Module 7 - Geometric Optics

Learning Goals
1.​ Understand the Law of Reflection
a.​ Investigate the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection on flat and curved mirrors.
b.​ Examine how light rays behave upon reflection from concave and convex
surfaces.
2.​ Explore Refraction and Snell’s Law
a.​ Observe how light bends when transitioning between media of different optical
densities.
b.​ Verify Snell’s law by measuring angles of incidence and refraction, and use these
measurements to calculate the refractive index.
3.​ Determine the Refractive Index of Transparent Materials
a.​ Devise methods to measure and analyze refraction angles.
b.​ Accurately determine the index of refraction for a half-cylindrical (or semicircular)
acrylic block.

Key Concepts
1.​ Reflection of Light
a.​ Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence (θᵢ) equals the angle of reflection (θᵣ)
as measured from the normal to the surface.
b.​ Specular vs. Diffuse Reflection: Smooth surfaces yield mirror-like (specular)
reflection, whereas rough surfaces scatter light in many directions.
c.​ Curved Mirrors: Concave mirrors can converge light rays, whereas convex
mirrors diverge them.
2.​ Refraction of Light
a.​ Snell’s Law: 𝑛1sin𝜃1 = 𝑛2sin𝜃2, relating the angles of incidence (θ₁) and refraction
(θ₂) and the refractive indices (n₁, n₂) of the two media.
 b.​ Index of Refraction: 𝑛 = 𝑐 / 𝑣, where 𝑐 is the speed of light in a vacuum, and 𝑣 is
the speed of light in the material.
c.​ Critical Angle & Total Internal Reflection: At sufficiently large angles, refraction
can cease, and light is totally reflected back into the original medium.
3.​ Ray Model of Light
a.​ Light travels in straight lines (rays) when passing through uniform media.
b.​ Reflection and refraction can be analyzed geometrically by drawing ray diagrams.

Pre-lab Questions
Questions to think about before the lab
1.​ Reflection Basics
a.​ Explain the difference between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.
Why are these angles measured relative to a normal line?
b.​ Predict how a light ray behaves when it strikes a flat mirror at a 20° incidence
angle.
2.​ Curved Mirrors
a.​ Identify two everyday examples of concave and convex mirrors. What effect do
each have on the images they form?
b.​ How would parallel rays striking a concave mirror differ from those striking a
convex mirror?
3.​ Refraction and Snell’s Law
a.​ State Snell’s law. If a beam of light travels from air (𝑛 ≈ 1.0) into a block of
unknown material, what measurements would you need to determine that
material’s index of refraction?
b.​ Conceptually, how does the path of light change if it moves from a less dense to
a more dense medium?
4.​ Index of Refraction
a.​ Define refractive index. Why is it always greater than or equal to 1.0 for
transparent materials?
b.​ Name some approximate refractive indices for everyday materials (e.g., water,
glass).
5.​ Experimental Precautions
 a.​ Lasers can be hazardous. What safety measures should you keep in mind when
working with laser sources?
b.​ What steps will you take to ensure precise angle measurements in these
experiments?

Equipment & Materials

List of Equipment
1.​ Combination Mirror (Plane, Concave, and Convex surfaces)
2.​ Half-Cylindrical (Semicircular) Acrylic Block or similar lens-shaped object
3.​ Laser Source (low-power diode laser)
4.​ Protractor or Angle-measuring device
5.​ Ruler and Paper (for tracing light paths)
6.​ Templates (for curved mirrors or refractive blocks, if provided)
7.​ Optional: Additional lens shapes, angle reading overlays, or a photodetector.

Zeroing & Calibration Check

1.​ Laser Beam Alignment:
a.​ Ensure the laser is mounted so that the beam is parallel to the table surface and
not tilted.
b.​ Mark a baseline or reference line on your paper to check that the beam is truly
horizontal.
2.​ Angle Measurement:
a.​ Confirm your protractor (or built-in angle measure on templates) reads zero when
a ray is aligned along the 0° reference.
b.​ If necessary, note any offset in your final data.
Experiment 1: Reflection on a Plane Mirror

Objectives
1.​ Verify that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
2.​ Observe how a single laser beam reflects off a plane mirror at various angles.

