille. Her soul was dedicated to two
interests, her joy and ambition as a mother, and to the cause of social human
progress.

Mrs. Wilson had been for fifteen years a widow, and, though her
husband held a hallowed place in her heart, even she was conscious that the
broad scope of her present life dated from the period when, seeking a refuge
from her own grief and loneliness, she had welcomed diverse social
employment. Her husband, Randolph, a hero and a colonel of the Civil War,
had claimed her on his return as a bride. They were ardent lovers, and they
had never ceased to be so, certainly not in theory. Some of Mrs. Wilson's
knowing friends were fond of insinuating, when the humor for gossip
prevailed, that he had died just in time, which was their way of intimating
that she had outgrown him. But these dissectors of hearts did not perhaps
sufficiently remember that her own blossoming forth into the woman she
now was had been subsequent to her husband's death. Nor did they take
sufficiently into account the bewildering course of events which had
attended her progress. Colonel Wilson, a man of small means at the time of
their marriage, had become her brother's partner. The properties in which he
was interested at the time of his death had subsequently proved so valuable
that she had found herself presently the possessor of a million, a sum which
had quadrupled in the keeping of her brother, Carleton Howard, one of the
most powerful financiers in the country. Opportunity surely had waited on
her widening aspirations, enabling her finally to establish herself in this
magnificent home surrounded by all the æsthetic attractions and many of
the treasures of modern civilization.

Probably Mrs. Wilson herself had never sought to analyze the past by the
light of the present, realizing, as we all do, that life unbeknown to us has
halting-places which become, as we look back, the dividing lines between
what are almost separate existences. Though at her husband's death she had
made no resolutions regarding the future, she had never felt the impulse to
marry again, so engrossing were the concerns of motherhood and social
responsibility.

"You spoke at dinner of wishing my assistance in some case in which

you are interested. Will you tell me about it now before we look at the
presents?" Mrs. Wilson continued with smiling interest.

"Ah, yes." Mr. Prentiss was glad to have this recalled to his mind. There
was no chance here for doubt or perplexity. "It is rather out of the usual run
of charity cases. The personality of the woman, I mean. The circumstance
that her husband has run away and left her penniless, with two young
children to support is, alas! only too common."

"Poor thing! How can I be of service?"

"The woman—her name is Mrs. Stuart—notwithstanding her disastrous

marriage, seems to me distinctly superior. She came to Benham some six or
seven years ago, and I knew her a little at St. Stephen's before she was a
wife. Indeed, I married them, and made some inquiries at the time
concerning the husband's circumstances, but learned nothing to his
discredit. She has found him to be a godless, unscrupulous person with
drinking habits, and recently he has deserted her on the grandiose plea that
they would be happier apart. She will be happier; I am sure of that; but I
have been exercised as to how to enable her to become self-supporting. She
is called to higher usefulness than scrubbing or plain sewing, but though I
have discerned in her capabilities and refinement, she is not at present
equipped for any active employment."

"Which only tends to show, my friend, that every woman"—Mrs. Wilson

paused an instant—"every woman who has not independent means of her
own, I mean, should be educated to be self-supporting—should have some
definite bread-winning occupation which would render her independent of
the man she marries in case he dies or misbehaves. I was thinking the other
day that a society formed to advocate this doctrine before clubs of girls as a
condition of marriage would prove efficacious."
 Mr. Prentiss nodded. "It is certainly the duty of Christian society to
provide additional safeguards against the consequences of improvident
wedlock. In this particular instance, the young woman plighted her troth
while she was studying to become a kindergarten teacher. She was a
country doctor's daughter, and is gentle and refined, as well as intelligent in
appearance—one of those lithe, tense American personalities in which the
spirit appears to burn at the expense of the body, but which, like the willow,
bend but do not break under the stress of life."

"She sounds interesting, and I do not see that she has been to blame. We
must raise a fund for her. With how large a subscription shall I head the
list?" Though Mrs. Wilson gave freely on merely charitable grounds, she
gave with more enthusiasm when the objects of her bounty had not
offended her sense of the social fitness of things.

The clergyman put out his hand. "That wouldn't do exactly, I think. She
is not too proud to let us help her for a few weeks with coal and groceries
until she can earn for herself. She realizes that she must be sensible, if only
for the children's sake. She has an independent simplicity of nature and
clearness of perception which would stand in the way, I fear, of her
accepting a donation such as you have in mind; though I should dearly love
to allow you to pay off the encumbrances on their house, which, owing to
her husband's rascalities have eaten up her little home—her patrimony. But
I am sure she would refuse."

