Computational Methods and Data Engineering:

Proceedings of ICMDE 2020, Volume 2 Vijendra

Singh pdf download

https://textbookfull.com/product/computational-methods-and-data-
engineering-proceedings-of-icmde-2020-volume-2-vijendra-singh/

Download more ebook from https://textbookfull.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit textbookfull.com
to discover even more!

Computational Methods and Data Engineering: Proceedings

of ICMDE 2020, Volume 1 Vijendra Singh

https://textbookfull.com/product/computational-methods-and-data-
engineering-proceedings-of-icmde-2020-volume-1-vijendra-singh/

Software Engineering Perspectives in Intelligent

Systems: Proceedings of 4th Computational Methods in
Systems and Software 2020, Vol.2 Radek Silhavy

https://textbookfull.com/product/software-engineering-
perspectives-in-intelligent-systems-proceedings-of-4th-
computational-methods-in-systems-and-software-2020-vol-2-radek-
silhavy/

Artificial Intelligence and Bioinspired Computational

Methods Proceedings of the 9th Computer Science On line
Conference 2020 Vol 2 Radek Silhavy

https://textbookfull.com/product/artificial-intelligence-and-
bioinspired-computational-methods-proceedings-of-the-9th-
computer-science-on-line-conference-2020-vol-2-radek-silhavy/

Software Engineering Perspectives in Intelligent

Systems: Proceedings of 4th Computational Methods in
Systems and Software 2020, Vol.1 Radek Silhavy

https://textbookfull.com/product/software-engineering-
perspectives-in-intelligent-systems-proceedings-of-4th-
computational-methods-in-systems-and-software-2020-vol-1-radek-
Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering, Fourth
Edition: Volume 3A: Chemical and Biochemical Reactors
and Reaction Engineering R. Ravi

https://textbookfull.com/product/coulson-and-richardsons-
chemical-engineering-fourth-edition-volume-3a-chemical-and-
biochemical-reactors-and-reaction-engineering-r-ravi/

Proceedings of International Conference on

Computational Intelligence and Data Engineering
Proceedings of ICCIDE 2018 Nabendu Chaki

https://textbookfull.com/product/proceedings-of-international-
conference-on-computational-intelligence-and-data-engineering-
proceedings-of-iccide-2018-nabendu-chaki/

ICT Analysis and Applications: Proceedings of ICT4SD

2020, Volume 2 Simon Fong

https://textbookfull.com/product/ict-analysis-and-applications-
proceedings-of-ict4sd-2020-volume-2-simon-fong/

Sustainable Development Through Engineering

Innovations: Select Proceedings of SDEI 2020 1st
Edition Harvinder Singh

https://textbookfull.com/product/sustainable-development-through-
engineering-innovations-select-proceedings-of-sdei-2020-1st-
edition-harvinder-singh/

Data Management, Analytics and Innovation: Proceedings

of ICDMAI 2020, Volume 1 Neha Sharma

https://textbookfull.com/product/data-management-analytics-and-
innovation-proceedings-of-icdmai-2020-volume-1-neha-sharma/
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 1257

Vijendra Singh
Vijayan K. Asari
Sanjay Kumar
R. B. Patel Editors

Computational
Methods
and Data
Engineering
Proceedings of ICMDE 2020, Volume 2
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 1257

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing,
Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering,
University of Essex, Colchester, UK
László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University,
Gyor, Hungary
Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas
at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA
Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao
Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology,
University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute
of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen , Faculty of Computer Science and Management,
Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering,
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications
on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent
Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer
and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment,
healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the areas of modern
intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft comput-
ing including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion
of these paradigms, social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuro-
science, artificial life, virtual worlds and society, cognitive science and systems,
Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems, self-organizing and
adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric
computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics
including human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning para-
digms, machine ethics, intelligent data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent
agents, intelligent decision making and support, intelligent network security, trust
management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia.
The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are
primarily proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They
cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and
applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is the short
publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad
dissemination of research results.
Indexed by SCOPUS, DBLP, EI Compendex, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG,
zbMATH, Japanese Science and Technology Agency (JST), SCImago.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Vijendra Singh Vijayan K. Asari
• •

Sanjay Kumar R. B. Patel

•

Editors

Computational Methods
and Data Engineering
Proceedings of ICMDE 2020, Volume 2

123
Editors
Vijendra Singh Vijayan K. Asari
School of Computer Science Department of Electrical
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies and Computer Engineering
Dehradun, Haryana, India University of Dayton
Dayton, OH, USA
Sanjay Kumar
Department of Computer Science R. B. Patel
and Engineering Department of Computer Science
SRM University Delhi-NCR and Engineering
Sonepat, Haryana, India Chandigarh College of Engineering
and Technology (CCET)
Chandigarh, Punjab, India

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-981-15-7906-6 ISBN 978-981-15-7907-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7907-3
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface

We are pleased to present Springer Book entitled Computational Methods and Data
Engineering, which consists of the Proceedings of International Conference on
Computational Methods and Data Engineering (ICMDE 2020), Volume 2 papers.
The main aim of the International Conference on Computational Methods and
Data Engineering (ICMDE 2020) was to provide a platform for researchers and
academia in the area of computational methods and data engineering to exchange
research ideas and results and collaborate together. The conference was held at the
SRM University, Sonepat, Haryana, Delhi-NCR, India, from January 30 to 31,
2020.
All the 41 published chapters in the Computational Methods and Data
Engineering book have been peer-reviewed by the three reviewers drawn from the
scientific committee, external reviewers and editorial board depending on the
subject matter of the chapter. After the rigorous peer-review process, the submitted
papers were selected based on originality, significance and clarity and published as
chapters.
We would like to express our gratitude to the management, faculty members and
other staff of the SRM University, Sonepat, for their kind support during organi-
zation of this event. We would like to thank all the authors, presenters and delegates
for their valuable contribution in making this an extraordinary event.
We would like to acknowledge all the members of honorary advisory chairs,
international/national advisory committee members, general chairs, program chairs,
organization committee members, keynote speakers, the members of the technical
committees and reviewers for their work.
Finally, we thank series editors, Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing,
Aninda Bose and Radhakrishnan for their high support and help.

Dehradun, India Vijendra Singh

Dayton, USA Vijayan K. Asari
Sonepat, India Sanjay Kumar
Chandigarh, India R. B. Patel

v
Contents

Software Quality Optimization of Coupling and Cohesion Metric

for CBSD Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
M. Iyyappan and Arvind Kumar
Detecting WSN Attacks Through HMAC and SCH Formation . . . . . . . 21
Neetu Mehta and Arvind Kumar
Literature Review of Various Nature-Inspired Optimization
Algorithms Used for Digital Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Preeti Garg and R. Rama Kishore
Geospatial Knowledge Management-Fresh Fuel for Banking
and Economic Growth? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Anupam Mehrotra
Neural Network and Pixel Position Shuffling-Based Digital Image
Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Sunesh Malik and Rama Kishore Reddlapalli
Hybrid Optimized Image Steganography with Cryptography . . . . . . . . 79
Vineet Nandal and Parvinder Singh
TxtLineSeg: Text Line Segmentation of Unconstrained Printed Text
in Devanagari Script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Rupinder Pal Kaur, M. K. Jindal, and Munish Kumar
Intelligent Strategies for Cloud Computing Risk Management
and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Vinita Malik and Sukhdip Singh
Effective Survey on Handwriting Character Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
G. S. Monisha and S. Malathi
Enhancement in Braille Systems—A Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
K. M. R. Navadeepika and V. D. Ambeth Kumar

vii
viii Contents

A Critical Review on Use of Data Mining Technique for Prediction

of Road Accidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Navdeep Mor, Hemant Sood, and Tripta Goyal
Rio Olympics 2016 on Twitter: A Descriptive Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Saurabh Sharma and Vishal Gupta
A Survey on Vehicle to Vehicle Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Tanay Wagh, Rohan Bagrecha, Shubham Salunke, Shambhavi Shedge,
and Vina Lomte
OBD-II and Big Data: A Powerful Combination to Solve the Issues
of Automobile Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Meenakshi, Rainu Nandal, and Nitin Awasthi
OBU (On-Board Unit) Wireless Devices in VANET(s) for Effective
Communication—A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
N. Ganeshkumar and Sanjay Kumar
Chinese Postman Problem: A Petri Net Based Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Sunita Kumawat
Weather Dataset Analysis Using Apache Pig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Anmoldeep Kaur and Arpan Randhawa
Analysis of Learner’s Behavior Using Latent Dirichlet Allocation
in Online Learning Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
N. A. Deepak and N. S. Shobha
An Overview of Recent Developments in Convolutional Neural
Network (CNN) Based Face Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Rahul Yadav and Priyanka
A Review of Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Requirement
Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Kamaljit Kaur, Prabhsimran Singh, and Parminder Kaur
Data-Driven Model for State of Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion
Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Rupam Singh, V. S. Bharath Kurukuru, and Mohammed Ali Khan
Trusted Sharing of IOT Data Using an Efficient Re-encryption
Scheme and Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Preeti Sharma and V. K. Srivastava
Clustering of Quantitative Survey Data: A Subsystem of EDM
Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Roopam Sadh and Rajeev Kumar
Smell-O-Vision Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
P. Nandal
Contents ix