Background
Reflection is one of the most fundamental interactions of light, in which light rays strike a
boundary and change direction without passing through the surface. A plane (flat) mirror is the
simplest reflective surface, typically consisting of a thin reflective coating (silver or aluminum) on
smooth glass. When a light ray encounters this surface:

1.​ Angle of Incidence and Reflection

a.​ The angle of incidence (𝜃𝑖) is measured between the incoming ray and the
normal (an imaginary line perpendicular to the mirror surface at the point of
incidence).
b.​ The angle of reflection (𝜃𝑟) is similarly measured between the reflected ray and
the same normal.
c.​ The Law of Reflection states 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃𝑟. This law is derived from considerations of
wavefront geometry but can be observed simply with a geometric ray approach.

Figure 1. Angle of Reflection in a Plane Mirror

 2.​ Plane Mirror Images (Conceptual, not always measured here)
a.​ Plane mirrors form virtual images located behind the mirror at a distance equal to
the object’s distance in front. Although not the primary focus of this experiment
(which measures angles, not images), this concept is closely tied to the geometry
of reflection.

Experiment Procedure

Figure 2. Experiment Setup for Plane Mirror

1.​ Draw a normal line on paper at the point where the mirror will intersect.
2.​ Set the mirror so that it coincides with a reference axis on your paper.
3.​ Aim the laser at angles of incidence (e.g., 10°, 20°, 30°, 40°, 50°, 60°).
4.​ Measure and record the corresponding reflection angles in Table 1.

Datasheet
Table 1. Plane Mirror Experiment Results

Laser Angle of Incidence (𝜃𝑖) Angle of Reflection (𝜃𝑟)

6
Conclusion
1.​ Compare your findings to the theoretical expectation θᵢ = θᵣ.
2.​ Discuss any discrepancies or measurement errors.

Experiment 2: Reflection on Curved Mirrors

Objectives
1.​ Distinguish how a concave vs. convex mirror changes the reflected rays.
2.​ Validate the principal “special rays” for spherical mirrors (e.g., a ray through the focal
point, a ray parallel to the axis, etc.).

Background
A curved mirror is effectively a portion of a reflective surface with a specific geometry, such as a
sphere or paraboloid. The curvature significantly changes how incident rays converge or diverge
upon reflection. Two common types of spherical mirrors are:

1.​ Concave Mirror

a.​ Shape: The reflective surface curves inward (like a cave).
b.​ Focal Point: Parallel rays (relative to the mirror’s principal axis) ideally converge
at or near the focal point, which is located at half the radius of curvature for a
perfect spherical mirror.
c.​ Image Formation: Can form real, inverted images if the object is placed beyond
the focal length, or virtual, upright images if placed between the mirror and the
focal point.
2.​ Convex Mirror
a.​ Shape: The reflective surface bulges outward.
b.​ Focal Point: Parallel rays reflect outward, but they appear to diverge from a
virtual focal point “behind” the mirror’s surface.
c.​ Image Formation: Forms virtual, upright images, typically smaller than the object.
Commonly used in vehicle side mirrors for a wider field of view.

Special Rays in Curved Mirrors

 1.​ Ray Parallel to the Principal Axis: Reflects through (concave) or away from (convex) the
focal point.
2.​ Ray Through the Focal Point: Reflects parallel to the principal axis.
3.​ Ray Through the Center of Curvature: Reflects back on itself (if the surface is truly
spherical).

Table 2. Convex Mirror Image

Object's position (S), Image Diagram

focal point (F)

S > F, S = F, S < F ●​ Virtual

●​ Upright
●​ Reduced
(diminished/smaller)

Table 3. Concave Mirror Image

Object's position (S), Image Diagram

focal point (F)

S<F ●​ Virtual
(Object between focal point ●​ Upright
and mirror) ●​ Magnified (larger)
 S=F ●​ Reflected rays are
(Object at focal point) parallel and never
meet, so no image is
formed.
●​ In the limit where S
approaches F, the
image distance
approaches infinity,
and the image can be
either real or virtual
and either upright or
inverted depending on
whether S
approaches F from its
left or right side.