"I see. We should think less of her if she allowed herself to be

pauperized, much as I should enjoy giving her a deed of her home free and
clear—the mere thought of it causes me a thrill of pleasure. But the worst of
such tragedies is that we are most powerless to aid those who are most
deserving." Mrs. Wilson leaned back among her cushions, and, drawing a
pale pink rose from a bunch in a vase at her elbow, laid it along her cheek
and inhaled its fragrance. "If she were an undiscerning, common spirit with
workaday sensibilities, as so many of them are, she would not refuse, but—
half the pleasure of giving would be lost. It is a privilege and the fashion to
be charitable, but so much of our charity consists in filling the mouths and
clothing the bodies of the wretched who will never be appreciably different
or strive to be different from what they are."
 "The poor we have always with us," murmured the clergyman.

"Always. The shiftless, dirty, unaspiring, unæsthetic poor. The dregs and
lees of human endeavor. We must feed and clothe them, of course, and help
them to help themselves, but sometimes I forget the pathos of it all in the
ugliness and squalor. Consequently, when the chance to do real good
comes, it is a pity not to be able to lift the burden completely. What, then,
can I do for this young person?"

"I have thought over her case for the last forty-eight hours, and have
come to the conclusion that, as she has no special training, her best chance
for employment is to learn short-hand and to use the typewriter. I
understand that women proficient in this vocation can usually secure steady
work at a fair wage. Though Mrs. Stuart would be unwilling to accept a
direct gift of money, I feel confident that she would not refuse to let us put
her in the position to become self-supporting—that is, defray the cost of the
lessons necessary to make her a competent stenographer or office clerk.
And I thought you might be glad to pay for these lessons—a matter of six
months or so."

Mr. Prentiss had taken up the paper-cutter again, and he passed the flat
of the metal blade across his palm as though he were smoothing out his plan
as well as the creases.

"Gladly," she responded. "For as long as you desire. And, perhaps, when
she has learned what is necessary, my brother may know of some opening
for her down-town."

"Very likely," answered Mr. Prentiss, with resonant acquiescence. "The

same thought had occurred to me."

"And, in the meantime, since you tell me that she is competent and
refined, my secretary, who will have her hands full with the details of the
wedding, may be able to give her occasional errands to do. You may tell her
to call when her plans are adjusted and to ask for me."

"Excellent. And we shall both be your debtors."

 Mrs. Wilson smiled graciously, showing the dimples in her cheeks. The
demands made upon her for pecuniary aid were of daily, it might be said
hourly, occurrence. Whoever in Benham was in search of money applied to
her, and the post brought her solicitations from all sorts of people, among
whom were the undeserving or importunate, as well as the needy or
humanitarian. As lady bountiful, she purposed to exercise intelligent
discrimination in her charities, and she accepted thanks as a tribute to that
quality.

"Come," she said, rising, "I will show you the presents. Only think, four
hundred of them, and so many beautiful things! People have been so kind.
Several of my brother's friends in New York have sent most exquisite
tokens—a necklace of diamonds and pearls from Mr. Fenton the banker, a
gold dessert service from his railroad ally, Mr. Kennard."

She led the way from the drawing-room suite into the hall, where
electricity in artistic guises illuminated the broad panellings, a splendid
Terriers and three or four bronze or marble statuaries of rare merit, and up
the stair-case to the next floor into what was known as the morning-room—
an apartment where Mrs. Wilson conducted her affairs and did her reading
and thinking. This was a combination of study and æsthetic boudoir. There
were seductive sofas and quaint capacious chairs supplied with brightly
colored cushions, and dainty draperies, all in silken stuffs of patterns
reminiscent of the Orient. Art, in its most delicate and spiritual forms,
breathed from every object of furniture or decoration; from the small
pictures—some in oils, some in water-colors—which merited and often
demanded the closest scrutiny; from the few vases of entrancing shape and
hue, from the interesting photographs in beautiful frames, from the curious
and rare memorials of travel and wise choice of what cunning fingers had
wrought with infinite labor. As in the rest of the house, there was still too
much wealth of material, too much scintillation and conglomeration of
color, but the intent had been—and not without success—to produce a more
subtle atmosphere than prevailed outside, as of an inner temple. Prominent
in one angle stood Mrs. Wilson's desk, rose-wood, inlaid with poetic gilt
tracery, and littered with the correspondence of a busy woman. Books and
other articles of daily use lying here and there without effort at order gave
to the room the air of being the intimate abode of a human soul. Opening
out of this was a private music-room, which was used by Mrs. Wilson and
her daughter in preference to the large music-room on the street floor
intended for musical parties and dances. Here were the wedding presents, a
dazzling array of gold, silver, jewels, glass, china, and ornamental knick-
knacks, tastefully arranged on tables introduced for the purpose. As they
entered an attendant withdrew into the hall.