A Dynamic Approach for Detecting the Fake News Using Random

Forest Classifier and NLP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
J. Antony Vijay, H. Anwar Basha, and J. Arun Nehru
Automated Essay Grading: An Empirical Analysis of Ensemble
Learning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Shakshi Sharma and Anjali Goyal
Survey of Scheduling and Meta Scheduling Heuristics in Cloud
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Savita Khurana and Rajesh Kumar Singh
A Novel Idea for Designing a Speech Recognition System Using
Computer Vision Object Detection Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Sukrobjon Toshpulotov, Sarvar Saidov,
Selvanayaki Kolandapalayam Shanmugam, J. Shyamala Devi,
and K. Ramkumar
Empirical Classification Accuracy Assessment of Various Classifiers
for Clinical Diagnosis Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Sabita Khatri, Narander Kumar, and Deepak Arora
Comparison of Transform-Based and Transform-Free Analytical
Models Having Finite Buffer Size in Non-saturated IEEE 802.11
DCF Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Mukta and Neeraj Gupta
An Overview of Learning Approaches in Reflection Removal . . . . . . . . 411
Rashmi Chaurasiya and Dinesh Ganotra
Comparison of Bioinspired Algorithms Applied to the Timetabling
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Jose Silva, Noel Varela, Jesus Varas, Omar Lezama, José Maco,
and Martín Villón
Algorithm for Detecting Polarity of Opinions in Laptop
and Restaurant Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Jose Silva, Noel Varela, Danelys Cabrera, Omar Lezama, Jesus Varas,
and Patricia Manco
Prediction of the Yield of Grains Through Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . 447
Jose Silva, Noel Varela, Danelys Cabrera, and Omar Lezama
A Secured Steganography Algorithm for Hiding an Image and Data
in an Image Using LSB Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Vaibhav Singh Shekhawat, Manish Tiwari, and Mayank Patel
Data Rate Analysis of LTE System for 2  2 MIMO Fading Channel
in Different Modulation Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Dimple Jangir, Gori Shankar, and Bharat Bhusan Jain
x Contents

Prediction of Defects in Software Using Machine Learning

Classifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Ashima Arya, Sanjay Kumar, and Vijendra Singh
Energy-Efficient Schemes in Underwater Wireless Sensor Network:
A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Poonam, Vikas Siwach, Harkesh Sehrawat, and Yudhvir Singh
Information Hiding Techniques for Cryptography
and Steganography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Bhawna, Sanjay Kumar, and Vijendra Singh
Affect Recognition using Brain Signals: A Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Resham Arya, Ashok Kumar, and Megha Bhushan
“Memorize, Reproduce, and Forget” Inclination; Students’
Perspectives: A Study of Selected Universities in Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
John Kani Amoako, Yogesh Kumar Sharma, and Paul Danquah

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

About the Editors

Prof. Vijendra Singh is working as Professor in the School of Computer Science

and Engineering at The University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand, India. Prof. Singh received his Ph.D. degree in Engineering and
M.Tech. degree in Computer Science and Engineering from Birla Institute of
Technology, Mesra, India. He has 20 years of experience in research and teaching
including IT industry. Prof. Singh major research concentration has been in the
areas of data mining, pattern recognition, image processing, big data, machine
learning, and soft computation. He has published more than 65 scientific papers in
this domain. He has served as Editor-in-Chief, Special Issue, Procedia Computer
Science, Vol 167, 2020, Elsevier; Editor-in-Chief, Special Issue, Procedia
Computer Science, Vol 132, 2018, Elsevier; Associate Editor, International Journal
of Healthcare Information Systems and Informatics, IGI Global, USA; Guest
Editor, Intelligent Data Mining and Machine Learning, International Journal of
Healthcare Information Systems and Informatics, IGI Global, USA;
Editor-in-Chief, International Journal of Social Computing and Cyber-Physical
Systems, Inderscience, UK; Editorial Board Member, International Journal of
Multivariate Data Analysis, Inderscience, UK; Editorial Board Member,
International Journal of Information and Decision Sciences, Inderscience, UK.

Prof. Vijayan K. Asari is a Professor in Electrical and Computer Engineering and

Ohio Research Scholars Endowed Chair in Wide Area Surveillance at the
University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio. He is the Director of the University of Dayton
Vision Lab (Center of Excellence for Computer Vision and Wide Area Surveillance
Research). Prof. Asari had been a Professor in Electrical and Computer Engineering
at Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia, till January 2010. He was the
Founding Director of the Computational Intelligence and Machine Vision
Laboratory (ODU Vision Lab) at ODU. Prof. Asari received the bachelor’s degree
in Electronics and Communication Engineering from the University of Kerala
(College of Engineering, Trivandrum), India, in 1978, the M.Tech. and Ph.D.
degrees in Electrical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras,
in 1984 and 1994, respectively. Prof. Asari received several teachings, research,

xi
xii About the Editors

advising, and technical leadership awards. Prof. Asari received the Outstanding
Teacher Award from the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering in
April 2002 and the Excellence in Teaching Award from the Frank Batten College of
Engineering and Technology in April 2004. Prof. Asari has published more than
480 research papers including 80 peer-reviewed journal papers co-authoring with
his graduate students and colleagues in the areas of image processing, computer
vision, pattern recognition, machine learning, and high-performance digital system
architecture design. Prof. Asari has been a Senior Member of the IEEE since 2001
and is a Senior Member of the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers
(SPIE). He is a Member of the IEEE Computational Intelligence Society (CIS),
IEEE CIS Intelligent Systems Applications Technical Committee, IEEE Computer
Society, IEEE Circuits and Systems Society, Association for Computing Machinery
(ACM), and American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE).

Prof. Sanjay Kumar is working as Professor in the Computer Science and

Engineering Department, SRM University, India. He received his Ph.D. degree in
Computer Science and Engineering from Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of
Science and Technology (DCRUST), Murthal (Sonipat), in 2014. He obtained his
B.Tech. and M.Tech. degrees in Computer Science and Engineering in 1999 and
2005, respectively. He has more than 16 years of academic and administrative
experience. He has published more than 15 papers in the international and national
journals of repute. He has also presented more than 12 papers in the international
and national conferences. His current research area is wireless sensor networks,
machine learning, IoT, cloud computing, mobile computing and cyber, and network
security. He chaired the sessions in many international conferences like IEEE,
Springer, and Taylor & Francis. He is the Life Member of Computer Society of
India and Indian Society for Technical Education.

Prof. R. B. Patel is working as Professor in the Department of Computer Science

and Engineering, Chandigarh College of Engineering and Technology (CCET),
Chandigarh, India. Prior to joining the CCET, he worked as Professor at NIT,
Uttarakhand, India, and Dean, Faculty of Information Technology and Computer
Science, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Technology, Murthal,
India. His research areas include mobile and distributed computing, machine and
deep learning, and wireless sensor networks. Prof. Patel has published more than
150 papers in international journals and conference proceedings. He has supervised
16 Ph.D. scholars and currently 02 are in progress.
Software Quality Optimization
of Coupling and Cohesion Metric
for CBSD Model

M. Iyyappan and Arvind Kumar

Abstract The component-based software engineering is a part of the traditional

development of component like a Commercial off the shelf and selecting the quality
components. In the CBSD application are used for reusable software packages are
adapting and re-assembling among the software modules. The major purpose of using
the reusable component, to decrease the development time, reducing the complexity,
cost of development became very less and increase the overall quality characteristics
as well as quality attributes of various software applications. The proposed approach
of this paper followed the architecture diagram for the software quality, which consist
of COTS repository, various Quality factor and metric measurement of software. In
this process followed the selection, adaptation, verification, measurement, installa-
tion and up-gradation of the Component-based software development. Two activities
majorly focused on this topic: Software Quality and Software Metric. The Soft-
ware quality contains various aspects measure the metric relationship between soft-
ware characteristic and sub-characteristics among module. Software Metric followed
the package level measurement among the cohesion with the real data set value
with correlation coefficient which is proposed by Karl Pearson’s. Also, this metric
proposed to measure complexity among the software system with the parameter of
Component inside, component outside and Average calculation both component.
So the comparative analysis of the quality factor is applied to the coupling metric
and package cohesion which is helpful to reduce the complexity and increase the
reliability of the software system without fault, failure and error protection of the
system.