F < S < 2F ●​ Real image

(Object between focus and ●​ Inverted (vertically)
centre of curvature) ●​ Magnified (larger)
 S = 2F ●​ Real image
(Object at centre of ●​ Inverted (vertically)
curvature) ●​ Same size
●​ Image formed at
centre of curvature

S > 2F ●​ Real image

(Object beyond centre of ●​ Inverted (vertically)
curvature) ●​ Reduced
(diminished/smaller)
●​ As the distance of the
object increases, the
image asymptotically
approaches the focal
point
●​ In the limit where S
approaches infinity,
the image size
approaches zero as
the image approaches
F

In this experiment, by directing laser beams onto a concave or convex surface, one can
visualize how these special rays behave and confirm the mirror’s focal characteristics.
Observing convergence or divergence patterns with parallel beams highlights the core geometry
that underlies everything from satellite dish reflectors (concave) to security mirrors (convex).
Experiment Procedure

Part 1: Concave Mirror

1.​ Place the concave mirror template on the table.
2.​ Place the laser and combination mirror on the concave mirror template as shown in
Figure 3.

Figure 3. Reflection of Light by a Concave Mirror

3.​ Turn on the laser to produce three beams. Adjust the position of the laser and mirror
beams so that they exactly follow the image on the concave mirror template.
4.​ Change the beams to single beams
5.​ Direct the single beam at each special ray line on the concave mirror template
6.​ Photograph the results in each direction of the beam

Part 2: Convex Mirror

1.​ Place the convex mirror template on the table
2.​ Place the laser and combination mirror on the convex mirror template as shown in Figure
4.
 Figure 4. Reflection of Light by a Convex Mirror

3.​ Turn on the laser to produce three beams. Adjust the position of the laser beam and
mirror so that they exactly follow the image on the convex mirror template.
4.​ Change the beam to a single beam
5.​ Direct the single beam at each special ray line on the convex mirror template.
6.​ Photograph the results in each direction of the beam

Conclusion
Describe and summarize what you see in the experiment.

1.​ Photograph the results of the rays in the reflection experiment on a concave mirror
2.​ Photograph the results of the rays in the reflection experiment on a convex mirror
3.​ Compare the results with the properties of special rays on a concave mirror?
4.​ Do the incident rays and reflected rays exactly follow the image on the incident ray
template in the reflection experiment on a concave mirror on a single beam of rays and
three beams of rays?
5.​ Do the incident rays and reflected rays exactly follow the image on the incident ray
template in the reflection experiment on a convex mirror on a single beam of rays and
three beams of rays?
6.​ Compare the results with the properties of special rays on a convex mirror?
Experiment 3: Refraction and Snell’s Law (Flat
Interface)

Objectives
1.​ Measure angles of incidence and refraction for a laser beam passing from air into an
acrylic block (flat surface).
2.​ Verify Snell’s law and compute the refractive index.

Background

Figure 5. Refraction through a Flat Interface

Refraction occurs when a wave (light, in this case) crosses from one medium to another in
which its speed is different. The classic example is light traveling from air into glass (or acrylic).
Key ideas include:
 1.​ Index of Refraction (𝑛)
a.​ Defined as 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣, where 𝑐 is the speed of light in vacuum and 𝑣 is the speed of
light in the material.
b.​ Most transparent materials have 𝑛 > 1 because light travels more slowly in those
media than in vacuum.
2.​ Snell’s Law
a.​ Mathematically, 𝑛1sin𝜃1 = 𝑛2sin𝜃2, where 𝜃1 is the angle of incidence (relative to
the normal) in the first medium (index 𝑛1) and 𝜃2 is the angle of refraction in the
second medium (index 𝑛2).
b.​ Conceptually, the wavefronts slow down or speed up upon entering the new
medium, bending the ray accordingly.
3.​ Flat vs. Curved Interfaces
a.​ In a flat interface, the geometry is simpler: a single plane boundary.
b.​ The angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are measured at the same
point on this flat boundary.
4.​ Total Internal Reflection (TIR) (Related, but not always measured)
a.​ If a light ray in a higher-index medium approaches the boundary at a steep angle,
it might reflect entirely back into the medium (if 𝜃𝑖 > critical angle).
b.​ This effect is used in fiber optics and prisms, though it may or may not be part of
this particular lab.