"We have thought it more prudent to have a watchman on guard by night

and day," explained Mrs. Wilson; "for I suppose it is true, as one of those
ridiculous newspaper items asserts, that these gifts represent at least one
hundred thousand dollars. By the way," she continued, with a gentle sigh,
"it is so difficult to know what attitude to adopt with the newspaper people.
If one refuses them the house, their sensibilities are hurt and they are liable
to invent falsehoods or write disagreeable paragraphs. If they are allowed to
inspect everything, they publish details which make one's heart sick, and
make one appear a vain fool. How is a person in my position to be
courteous toward the power of the press and yet to maintain the right to
privacy? Is not this superb?" she added, holding up a crest of diamonds in
the form of a tiara. "My brother's present to Lucille."

"Beautiful—beautiful, indeed," murmured the clergyman. The sight of

all these costly things was bewildering to his mind as well as to his eyes.
"Ah, the press—the press, it is a problem, indeed. We would seem to have
the right to individual privacy, would we not? And yet in this age of ours,
pressure is so often used upon us to thrust our wares into the shop-windows
—as in my case, sermons for newspapers of the most sensational class—on
the plea of a wider usefulness, a closer touch with the wilderness of souls,
that it is difficult to know where the rights of the public end as to what one
has. What would seem to be vanity may often be only another form of
philanthropy. And yet——"

"And yet," interposed Mrs. Wilson, as she singled out an enchanting fan
of gold and ivory and the most exquisite lace and spread it for his
inspection, "why should I pander to the vulgar curiosity of the public? It is
none of their business."

"In a matter of this kind I quite agree with you. If they could see all these
beautiful things, there might be some sense in it; but that would be out of
the question, of course."

"That will be the next step; our houses thrown open to the madding
crowd. Six newspapers—two from New York—applied recently for leave to
see the presents. I intended to refuse firmly, but to my astonishment Lucille
seemed disappointed. It never occurred to me that she would not hate the
publicity. She gave a little shriek and said, 'Mamma, how dreadful!' and
then added in the next breath, 'Everybody does it, and, as something is sure
to be printed, might it not be better to make certain that it's correct?' A day
or two later she was photographed in her tiara, and from what has transpired
since I fear that the idea of publicity was not foreign to her thought. My
child, Mr. Prentiss! Only think of it! One can never quite understand the
point of view of the rising generation. I consulted Carleton, and he grew
successively irate, contemplative, philosophical, and weak-kneed. In short,
a week ago a reportorial woman, with the social appetite of a hyena and the
keen-eyed industry of a ferret, passed the forenoon in the house and went
away with a photograph of Lucille in the tiara. And what is worst of all, in
spite of my humiliation at the whole proceeding, I am decidedly curious to
see what she has written."

The sound of voices in the morning-room broke in upon this confession.

"Ah, here you are, Aunt Miriam! I have brought you an artistic masterpiece
with a felicitous biography of the distinguished heroine. Behold and
admire!"

The speaker was Paul Howard, Mrs. Wilson's nephew. He advanced

from the doorway with radiant, teasing face, holding out a newspaper at
which he pointed delightedly. At his heels followed Lucille and Clarence
Waldo, she protesting, yet betraying by her laughing confusion that her
indignation was half-hearted; he stalking with self-important gravity save
for a thin smile, the limit of his deliberate contributions to the gayety of
nations unless under the influence of alcoholic conviviality. At men's
gatherings there was a stage in the proceedings when Clarence Waldo
became decorously mellow and condescended—indeed, expected to be
asked—to sing one of three or four quasi-humorous ditties at his command,
a function which he seemed to regard as an important social contribution
and for which he practised in secret. Also, after luncheon or dinner, he was
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