Keywords Software quality · Reusability · Functionality · Reliability ·

Maintainability · Software component model · ISO standard 9126 · Package
class · Coupling · Cohesion and complexity metric

M. Iyyappan (B) · A. Kumar

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SRM University Delhi-NCR, Sonepat,
Haryana 131029, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Kumar
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1

V. Singh et al. (eds.), Computational Methods and Data Engineering,
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 1257,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7907-3_1
2 M. Iyyappan and A. Kumar

1 Introduction

In the software engineering main concern about constructing the software and assem-
bling the hardware, with the help of reuse component device as well as reuse the
software development [1]. The component-based software development (CBSD)
approach to build the well-defined system and independent development source code
component based on software reuse [2]. This process reduced the project development
time and effort, also decrease the cost of expenditure and increased software produc-
tivity. In the development of project [3] “A coherent package of software artifacts,”
the individual components are developed and deliver the entire software component,
to adapt the client software system [4]. Few industries developed software compo-
nent are available in the market for the in-house development or third party software
component like a commercial software or open-source [5]. Few example companies
like an: Microsoft’s Component Object Model, DCOM,.NET Framework, Sun’s Java
Beans, Enterprise Java Beans, J2EE Specification and Object Management Group,
Common Object Request Broker Architecture[6]. Commercial off the shelf (COTS)
product is readymade available software like a plug-and-play nature, which can be
tested by the company and source code cannot be modified. “A COTS product as
one that is (i) sold, leased, or licensed to the general public, (ii) offered by a vendor
trying to profit from it, (iii) supported and evolved by the vendor, (iv) available in
multiple identical copies, or (v) used without modification of the internals” [7].
After this introduction, Sect. 2 defines the literature review of various component-
based quality models. Section 3 discusses the software quality standard for the
component. In Sect. 4 about the architecture of software quality for CBSD model.
Section 5 discusses the theoretical approach for Cohesion and Coupling measurement
of packages. In Sect. 6 discussion about the conclusion.

2 Literature Review of Various Component-Based Quality

Models

Lai et al. (2011) in the Component-based software development mainly focus on the
effort estimations of software like a cost and schedule prediction [3]. This paper is
more focused about implementation and testing component of the module, which
can exactly mention identifying the suitable component according to their project
requirements and architectural design. It is not a developer based component adapta-
tion, so component we can identify, assessing and system selection based on budget
and schedule of completion. Lai et al. (2011) in the Component-based software devel-
opment mainly focus on the effort estimations of software like a cost and schedule
prediction. This paper more focused about implementation and testing component of
the module, which can exactly mention identifying the suitable component according
to their project requirements and architectural design. It is not a developer based
Software Quality Optimization of Coupling and Cohesion … 3

component adaptation, so component we can identify, assessing and system selec-

tion based on budget and schedule of completion [3]. Chopra et al. (2014) in this
software application consist of various module, phases and component which contain
the different line of source code [8]. The combination of these entire process provides
a better software application, for that, have chosen the higher quality component and
integrate the module, which will increase the efficiency of the software system.
So they followed similar properties of components like a: individual module and
exchangeable, perfect system structural design, proper working software interface
with another module. Moreover, in this paper, discuss the various quality assurance
attributes and its testing methodology also. Soni et al. (2014) for the development of
software engineering domain are mainly concern about the reusable existing compo-
nent which is used for reducing the development time and increase performance. In
the CBSD model quality assurance provide various observation result on the system
development [5]. This paper discuss component activities like Analysis, Develop-
ment, Certification, Customization, Design, Integration and Testing for the quality
assurance. Bansal et al. (2013) in this software quality measurement analyze the
functional module and its activities of the software but not a quality assessment of
the system [9]. For that, are utilizing the ISO 9126 standard model, for assessing the
various characteristics like an: analyze, replace, stable and testing the component.
This type of quality assessment is used for client satisfaction as per the requirement
of the software system. Patil et al. (2014) in the part of effort estimation, measure
the size of the software package and prediction of the project source codes are very
difficult because it follows the nature of black-box testing component [10]. So that
estimation of the project with ambiguous data and irrelevant as well as not an accurate
result. To analyze this concept of reliability and accurate result on effort estimation,
the author has proposed Fuzzy logic model of size prediction for CBSD. In this
logic, a model followed four different characteristics like an: Fuzzification separate
module, the quantifiable result of Defuzzication, Rule-based system and Inference
engine of fuzzy. Kahtan et al. (2012) this paper discuss the interdependencies among
the software component are not suitable at the time of component implementation
phase [11]. The coupling and cohesion interdependencies module are mainly used
for the requirement, component evaluation, component selection, design, architec-
ture and implementation along with testing. Varies security features are included
in this comparative analysis study of dependability, reliability, integrity, safety and
maintainability. Chen et al. (2011) in this component-based software system for
the developing new components are focused on the reusable module because it’s
reduced the complexity, decreased the development effort, lesser time and cheaper
budget [12]. For the reusable components of the project, mandatory required the soft-
ware quality certification which is helpful for the prediction of software attribute and
characteristics. In this paper discuss the coupling, cohesion, interface and complexity
these functionalities followed for the better quality of software. High cohesion and
low coupling between the components, higher-level component interface among
the other module, and reduced the software complexity avoiding the various issues.
Kumari et al. (2011) in this paper discuss the complexity metrics of size and interface
among the software component [13]. This metric measurement used for the purpose
4 M. Iyyappan and A. Kumar

to control and minimize the complexity, reduced software design, software testing
and system maintenance. An interaction complexity measures the total average of
interface component base system not exceed than the overall component-based soft-
ware development. If it increases we cannot control the complexity and reliability
of the system & software attribute. It has been proved in the empirical study. Tomar
et al. (2010) this author explains about the Component-based software development
of reusability also ensure that the functionality and quality of the system [14]. The
more complicated process of software measurement on the component-based soft-
ware system utilized the methodology of verification and validation [15] testing. X
model approach is used in this paper for the independent development of software
and commercial off-the-shelf package [16]. According to the client requirement for
the software, projects are moved into the component repository select the suitable
component, assemble the software package and integrate into the system.

3 Software Quality Standard for Component

In the field software engineering mainly focused on the quality of the software [17],
it is trying to improve the performance of the system as well as increased reliability
among the system software. According to the IEEE Standard Glossary of Software
Engineering Terminology [18] software quality is defined as “the degree to which a
system, system component, or process meets specified requirements “, or “the degree
to which a system, system component, or process meets customer or user needs
or expectations [19]. There are several methodologies we followed like a quality
assurance of software, metric assessment of the system and controlled quality of the
software [20]. In the software system hold various characteristic of analyzing the set
of attribute and significant features of a product, which meets the customer or user
expectations [21]. For measuring software quality mainly followed the IEEE standard
which expresses the client satisfaction and future modification [22]. A high-quality
product is one which has associated with it many quality factors. The product quality
focused on the ISO-15504-5 and ISO/IEC JTC1 used in the Process quality [23].
In this quality, model differentiates two different steps for measuring the software
quality using the characteristics and sub-characteristics [24]. The evaluation of a
software system using the hierarchical model to show the various factors relationship
among other factor elements depends upon the following steps:

3.1 Software Characteristics of Quality

This module focused on the functionality. The functional activities of the entire
software package, which is related to the high-level programming language. Maintain
the proper system according to client response, as well as update the functional
module as per the client request.
Software Quality Optimization of Coupling and Cohesion … 5

3.2 Software Sub-characteristics of Quality

In this sub-characteristic module focused on the accurate functionality of the soft-

ware module. Analyze the perfect component module with the use of the testing
methodology.

3.3 Software Quality Attributes

This module provide a piece of special information about the software system factor
and sub-factor with the accurate testing result.

3.4 Software Metrics of Quality

To measure the performance of the software package, analyze the complexity and
increase the usability of the system. For measuring the quality of software’s are
analysing on basis of Testing phases it holds two different methodologies like a White
box testing and Black box testing. In this assessment source code of programming
languages can measure in white box testing but not in black-box testing. Black box
testing was used to measure the COTS component of in-house development and
characteristic applied to the other software packages (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 A standard
measurement of component
quality
6 M. Iyyappan and A. Kumar

4 The Architecture of Software Quality for CBSD Model

In this proposed architecture model describe the various phases of the software devel-
opment life cycle. For the business application development, a major concern about
the client requirement and their satisfaction, are the big challenges for the software
developer. This module explains the client requirement and analysis, select the suit-
able component from the repository for the COTS package, also check the adaptation
of software component with the help of various quality factors. After the prediction
of various quality attributes then moved to the metric measurement of the quality
model. Then the final step of our proposed methodology is the integration on the
client software system as well as monitoring process are enabled like maintainability
and replaceability.

4.1 Client Requirement Phase

Client prerequisite component for the new software system. Analysis phase and
specification of the software are majorly required to build the new component system,
to satisfy the client software.

4.2 Component Analysis and Specification on Repository

This module describes the various component repository which can hold more
components according to the client requirement for the business application. This
repository contains various component specification and design module which helps
analyse the client software system.