During this experiment, shining a laser beam at varying angles onto the flat side of a
semicircular acrylic block allows you to measure 𝜃𝑖 and 𝜃𝑟, from which you can compute
sin𝜃𝑖/sin𝜃𝑟. Since 𝑛air ≈ 1.0, the ratio helps identify the block’s refractive index.

Figure 6. Types of refraction at the interface between two media

Experiment Procedure
1.​ Direct a ray of light towards the center of a flat surface of a semicircular object.
2.​ Direct the beam at a 90° angle to the flat surface of the object, at the center of the plate
(Point C in Figure 7).
3.​ Draw the path of the light and also draw the position of the plate.

Figure 7 Light paths perpendicular to the flat surface of a semicircular block

4.​ Change the direction of the incident beam by rotating the laser (or beam with C as the
center), so that the point of incidence of the light remains at C. Make the angle between
the incident beam and the normal of 10°.
5.​ Move the blocks from the white paper.

Figure 8 Refraction of Light

6.​ Draw the path of incident light and the path of refracted light. The angle between the
normal and the incident ray is called the angle of incidence, usually marked with the
letter i, while the angle between the normal and the refracted ray is called the angle of
refraction, usually marked with the letter r (see Figure 8).
7.​ With a protractor, measure the angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r of the light.
Write down the results you get in Table 4 and 5.
8.​ Put the semicircular block back in place, repeat Steps 3 to 8 four times, increasing the
angle of incidence by 10° each time.
 9.​ Measure the pairs of angles of incidence and angle of refraction obtained as accurately
as possible and write the measurements in Table 4 and 5.
10.​Draw a circle as large as possible (diameter about 15 cm), with point C as its center,
intersecting all the lines of the incident and refracted rays (extend the lines if necessary).
11.​Draw 12 chords for each incident and refracted ray as in Figure 9. Measure the 12
chords and fill in the remaining blanks.

Figure 9. Half chords of incident and refracted rays (flat interface)

Datasheet

Table 4. Flat Interface Refraction Results (Measurements)

Laser Incidence Refraction Difference in Length of Length of

Angle (i) Angle (r) Angle half chords half chords
(i - r) of incidence of refraction
(l) (m)

5
 Table 5. Flat Interface Refraction Results (Derivations)

Laser Ratio
𝑖 Comparison sin i sin r sin 𝑖
𝑟 𝑙/𝑟1 sin 𝑟
𝑚/𝑟2

Average

Conclusion
1.​ Observe the path of light as it passes through the object. Is the path straight or curved in
Figure 8 according to your experiment? If it is curved, in which direction does it curve?
2.​ How does the value of i compare to r in your experimental data sheet?
𝑖 sin 𝑖
3.​ Can you deduce the rules for the values ​of i-r, 𝑟
, and sin 𝑟
in the data sheet? If so, what

rules do you find?

𝑙
4.​ What can you conclude about the values ​of the ratio 𝑚
? Are they approximately the

same (constant), or are there a wide range of values?

5.​ What is the refractive index (n) of the semicircular block material?
Experiment 4: Determining Index of Refraction
(Curved Interface)

Objectives
1.​ Confirm the same (or similar) refractive index is obtained when the beam enters through
the curved side of the half-cylindrical block.
2.​ Compare these results to those of the flat-interface method.

Background
Continuing the study of refraction, one can also send the beam into the curved side of a
half-cylindrical block. The underlying physics is the same—Snell’s law, however:

1.​ Curved (Cylindrical) Surface Entry

a.​ The normal at the point of incidence is no longer perpendicular to a flat plane;
instead, it is perpendicular to a tangent on the curved surface.
b.​ By carefully positioning the laser to pass through the block’s center (point 𝐶), you
ensure symmetrical incidence, simplifying geometry.
2.​ Ray Diagram Complexity
a.​ If the laser enters near the curved edge but not through the center, the angles
can become more complicated to track.
b.​ Centering the beam on 𝐶 ensures the incident angle is measured consistently
relative to the local normal.
3.​ Confirming Index of Refraction
a.​ The same material (acrylic, perspex, or another plastic) should yield the same 𝑛
whether measured via the flat or curved side.
b.​ Differences might indicate experimental misalignments or surface imperfections.

