MODULE 1

Physical Quantities and SI Units

Accuracy- How close the measurement value is to the true value of the physical quantity.
Precision - How small of an uncertainty is in a measurement.
Scalar quantity - A quantity that has magnitude (size) only e.g. mass and time.
Vector quantity - A quantity that has both magnitude (size) and direction e.g. acceleration
and velocity.

Vectors
- Vectors going in the same direction the resultant force is the sum of the forces.
- Vectors going in opposite directions the resultant force is the difference of the
forces.
- Vectors perpendicular to each other the resultant force is obtained using
Pythagoras’ theorem ( for magnitude in N) and tan ratio (for direction).
- Two vectors at an angle to each other the resultant force is obtained using the
cosine rule (for magnitude): R2=O A2 +O B 2−2 (OA )( OB ) cos ( 180−θ ) and sine
BC R
rule (for direction): =
sin a sin(180−θ)

Motion 1
Distance – The length between two points. It is a scalar quantity and has units (ms⁻¹).
Displacement – The distance moved in a particular direction . It is a vector quantity and has
units (m).
Speed – The rate of change of distance. It is a scalar quantity and has units (ms⁻¹).
(distance/time)
Velocity - The rate of change of displacement. It is a vector quantity and has units (ms⁻¹).
(displacement/time)
Acceleration – The rate of change of velocity. It is a vector quantity and has units (ms⁻²).
(final velocity- initial velocity/time)

Motion equations
1 1 2
Velocity , v =u+at Displacement , s= ( u+ v ) t Displacement , s=ut + a t
2 2
1 2
Displacement , s=vt− a t Velocity , v 2 =u2+ 2 as
2
Projectile Motion
Initial velocity is resolved into:
Horizontal component=uCosƟ
Vertical component =uSinƟ
2 2
Maximum vertical height is v =u + 2 gh ( v =0 ) ( uis the vertical component )
1 2
Horizontal range , r=ut + a t ( u is thehorizontal component )
2
Time taken ¿ reach maximum heighis v=u+ ¿(v=0)

Motion 2
Newton’s First Law – A body stays at rest or continues in uniform motion in a straight line,
unless compelled by an external force to act otherwise.
Newton’s Second Law – The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction of the applied force.
Newton’s Third Law – For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.
Momentum – The product of an object’s mass, m and its velocity, v. It is a vector quantity
and has units (kgms⁻¹) (p = mv).
Principle of momentum – The total momentum before collision is equal to the total
momentum after collision provided no external forces acts.
Elastic collision – Momentum and kinetic energy is conserved.
Inelastic collision – Momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is NOT conserved.
Impulse – change in momentum, it is a vector quantity and has units (Ns).
Impulse , Ft =mv−mu

Motion 3
Circular Motion – The motion of a body along the circumference of a circle or through an
arc.
Angular Displacement – The rate of change of angular displacement, it has units rads⁻¹
θ 2 v²
Angular velocity ,ω= ∨ω=2 πf Linear velocity , v=rω Acceleration, a=r ω ∨a=
t r

Centripetal Force – The force required to produce centripetal acceleration. It is a vector

quantity with units (N) and acts towards the centre of the circle.
mv ²
Centripetal force , F= Tension force = Centripetal force
r

Conical Pendulum motion and Banking equations: (replace the T with L when finding lift
force for banking)
2
mv
Tsinθ= Tcosθ=mg Newton’s Law of Gravitation – The force of attraction between any
r
two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them.
1 2
Gm m
F=
r²
Gravitational Field Strength - The force acting on a 1kg mass placed at a point in a
gravitational field. It has units (Nkg⁻¹).
Gm ₂ 2 Gm ₂
Gravitational field strength , g= 2
Velocity , v =
r r

Effects of Forces
Archimedes Principle – When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid it
experiences an upthrust which is equal to the weight of fluid displaced.

Weight of fluid displaced =mass × acceleration due ¿ gravity (ρAhg) Resistive Forces

Friction – A force that opposes motion and acts in the direction opposite to the direction of
motion.
Drag – The opposing force on an object moving through a fluid (liquid or gas).
Terminal Velocity – when an object’s acceleration (or deceleration) is zero. i.e. the speed of
the object is neither increasing nor decreasing.
Moments - The product of the applied forces by its perpendicular distance from the pivot. It
has units Nm.
Moment =Force× perpendicular distance ¿ the fulcrum
Principle of moments – For a body in equilibrium the sum of clockwise moments about a
point is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point.
Equilibrium
Static Equilibrium – When the resultant force is zero and the body is in a state of rest.
Dynamic Equilibrium – When the resultant force is zero, but the body is in a state of
uniform motion.

For a system of forces to be in equilibrium:

- The resultant force is zero
- The resultant moment is zero
- The resultant torque is zero

Conservation of Energy
Work Done – the product of the force and the direction moved in the distance of the force. It
has units (J). (W = Fd, W= pressure x change in volume)
Power – the rate at which work is done. It has units (W).
(Power = work done/time, Power = force x velocity)
Efficiency equations:
power output Work output Energy output
%Efficiency= ×100= ×100= ×100
power input Work input Energy Input

Kinetic energy – The energy a body has because of its motion. It has units (J). (Ek = 1/2mv²)
Potential energy – the energy a body has because of its position or state. It has units (J) (Ep = mgh)

MODULE 2
Harmonic Motion
For a particle/object to perform simple harmonic motion:
- The acceleration is proportional to the displacement from a fixed point.
- The acceleration is directed towards a fixed point or equilibrium position.
- The acceleration and its displacement are oppositely directed.
2
a=−ω x , proves that a particle isocillating ∈SHM .(ω=2 π f )

Time Dependent Formulas for SHM

Displacement , x =Asinωt Velocity , v =Aωcosωt Acceleration, a=−ω 2 x

Displacement Dependent Formulas for SHM

Velocity , v 2 =ω2 ( A2−x 2 ) ( square root ¿fine v ) Acceleration, a=−ω 2 x

Energy of a body in SHM

- At zero displacement (at equilibrium) potential energy is zero and kinetic energy
and velocity are at their maximum.
- At maximum displacement potential energy is at its maximum and kinetic energy
and velocity are zero.
- Total energy remains constant (sum of kinetic and potential)

Period of a simple pendulum

L
Period , T =2 π √
g
Period of a spring
m
Period , T =2 π √
k
mg
Spring constant , k=
e

Forced Oscillations and Resonance

Resonance – occurs when the frequency of the periodic force is equal to the natural
frequency of the system.
Uses of Resonance:
- Opera singers can shatter wine glasses by forcing them to vibrate at their natural
frequency.
- A diver on a springboard builds up amplitude by bouncing on it at its natural
frequency.
Unwanted Resonance:
 - Buildings oscillate naturally, areas where earthquakes are common causes the
buildings to oscillate more, and resonance may occur destroying the buildings in
seconds.

Damped Oscillations
Damped Pendulum – A pendulum whose amplitude becomes progressively smaller, due to
the lost of energy because of the friction between the air and the object.
Types of Damping:
- Lightly damped