4.3 Commercial Off-the-Shelf

This COTS package contain a module of warehouse artifacts plays an important

role for the development of new model because it contains a library repository of
all existing components as well as a new component. Artifacts will check whether
suitable source code is available from the repository or not if the suitable component is
available select that component from the repository. According to client requirement,
we used Design and Construction of Component with Reuse as a two-level processing
step like an, select the suitable component from the repository without modification
of domain engineering otherwise select the modified suitable component from the
repository with modification of code modules Fig. 2. In the warehouse, a component
Software Quality Optimization of Coupling and Cohesion … 7

Fig. 2 Software quality architecture model

with Reuse is not compatible for client requirement then repository starts to develop
the new component approach to the member of the pool.

4.4 Software Component Adaptation

The developer will verify and validate that selected suitable component from the
repository of warehouse artifacts. This COTS component package is perfectly fixed
on the software system because this reuse process is reducing cost, time, increase
the efficiency, reduced complexity and increased the reliability.
8 M. Iyyappan and A. Kumar

4.5 Software Quality and Metric Factor

For maintaining a higher level of quality among the software we are following the
ISO/IEC standard quality model. In this standard followed various characteristics like
a System functionality, Software reliability, usability of software, Time efficiency,
System maintainability and portability compliance. In addition to those standard
quality measurement using Security and System compatibility.
• System Functionality—System Functionality holds the group of an attribute
which is reflected from the existing available functional model and its proper-
ties of the system. This functionality model provided various services and its
operations as per the client requirement because it contains faster delivery of soft-
ware products with the lower cost of the budget. In this software sub-characteristic
of the quality model for the following, steps are used like as a set of attributes
that bear on the existence of a set of functions and their specified properties (ISO
1991). It means that the software should provide the functions and services as
per the requirement when used under the specified Condition. Pre-existing soft-
ware with low cost, faster delivery of end product. The sub-characteristics under
functionality are System Suitability, Software Accuracy, Interoperability module,
Security of System and Functionality Compliance.
• System Suitability—System Suitability depends upon the developer requirement,
either it’s perfectly fit into software packages or not. Because measuring the
software at the time development it is very difficult, so this suitability moves
according to the fitness function.
• Software Accuracy—In this system functionality, the developer used to measure
the software packages to analyze the accurate result system performance and its
suitable module. From this accuracy, the developer can decide either to continue
the package development or not.
• Interoperability Module—In this interoperability module, Attributes of soft-
ware package that bear on its ability to interact with specified software systems.
This indicates whether the format of the data, handled by the target software is
compliant with any international standard. For using this type of interaction and
standard, it increased the functionality of the system.
• Security of System—In this functionality module, the protection of system items
from accidental damage or malicious access of another user, modification of soft-
ware and destruction of programming. We can avoid such a problem to protect
the functionality of the system database.
• Functionality compliance—Functionality compliance is a method of stan-
dard procedures are followed properly for the software products, like a func-
tional guiding factor, standard rule and regulations. It is also improved func-
tional bonding among the software packages and recognized by the standard
certifications.
• Software Reliability—In reliability, mainly discuss the probability of failure and
creating a problem on the system or software at a specific period of moment. For
Software Quality Optimization of Coupling and Cohesion … 9

avoiding such a problem we used to maintain the fault-tolerance on the specific

period. Software Reliability main concern about increase performance reduced
complexity and avoid failure among system as well as software on the specific
time. Reliability is broken into the following sub-characteristics: Maturity, Fault
tolerance, Recoverability and Reliability compliance.
• Software Maturity—In this maturity level of metric measurement between the
software and system. To analyze the failure of the software and fault of the system
based on reliability. The software maturity provides, it deals with the number of
commercial versions of the software and the time interval between each version.
• Fault Tolerance of Reliability—It evaluates the robustness of the software or
system. In this method, a constant level of performance is maintained between
the system as well as software. To avoid such a failure and fault of the system
result, increased reliability. Software Fault avoidance: To avoid or prevent the
introduction of faults by engaging various design methodologies, techniques and
technologies, including structured programming, object-oriented programming,
software reuse, design patterns and formal methods. Software Fault removal: To
detect and eliminate software faults by techniques such as reviews, inspection,
testing, verification and validation. Software Fault tolerance: To provide a service
complying with the specification despite tolerance and run the component of
remaining software modules.
• Software Recoverability—In this module focused on the software recovery, when
the software faced unexpected error or failure of the system. This module recover
lost of data directly and re-establish the performance on that period.
• Software Reliability Compliance—Whether this module followed the proper,
international standard for maintaining the quality and increasing the reliability.
In this standard module focus on the fault, failure and error predictions among
system as well as software.
• Usability of Software—In this module of usability software depends upon the
system developer and client user, whether the software application is suitable for
all the criteria or not. These criteria are mainly focused like a domain under-
standing, program code usage, system configuration and software execution. For
applying this methodology, users are benefitted like a lower complexity, higher
reusability and proper adaptability of the system. Software sub characteristics of
Usability are defined as under.
• Client recognizable—It is a major task clients have to understand the system
behaviour and system performance and its functionality task. Client recognizes
that depend task can perform properly on the software module or not.
• Client Documentation for understanding—This module is focused on client
requirements, which help to improve the better system of software development.
The developer has to learn the software characteristics and make a system with
easy understandable for the user.
• Project Appearance—In this client usable system focus on the attractiveness of
website or project appearance. If the developer has very good knowledge of the
graphical user interface design, will provide an attractive module of the final
appearance.
10 M. Iyyappan and A. Kumar

• Usability Standard—In this topic focused on the International standard or Inter-

national certification. This usability module according to the client requirements
and developer implementation, both characteristics are properly recognized by
the standard organization or not.
• Software Efficiency—This module of software quality is the main concern about
the efficiency of the software system. Software efficiency is reduced because of
using trendy technology and latest programming in the real world. In this module,
performance are improved based on programming optimization, checking their
internal module and testing their inside component. This type of performance
measurement won’t affect the specific design in the programming language, it is
only testing the inside module.
• Software Behaviour—This behaviour represents a time relationship between the
software modules. It’s able to perform a particular task on a specific period of
execution which we can apply certain limitations. In this measurement focus on
request time, response time, processing time and throughput time, etc.
• Infrastructure Behaviour—In the software programming development and usage
of the system depend upon the resource behaviour. In this behaviour concepts
completely utilized all those software resources, on the specific time and particular
condition also.
• Software Compliance—Efficiency are compared to the performance result of
the software system. For this performance analysis of efficiency, compliance is
properly approved by the standard organization or not
• System Maintainability—System maintenance depends of the software
programming code changes as well as software modification. In source code
changes, these phases of modification focus about up-gradation of the software
programming. But some of the maintenance phases of the system, which depends
upon the component module because it holds only reusable COTS component. The
reusable component is required to adapt the system, checking the test workflow
and integration process on the system.
• Software Customizability—In most of the software, system focus only about the
readymade available reusable component of COTS software package. It can easily
adapt the system, configuration among the software, test the component workflow
and finalize the implementation module. For this customizability not require any
source code programming languages.
• Software Testing—In this maintenance, phases depend upon the testing compo-
nent or testing source code. In testing, it can analyze performance, integrated
module and functionality of the system.
• Software Stability—Stability provides an analysis result of, if any changes are
done in the software it will provide a similar output of the module or it will provide
any unexpected changes. If that changes affect the system maintenance or not. In
other words, it is the degree to which software is composed of discrete softwares
such that a change to one software has zero impact on the other software or the
system.
• Software Analysability—Analysis is a very important phase for deciding on soft-
ware maintenance. If the particular software has to be updated or not, needed little
Software Quality Optimization of Coupling and Cohesion … 11

modification or not, the existing component is working or not. According to this

statistics, results are looking about further modification of the software system.
• Software Portability—Software portability among the software system main
concern about the implementation or integration of the system. In this level,
the software has been changing from one environment to another environment
with similar modifications at the time of software installation. These activi-
ties are reducing the cost of expenditure and schedule of time to complete
the task. The specification of software should be platform-independent. Various
sub-characteristics defined under portability are:
• Software Replaceability—Replace is the main concern about updating the soft-
ware or modification of programming. It is followed by the previous version of
the software in our system, it is mandatory to check about the new version of the
software with modification or not. This means that the new software can substitute
the previous ones without any major efforts.
• System Adaptability—It refers to whether the software can be adapted to different
specified platforms.
• System Installability—It is the capability for software to be installed easily on
different platforms.