This final experiment consolidates your understanding of Snell’s law in a scenario where the
sin 𝑖
boundary is not flat, reaffirming that sin 𝑟
remains constant for a given pair of media. Comparing

these measurements to those from the flat interface offers insight into the robustness of your
methods and the fundamental consistency of the refractive index concept.
Experiment Procedure
1.​ Direct a beam of light toward the center of the circular edge of a semicircular perspex
object
2.​ While observing its path, change the direction of the light towards the circular edge by
deflecting the object.
3.​ Change the direction of the light by rotating the laser (or the block with C as its center),
so that the point of incidence of the light remains at C. Make the angle between the
incident light and the normal 10°.
4.​ Remove the block from the white paper.

Figure 10. Path of light through the semicircular block

5.​ Draw the path of the incident light and the path of the refracted light. The angle between
the normal and the incident light is called the angle of incidence, usually marked with the
letter i, while the angle between the normal and the refracted light is called the angle of
refraction, usually marked with the letter r.
6.​ Using a protractor, measure the angle of incidence i and the angle of refraction r of the
light. Write the results you get in Table 6 and 7.
7.​ Put the semicircular block back in place, repeat Steps 3 to 8 four times by adding 10° to
the angle of incidence each time.
8.​ Measure the pair of angles of incidence and angles of refraction obtained as accurately
as possible and write the results in Table 6 and 7.
9.​ Draw a circle as large as possible (diameter about 15 cm), with point C as its center,
cutting through all the lines of the incident ray and the refracted ray (extend the lines if
necessary).
 10.​Draw 12 chords for each incident ray and the refracted ray as in Figure 11. Measure the
12 chords and fill in the remaining blank table.

Figure 11. Half chords of incident and refracted rays (curved interface)

Datasheet
Table 6. Curved Interface Refraction Results (Measurements)

Laser Incidence Refraction Difference in Length of Length of

Angle (i) Angle (r) Angle half chords half chords
(i - r) of incidence of refraction
(l) (m)

5
 Table 7. Curved Interface Refraction Results (Derivations)

Laser Ratio
𝑖 Comparison sin i sin r sin 𝑖
𝑟 𝑙/𝑟1 sin 𝑟
𝑚/𝑟2

Average

Conclusion
1.​ How does the value of i compare to r on your experimental data sheet?
2.​ What is the value of 𝑛 according to this experiment?
𝑝𝑢

3.​ Can you find a relationship between the 𝑛 obtained in experiment 3 and the 𝑛 value
𝑢𝑝 𝑝𝑢

1
obtained in experiment 4? If not, try comparing the values ​of 𝑛𝑢𝑝
and 𝑛 (or between
𝑝𝑢

1
𝑛𝑢𝑝 and 𝑛𝑝𝑢
). How are they related?

4.​ What is the refractive index, and how does its nature affect the bending of light in
transparent materials?
5.​ How does the difference in chord length of the incident ray (𝑙) and the refracted ray (𝑚)
affect the results of the refractive index calculation?
Final Reporting
Each group should provide a clear, concise report for each experiment, including:
1.​ Objective: A brief statement of the aim(s) of the experiment.
2.​ Method: A summary of the procedure and apparatus.
3.​ Results: Tables, calculations, graphs (if any), and observations.
4.​ Discussion: Interpretation of results, data analysis, and answers to the discussion
questions.
5.​ Conclusion: A short statement of what was learned, referencing the original objectives.

Safety & Cleanup

1.​ Laser Safety: Never look directly into the laser beam or point it at another person. Use
low-power lasers (Class 2 or Class 3R).
2.​ Mirror Handling: Avoid fingerprints or scratches on mirror surfaces; store them
carefully.
3.​ Block Care: Acrylic blocks can scratch; handle gently. Wipe with a soft cloth if needed.
4.​ Workstation: Clear any clutter, especially if using multiple beams. Turn off and unplug
lasers when finished.