5 The Theoretical Approach for Cohesion and Coupling

Measurement of Packages

These following modules, are used the Inheritance of hierarchy steps like a tree
structure which is related to the packages, classes and methods similar to the
object-oriented programming. In this Empty Packages are helpful to measure the
null value of the software system which behaves like an idle performance of
the system. The major concern about the Complexity of Low cohesion (CLC)
and the Complexity of High cohesion (CHC) is used for measuring software
package as on the base theoretical approach. Coupling and cohesion depend on
the direct measurement and indirect measurement between the high cohesion and
low coupling. Here, took a similar project of existing real data set value which is
used to measure the CLC and CHC to show the comparative result of new metric
real data (Table 1).

Table 1 Sample data for

S. No. Project name
software package metric
1 Byte Code Engineering Library (BCEL)
2 Bean Scripting Framework (BSF)
3 Jakarta-ORO
4 Element Construction Set (ECS)
5 XGen Source Code Generator
6 Junit
12 M. Iyyappan and A. Kumar

Table 2 Descriptive statistics

Statistical parameter CLC CHC
of the analyzed package
cohesion component Maximum value 7.75 18
complexity measure for Low Minimum value 0 0
and High cohesion metric
Median 0 2.5
Mean 0.453 3.39
Standard deviation 1.53 3.572

Table 3 Comparison with the correlation coefficient values of low and high other metrics
Parameters CLC CHC PCoh LCOM LCOM1 ICH SCC
Correlation coefficient 0.20 0.48 0.69 −0.32 −0.34 0.12 0.27
Significance value 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

Analysis of experimental results of Proposed Low complexity and high

complexity. Table 2 shows the package name with the total number of classes,
number of elements with their calculated filtered class and it is termed as R(D)
& R(DUI). The number of relations is termed as CDI and finally with all these
the Complexity of Low and High cohesion is calculated with the help of Package
also compared with existing research work of package cohesion measurement. To
analyze the better performance and result of the cohesion metric.

From the above results of Table 3, it can be concluded that we can reject the
null hypothesis and can trust the alternative hypothesis. Hence there is a strong
relationship between the calculation of package cohesion component complexity
metric and the component reusability.

5.1 Density Calculation on the Interface Level Measuring

the Coupling and Cohesion

In this, proposed algorithm is used the approach of a quantitative measure of

cohesion and coupling. The measure of coupling and cohesion density used to
analyse the relationship between the Interface density module (IDM1, IDM2,
IDM3 and IDM4) of modular software system given as follows:

CCIin
MCCD = (1)
CCIin + CCIout

where CCIin is the number of coupling and cohesion interaction input within
modules, and CCIout is the number of coupling and cohesion interaction output
between the distinct modules.
Software Quality Optimization of Coupling and Cohesion … 13

5.2 Proposed Coupling Measurement for Classes of Direct

and Indirect Interaction

Component-based software system for the development mainly used cohesion

and coupling. In this method, two-component are coupled if and only if at least
one of them acts upon others. For the development of coupling, metrics used a
Graph (G) because it contains node and edges. In this, directed graph represented
5 nodes like an A, B, C, D, E and each is a node connected with other nodes with
the use of edge interface interaction. Five parameters are mainly used for the node
and edges connectivity of a graph. A starting point, Endpoint, Regular parameter,
Neutral parameter, Crucial parameter for measuring coupling metrics.
• Complexity of Coupling and Cohesion measurement using the Average
Component
– Average Component In-Parameter (ACIP)—The complexity measurement
of Coupling and Cohesion mainly used the concept of Average component of
Input Parameter which is used to measure the inside available components.


M
CIPi
ACIP = (2)
i=0
m

– Component In-Parameter—CIPi has taken into 8 parallel input to measure the

complexity of the component from the coupling and cohesion. In the summa-
tion of component maximum value will mention ‘n’ term and minimum value
represent i = 0.

0.10 ≤ X i ≤ 30
n
(Input parameter )
CIPi = (3)
Value
i=0
0(No parameter)

– Average Component Out-Parameter (ACOP)—For the complexity measure-

ment of Coupling and Cohesion mainly used the concept of Average compo-
nent of Output Parameter which is used to measure the interaction of outside
available component.


M
COPi
ACOP = (4)
i=0
m

– Component Out-Parameter—COPi has taken into eight parallel interaction

output measure the complexity of component from the coupling and cohesion.
In the summation of component maximum value will mention ‘n’ term and
minimum value represent i = 0.
14 M. Iyyappan and A. Kumar

Table 4 Calculate the component value and comparison of complexity level

Interface COPi ACOP CIPi ACIP AIOBC
I1 1.6 12.4 0.20 1.5 13.9
I2 0.8 0.10
I3 2.4 0.30
I4 1.2 0.20
I5 1.5 0.20
I6 1.4 0.10
I7 1.5 0.10
I8 2.0 0.30


n
COPi = (ORi ∗ Wr ) + (ONi ∗ Wn ) + (OCi ∗ Wc ) (5)
i=0

5.3 Comparison of In and Out Parameter

In this comparison, the table result is observed from the experimental study which
contains the real data set value for measuring the complexity of component from
coupling and cohesion. From the experimental study taken a proposed value of 8
different developed components which is used for the interaction among the coupling
and cohesion, refer Table 4.

5.4 Average of In-Parameter and Out-Parameter of Both

Component

To measure the complexity of coupling metrics component and cohesion metric

component used the terminology of average calculation of inside parameter and
outside parameter. To measure an interface complexity of component based system
using the AIOBC. AIOBC add both components of inside parameter and outside
parameter for the average calculation of component complexity, refer Table 4.

AIOBC = ACIP + ACOP, AIOBC = 12.4 + 1.5 = 13.9 (6)

From the below results in it can be concluded that the components having the
high values of cohesion and low coupling associated with their proposed algorithm
of Hexa-oval, interface density module, the Component parameter of inside, outside
and average calculation of optimum components selection framework.
Software Quality Optimization of Coupling and Cohesion … 15

5.5 Client System Integration and Testing

Assets Management of Warehouse Artifacts—Select the suitable component from

the warehouse repository of the commercial off-the-shelf, then adapt to the developer
system and verify the various quality factor. In this factor, we observed various func-
tionality of the system component and its specific characteristics. The Complexity
also measured in the phase of the system, then moved to the next phase of System
Integration and System Testing to assemble the component into the system then
verify the process.

5.6 Maintenance and Software Upgradation

In this phase regular monitoring the software and system behaviour how it’s
responding to every module of the source-code programming. The Client feedback
is a necessary consideration of the system maintenance on the CBSE process. If
existing software applications are not up to the business market standard, so the
developer tries to replace the new component based on software reusability.
In Fig. 3 complexity measurement of Component Low Cohesion and Component
High Cohesion result are compared and observed the result from MATLAB software.

Fig. 3 Complexity measurement of CLC & CHC

16 M. Iyyappan and A. Kumar

Fig. 4 Comparison of various metric parameter for complexity

For observing the cohesion metric measurement uses the correlation coefficient value
with the real data set package of the component software. The lower value consists of
less cohesiveness among the one software module to another programming module
but if it is preferred to choose the higher value of interaction provide improved
performance of high cohesiveness among the two different software packages. Here
blue bar diagram mentioning about low and yellow bar chart representing higher
relations. In Fig. 4 comparisons among the various metric parameters to analyse the
complexity of the software component. This reduced level of complexity improves
the efficiency and reliable performance of the system. The existing metrics like a
PCoh, LCOM, LCOM1, ICH and SCC are compared with the proposed cohesion
measurement of CLC and CHC provide the better result with the positive observation
from the complexity measurement of the software package.
In Fig. 5 examination result is seen from the MATLAB Optimization and Simulink
programming are utilized to watch the exhibition and think about the product quality
for the open-source part. In this procedure interface segments are required for the
bundle estimation of source code which is accessible for the created segment and
creating segment. This interface part is utilized to watch the unpredictability among
the useful modules for programming upkeep and framework usage. So advanced
metric estimation of coupling and cohesion worth is utilized for interface among the
two distinct parts.
Software Quality Optimization of Coupling and Cohesion … 17

Fig. 5 Comparison of complexity level between interface component

6 Conclusion

The product quality paper totally talks about the different parameters and quality
variables. The product attributes and submodule qualities are utilized to quantify
the measurement estimation of the quality characteristic. Besides, the procedure is
isolated about the standard quality estimations utilizing framework usefulness and
programming execution for the in-house part improvement. At that point select the
reasonable segment from the COTS bundle, adjust the segment into the product
framework. At that point, the following procedure is to examine the variables of
programming quality with various standard functionalities. The metric estimation
assumes a significant job in the part based programming improvement to make an
interface between coupling and union, intricacy estimation of inside and outside
parameter. This paper watched near aftereffect of attachment estimation between the
elevated level bundle and low-level bundle, at that point demonstrated the cyclo-
matic multifaceted nature result for the coupling connection of low-level interface.
In this, connection of useful and non-useful factor are watched for the better nature
of programming and its dependability. Here recommended ensuring the best possible
starting arranging, gathering the best possible prerequisite, source code plan and ideal
usage with the assistance of testing improved the product quality for segment-based
programming advancement.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
of trouble as the things they had not. The American troops had to be
gently separated from huge kits of unnecessary articles at the same
time as they were provided with necessities.
Judging from the mountainous kits of the American soldiers as they
arrived it was thought that each man carried a roll-top desk, a
typewriter, and a dictagraph in his roll. It was found impossible for
the men to march with their kits, though they were splendid physical
types and full of keenness. I saw one Division disentrain at a station
on Lines of Communication and begin a march to its camp, a
distance of about ten miles. Before half the distance had been
covered a great proportion of the men had had to give up their kits
to be stored by the road side.
One American camp was formed at Samer near Montreuil; and the
town's name was pronounced near enough to "Sammie" to make it
easy to persuade some of the soldiers that it had been named in
their honour.
The Americans at first had a natural love for their own methods and
their own wonderful kit; but they were very soon convinced of what
were the practical needs of the campaign and came in time to a
whole-hearted admiration of British methods, which was perhaps the
finest testimonial that G.H.Q. could have had. These Americans
coming from a great business country confessed quite frankly that
the "effete" Britisher had "got them all beat" on questions of supply
and transport; and they took over our system in almost every detail.
Perhaps some of the points that arose will be of interest. The great
underclothing controversy was one of the most amusing. The British
Army had evolved a very practical system of keeping the troops in
clean underclothing without adding to the weight of their kits. A
soldier went up to the trenches or to his unit wearing a clean suit of
underclothes. On the first opportunity, usually within a week, the
soldier went back (on relief if he were an infantry man, on roster if
he were a special unit man) to the Baths which were set up in every
Divisional area. Here he stripped for a hot bath, and whilst he was in
the bath his uniform was cleaned, deprived of any insect population,
and pressed, and his underclothing was taken away to the laundry.
He never saw that underclothing again but drew a new suit, or a
clean suit, as he went out of the baths; and so he marched off
spruce and smart. The suit of underclothing he had left behind was
thoroughly disinfected, washed, repaired if necessary, and went then
into the general stock to be issued again.
At first the Americans could not see that such a system would work.
Their idea was for every man to carry three suits of underclothing,
one on his body two in his kit. Presumably he was expected to
change in the midst of the ghastly mud of a Flanders trench. Also
presumably he was expected to carry about his dirty suits with him,
which showed a curious degree of trust in human nature. It was
objected to the British system that "all men were not the same size,"
and in response it was pointed out that neither were all the suits of
underclothing kept in stock at Divisional Baths, but that with a fair
attention to the law of averages and a reasonable surplus allowance
no thin man had to go away with a fat man's suit and no tall man
with a short man's. The British system was finally adopted and won
full American approval.
Boots caused another difficulty. The British issue was one pair per
man; the American, two, the spare pair being carried in the kit. The
Americans finally agreed that if they could get for their men boots of
British quality (which was conspicuously better than the American
quality) the one pair issue would suffice.
It would be impossible to praise too highly the common-sense and
civility of the American liaison officers who had to argue out these
points with our officers. They were never unreasonable, and were
very prompt in crediting our officers with politeness and good-will.
That Americans and British can get on very well together this
campaign has proved. I think that in every case where an American
and a British Division were thrown together they parted company
with a marked increase of mutual good-will and respect.
Optimism was the prevailing fault in the American organisation. They
thought that the fighting was a much simpler matter than it actually
proved to be. They thought a man could and would carry an unduly
heavy pack. They were very optimistic in the matter of
accoutrements and were anxious to use their own accoutrements
when they had a barely sufficient supply for the strength of a unit,
and no reserve. They were ultimately convinced that accoutrements
in warfare have a way of disappearing, and without a strong reserve
no item of accoutrement can be kept up. When there was no reserve
of some item, British accoutrements were substituted. It is a
testimony to the quality of British equipment that the American
troops showed a desire to be provided with British articles in
substitution for their own, even when the change was not necessary.
British puttees and British breeches were cases in point.
The American troops got British rations, except that coffee took the
place of tea. One coffee-grinder per 250 men was provided. Perhaps
civilian England was puzzled over the fact that in 1918 it was
impossible to buy a coffee-grinder in this country. Now they know
why. They had all been bought up for the American troops. In all
things G.H.Q. did its very best for the Americans. They had a fancy
for an increased scale of Machine-Guns; the Machine-Guns were
found for them, though they were a precious and scarce commodity
at the time and we could not give our own Divisions the increased
scale. To provide horse transport for the Americans we stripped our
Field Artillery of two horses out of every ammunition team of six.
The general principle was that if the Americans wanted anything it
had to be found somehow and found in a hurry. Probably we won an
undeserved reputation for slickness in some matters (such as
printing Army publications), for it was the established rule to give
American orders priority.
American liaison officers at G.H.Q. "made good" with the British Staff
very quickly. They had a downright earnestness of manner which
was very engaging. The American Staff seemed to have been chosen
strictly for efficiency reasons and, there being no obstacles of
established custom to overcome, the best men got to the top very
quickly. The appointment of Mr. Frederick Palmer, the famous war
correspondent, to a high post on General Pershing's Intelligence
Staff was an example of their way of doing things. Colonel Palmer as
war correspondent had seen much of this and of many other wars.
For his particular post he was an ideal man. But it would be difficult
to imagine him stepping at once into so high a position in a
European Army.
American rank marks were puzzling to British officers at first. An
American liaison officer obliged me with a mnemonic aid to their
understanding.
"You just reckon that you are out to rob a hen-roost. Right. You
climb up one bar; that's a lieutenant. You climb up two bars: that's a
captain. When you get up to the chickens, that's the colonel" (the
colonel's badge was an eagle on the shoulder-straps). "Above the
chicken there's the stars" (a star was the badge of a general).
To the same officer I was indebted for a flattering summing up of
British character.
"I don't say you British people are over-polite. But you are reliable.
Go into a pow-wow and a British officer may strike you as a bit surly.
But if he says he'll do a thing you can reckon that thing done and no
need to worry. Some other people are very polite; and they say
awfully nicely that they'll do anything and everything you ask; and
six months after you find nothing has been done."

The Americans, when they got into action, first as auxiliaries of

British and French Divisions, then in their own Army organisation,
were fine fighters. Their splendid physique made them very deadly
in a close tussle, and they had a business-like efficiency in battle
that did not appeal to the Boche. A favourite American weapon at
close quarters was a shot gun sawn off short at the barrel. It was of
fearful effect. The enemy had the sublime impudence to protest
against this weapon as "contrary to the usages of civilised warfare."
This was cool indeed from the folk who made us familiar with the
murder of civil hostages, the use of civilians as fire-screens, and the
employment of poison-gas as methods of warfare. The Americans
answered the impudent protest with peremptory firmness, and kept
the shot gun in use.
It was stated, too, and generally credited, though this matter did not
come within my personal observation, that the American Divisions in
their sector set up and maintained a law in regard to Machine-Gun
fire. They did not consider it fair war that a machine-gunner in an
entrenched position should keep on firing to the very last moment
and then expect to be allowed to surrender peaceably.
The Americans played the game, but they did not play it on "soft"
lines, and the enemy soon got a very wholesome respect for them.
There was, in the early stages of the American participation, an
evident attempt on the part of the German Intelligence to encourage
an "atrocity" campaign against the Americans. German atrocities had
a way of casting their shadows before. A usual method was to
accuse Germany's foes in advance of doing what the Germans
proposed to undertake themselves. That was the way in which
Germany ushered in her lawless use of prisoners of war in the firing
line, and her enslavement of the civil population of occupied Belgium
and France. When the German Press engaged in "propaganda" work
on the subject of the American forces coming into action, it took the
line of representing the Americans as altogether despicable and
murderous adventurers, who had come into the war to kill Germans
without any reason whatsoever and when taken prisoners wondered
"that they were not shot on the spot, as the French had told them
they would be." As one German paper put it: "To the question why
America carries on the war against Germany they knew no answer.
One can feel for our soldiers who become enraged against this alien
hand which fights against us for no reason. Our men believe the
French fight for glory and to wipe out the stain of 1870, that Britain
struggles for mastery on the sea and to prove which of the two
giants is the stronger. But the American! Our field-greys despise him
and do not recognise him as a worthy opponent, even though he
may fight bravely."
But that sort of talk was soon dropped—as was the suggestion that
American prisoners should get "special treatment" when captured. It
was rather amusing to watch from our Intelligence side the
manœuvres of the well-drilled German Press on the subject of the
Americans. Early in 1918 there was a general disposition in the
German papers to write of the Americans as tomahawkers and
"scalpers" and so on. Then we learned from our tapping of German
field reports that officers commanding German units complained that
this sort of propaganda was having such a bad effect on their men,
that they "got the wind up" as soon as they knew that Americans
were in front of them. As a result a great silence suddenly fell upon
the German papers on this point.
After the Americans had formed their own Army system we did not
hear so much of them at Montreuil. But they were naturally always
in close touch with G.H.Q., and to the very end the British
Administrative services were able to give a helping hand to the
American allies.

The Portuguese contingent remained with the British Army to the

end, and it did very well, as might have been expected; for as a race
the Portuguese have a proud record of heroism and knightly
adventure. In the Indies, the South Pacific, and the Americas,
Portuguese valour has left imperishable monuments. The British
Empire in particular owes much to such great sea captains as the
Portuguese Vasco di Gama (who discovered the sea route to India),
Torres (who discovered and named Australia), Magellan, Quiros, and
Menezes.
We heard much amusing gossip at G.H.Q. from the soldiers at the
Front, who, after a critical weighing of the facts, arrived at the
conclusion that the Portuguese were "good sports." That conclusion
was not come to all at once. The British soldier is very conservative,
and he was inclined to be, for some reason or other, critical of his
new allies at first. In time "Tommy" forgave the Portuguese for
having names "that sounded like blooming prayers," which was one
of his early reasons for doubt. Here is one incident that helped to
determine a favourable verdict:
A forward post held by the Portuguese was subjected to a furious
bombardment late one afternoon by the Germans. After a while a
polite note came down from the Portuguese officer in charge of the
sector informing the British Commander that: "The enemy are
heavily bombarding our position. Accordingly we have evacuated it."
There was some inclination to criticise; it was not the withdrawal;
the best soldiers on earth have to withdraw sometimes. But the
polite little note with its "accordingly" suggested what it was not
intended to suggest, and what was not the fact at all. However,
plans were at once put in hand for artillery action, preparatory to
restoring the position next morning. But some time after nightfall
those plans were put aside on receipt of another polite little note:
"The enemy has ceased bombarding our position. Accordingly we
have re-occupied it."
When the full facts of the incident came out there was a cheer for
the Portuguese. It seems that the officer in charge was a bit of a
tactician and knew his men well. The post he had to hold was very
advanced and poorly fortified. When the enemy began to flood it
with shells he withdrew his garrison to a safe spot that he had
selected, and waited until nightfall. Then, without any artillery
preparation, he led his men forward and, with the bayonet and those
deadly little daggers that the Portuguese soldiers carried, restored
the position.
An earlier incident of the Portuguese co-operation was humorous in
another way. "Tommy" had, of course, found a name for the new
arrivals, a name which was more humorous than respectful. Like all
Tommy's word-coinages it was a good one and spread into common
use. High Authority, fearful that offence would be given, issued an
order, a very portentous order, which noticed with reprobation "the
habit which had grown up" of referring to "our noble allies" as "the
—— ——." The Order concluded with the usual warning of
disciplinary action. It was to be circulated secretly by word of mouth
from officer to officer, but some unfortunate adjutant circulated it in
battalion orders so that all could read—including the Portuguese.
 CHAPTER XVII.
THE GERMAN SPRING OF 1918.

Was G.H.Q. at fault?—Where we could best afford to lose

ground—Refugees complicate the situation—Stark
resolution of the French—All the Pas-de-Calais to be
wrecked if necessary—How our railways broke down—
Amiens does not fall.

To affirm that a great German attack was expected in the Spring of

1918, and that the site of the attack was not altogether unexpected,
seems to imply a very serious criticism of G.H.Q. That being so, why
did the Germans succeed in breaking through and winning such an
extent of territory and coming within a narrow margin of gaining a
decisive advantage?
The question is natural, especially as one soldier in high command
has stated—or is reported to have stated—that he knew exactly the
spot where the Germans were going to attack. Some day there will
be an exhaustive inquiry into all the circumstances of the Spring of
1918. Probably as a result it will be found that no serious blame can
be attached in any quarter, but that what happened was the result of
a series of events which were mostly unavoidable.
For the first time Germany could concentrate her whole strength on
this Front. Yet our strength was at the lowest point it had reached
for many months and, since we had just taken over a new sector of
the line, our defence was thinner on the average than it had ever
been since 1915. Further, we were definitely short of some essential
defence material. If we had strengthened the sector where the chief
attack came we should have had to weaken another sector. Then the
Germans would have attacked that sector. They chose, and chose
naturally, the point where our line was thinnest. If it can be shown
that the sector where our line was thinnest was the sector in which
we could best afford to lose ground, it will have to be admitted that,
in the main, G.H.Q. had made the best dispositions possible with the
means at hand.
A glance at the map of France will show that pretty clearly. Put in a
phrase, the German plan was to push the British Army into the sea.
In the north our line was dangerously close to the sea. Our most
northern port, Dunkirk, was actually under shell-fire and in
consequence could be very little used. A very small gain of territory
by the Germans in the north would have brought Calais and
Boulogne under shell-fire. Then our existence as an Army north of
the Somme would have become impossible. We could not have kept
an adequate force there in supplies. In the north every yard of
territory was of the greatest strategic value. As our line ran south
the French coast bulged out. We had more room to manœuvre
there; loss of ground was not so vital. If the Germans had won on
the line Ypres-Armentières the same depth of territory that they won
on the line Arras-Péronne, we should have had to evacuate all
France north of the Somme.
In short we took the biggest risk of loss of ground where the loss
was least dangerous to the vital plan of the campaign. In the light of
the man-power available it was probably the best course that could
have been pursued. We knew we had to lose ground, probably a
good deal of ground, and decided to lose it where it mattered least.
We had very good ideas as to where.
For proof of this look up the representations as to civilian
evacuations which were made by G.H.Q. to the French authorities in
February, 1918. Those representations, by the way, were not given
any attention at all in some cases; at the best only perfunctory
attention. The result was that when the German attack came, civilian
refugees added to our difficulties and anxieties. If the prompt and
complete evacuation of all civilian refugees from threatened areas
and from areas close behind the front line, which were urgently
needed for the accommodation of troops, could have been effected,
the Army's tasks would have been much simplified. But that proved
impracticable. Civilians were generally unwilling to abandon their
homes voluntarily. The French authorities were reluctant to enforce
evacuation. A civilian quitting his home voluntarily was responsible
for his own keep. A civilian forced to quit became a charge on the
French Civil Authorities. This naturally led to a wish that civilians as
far as possible should be compelled to quit their homes by force of
circumstances rather than by order of the authorities.
As far back as February, 1918, pressure was brought to bear on the
French Authorities to agree to defined measures to meet the
emergency of a withdrawal of part of our line, which was then
foreseen as a probability. But it was not found possible to secure
prompt assent to the steps which were necessary. There were all
sorts of complications. For one thing it was feared that to set up the
machinery of evacuation would spread dismay among the French
civilians. Another obstacle was the financial one which I have already
mentioned. Yet another was that created by the status of the miners
in threatened areas. These were mobilised men under French
Military Command; their wives and children were civilians. If their
wives and children were evacuated the miners would not stay.
Later, arrangements were agreed to between the British Force and
the French Authorities for the systematic evacuation, with their live
stock and supplies, of civilians in threatened areas. But the early
difficulties considerably hampered operations. I mention this not at
all by way of a tilt against the French Authorities, whose reluctance
to make provision for evacuations was natural enough, but to show
that G.H.Q. was not "caught napping," and to illustrate also the
difficulties which an Expeditionary Force operating in a friendly
country has to meet.
There are, of course, many advantages springing from the fact that
the country in which you are quartered is friendly. But I am not sure
that the disadvantages are not almost as great. In an enemy country
you know at any rate where you are; military safety, military
convenience are the supreme law; and the civilian population have
only to be considered to the degree that the laws of war and the
dictates of humanity decide. In a friendly country, where the old civil
government remains in operation, an Army is hampered at many
points. There are various actions which military convenience prompts
but which cannot be taken without the assent of the civilian
authorities; and perhaps cannot be urged with the weight of the full
facts on those civil authorities. This evacuation difficulty is an
instance in point. If G.H.Q. had had its way the Germans would have
won far less material in their advance; and perhaps their advance
would have been stopped at an earlier stage if our operations had
not been hampered to some extent by the crowding of the road with
civilian refugees.
Still, on the big issues the French were splendid. What, for example,
could have been more heroic than the decision they came to a little
later: that, in case of the German advance continuing, the whole of
the Pas de Calais province was to be destroyed, the harbours of
Dunkirk, Calais and Boulogne wrecked, the dykes and locks
destroyed so that the country would have been generally inundated?
To some degree defensive inundations were actually carried into
effect, but with fresh water only. The responsibility in the main
rested with the British Army which was holding the threatened
territory. The only saving stipulation made by the French, who thus
offered in the cause of the alliance to give up for half a century the
use of one of their fairest provinces, was that before the sea was let
in to devastate the land, Marshal Foch should give the word. It was
on April 12th, 1918, that the Allied Commander-in-Chief gave orders
for defensive inundations to stop the Germans from getting to the
Dunkirk-Calais region; and on April 13th the Governor of Dunkirk
began to put these into effect. There were two schemes of
inundation, one for a modified flooding with fresh water of certain
limited areas; the other for a general flooding, with sea-water as
well as fresh water, of all low-lying areas around Calais and Dunkirk.
It is impossible to praise adequately the stark courage that agreed to
this step. It was courage after the antique model, and it showed that
France was willing to make any sacrifice rather than allow the wave
of German barbarism to sweep over civilisation. The effect of letting
the sea in on Pas de Calais and destroying the canal locks and the
harbours would have been to make this great province a desert for
two generations. The effect of allowing it to fall into German hands,
with all its canal and harbour facilities, would have been to give new
life to the submarine war, to make the bombardment and ultimately
the invasion of the English coast possible.
At one time it seemed almost certain that an evacuation of at least
part of Pas de Calais would have to be carried out; and
arrangements were made in detail: that in any area which was
evacuated, either deliberately or in consequence of direct enemy
pressure, the most thorough destruction should be carried out to
deny to the enemy any stores of material or facilities of transport.
The method of every destruction and the unit responsible for it were
arranged in advance.
The main lines of a policy of destruction were laid down in the event
of:—

1. A withdrawal to the Calais—St. Omer defensive line;

2. A withdrawal to the line of the Somme;
3. An enemy advance along the line of the Somme,
cutting off Flanders and Pas de Calais from the South.

Provision was made for the using up or removal of all possible

stores; for the destruction of the remainder; for the destruction of all
railroads, water-ways, signalling systems, factories, etc. Where
British and French troops were operating together in a fighting zone,
their respective responsibilities were delimited. Arrangements were
also made, in case of withdrawal, to clear from certain water-ways
all canal craft which might serve the enemy as bridge material over
inundations.
Certainly it was not "gay," as the French say, this preparation for
destroying the property of an Ally. But we took comfort from the fact
that after all the position was better than in 1914. Then a German
victory seemed possible. Now in 1918 the only question was what
sacrifices we should yet have to make before achieving victory. In
1914, after 50 years of intensive preparation, the German had
rushed upon an unsuspecting Europe. He neglected nothing in
preparing for victory. He threw overboard every scruple in order to
secure a rapid triumph, violating the neutrality of Belgium and
Luxemburg merely because by so doing he gained a better field of
deployment. His objective was Paris, and, according to authoritative
accounts, his plan on reaching Paris was to divide it up into twelve
quarters and burn down a quarter every day that the French Army
delayed to surrender. The terms of surrender were to include the
giving up of the French Fleet and the French ports for use in an
invasion of England.
The danger at that time was very real. Germany was the only
country adequately armed and organised. The British people had
had to sacrifice in great measure the Regular Army to stay the first
German onset. France was strained to a point which to any other
country would have meant exhaustion. We could recall the
preparations that had to be made to meet the imminent fear of an
invasion of the British coast; the desperate shifts and expedients
which had to be adopted in the first stages of the organisation of the
New Armies; the peremptory demands for guns and shells when
there were no factories to make either in anything like the quantity
demanded. That was a time when it needed the highest of moral
courage to remain calm and confident.
The Spring of 1918 is not a pleasant thing to think about; but it is
hardly endurable, even now in safe retrospection, to think on the
position of Great Britain at home or in the field from October, 1914,
to September, 1915. It was that of an unsuspecting man before
whose feet suddenly a pit of destruction opens. He falls scrambling,
struggling down, and at last reaches a little ledge which gives a
momentary safety. But it is still a desperate task merely to hang on.
Far up, remote almost as a star, shines safety. Below are his friends
of civilised Europe, all worse situated than himself, some at the point
of complete destruction. From above a fierce storm of missiles rains
on his head. From below come piteous appeals for help. To hold on
to his little ledge, to help the friends below, to climb up and throttle
the foe above—he has all these to do and little time to think before
he acts. Hardly endurable, yet necessary to think over, so that the
greatness of the danger into which the world was plunged by
German militarism can be gauged.
In 1914 an occupation of the French Channel Ports with England
almost entirely unarmed might have been a very serious thing. The
serious view taken of it in Great Britain can be judged from the
preparations which were made to devastate a great area in the
South and East of England so as to give to the Germans only a
desert as a foothold. In 1918 if the Germans had got Pas de Calais
they would not have got any ports with it, and an invading force
arriving in England would have met a force at least equal to it in
equipment and war experience.
So we waited in some confidence for another Marne to follow
another Mons, and smiled a little grimly at the change of tone in
Germany. The Kaiser, cock-a-whoop again, was declaring now for a
"strong German Peace." In one office, side by side with the
"situation map" which showed from day to day the depth of the
German advance, there were stuck up in derision extracts from the
most vituperative of the German press. Here is one from the
Deutsche Zeitung:

"Away with all petty whining over an agreement and

reconciliation with the fetish of peace.... Away with the
miserable whimpering of those people who even now
would prevent the righteous German hatred of England
and sound German vengeance. The cry of victory and
 retaliation rages throughout Germany with renewed
passion."

This from Germania:

"There can be no lasting peace and no long period of

quiet in the world until the presumptuous notion that
the Anglo-Saxons are the chosen people is victorious
or defeated. We are determined to force with the
sword the peace which our adversaries did not see fit
to confide to our honest word. We Germans are an
incomparably strong nation."

These horrible threats remained on the notice-board until long after

the tide of battle turned and the German was in full retreat back to
his lair.
And we rather liked the story which the German press had to the
effect that a deputation of German business men had put before
Hindenburg in February the gloomy prospects of the country's food
supplies, concluding: "In May, Germany will be almost without food."
Hindenburg thereupon replied: "My reply is that I shall be in Paris on
April 1st."
The date chosen seemed so appropriate!
Still, it would be foolish to say that we had no anxieties. Some of our
stoutest fellows were up at "advanced G.H.Q.," a temporary H.Q.
near Amiens, from which most of the really exciting work was done.
At Montreuil we had not the exhilarating feeling of being within the
sound of the guns, but had to face perhaps the hardest of the toil. It
was rare for an officer in some branches to leave his room before
midnight, and the usual hour for starting work was 8.30 a.m. Meals
ceased for a time to be convivial affairs. One rushed to the table,
ate, and rushed back to work.
The work was so overwhelming because of a combination of
circumstances. The character of the War had changed from
stationary to moving over almost all the British Front, calling for a
return to the mobile system of supply and for new classes of
material. British reinforcements were arriving from other Fronts,
sometimes without their full supply train and without the full
equipment for our Front, and not familiar with its system of working.
There were large movements of French troops into British Areas, and
in some cases these French troops relied upon British sources for
some of their supplies and transport, and in all cases their line of
supply had to be dove-tailed in with ours. American troops were
moved into British Areas and relied upon British sources for many
items of equipment, transport and supplies. British Administration
was thus being called upon for supplies to British, French, American
and Portuguese troops, at the same time as our lines of supply had
to be re-organised and co-ordinated with the new French lines of
supply. Further difficulties were created by the necessary frequent
changes of railheads and the great movements on the roads of
civilian refugees. Territory threatened by the enemy had to be
evacuated as far as possible of civilians, and of civilian goods and
stock likely to be of use to the enemy in case of capture.
The extent of this accumulated difficulty from a transport point of
view can be gauged from the fact that a British Army needs on a day
of intense fighting 1,934 tons of supplies of all kinds per mile of
front.

The railways came as nearly as possible to a complete breakdown

under the strain. After the first Battle of the Somme, our military
railway system in France was thoroughly reorganised by civilian
experts. It was a reorganisation which followed, I believe, the best
models of the great railway companies of England, and it coped with
the very heavy traffic during the period of fixed or Trench War quite
well. Unfortunately it was not a system adapted for moving warfare.
A civilian railway expert would doubtless find many reasons for
amused criticism in a military railway system in the running. It would
appear to be rather haphazard, to be run a good deal on the
principle of a train getting there if it could, and to be very faulty in
the matter of time-tables and so on. Well, the German advance in its
brutal practical way simply riddled with holes that admirable railway
reorganisation which the civilian experts had conferred on the B.E.F.,
France.
Perhaps it was only to have been expected. Trench War in its railway
requirements was deceptively like peace. You had your railway
termini, and the requirements of a Division were fairly stable. You
ran so many trains a day and, except for an occasional rush on some
sector when fighting warmed up suddenly, there were no problems
that differed greatly from those say of the London, Brighton and
South Coast Railway.
In moving war it is different. Then a railway system must be elastic
enough to stand such a series of shocks as would be conveyed to
the L.B. and S.C. manager if at 9 p.m. he were told: "It is Bank
Holiday to-morrow. Provide for carrying 100,000 extra passengers,
about 10,000 horses and 4,000 carriages." Then at 10 p.m. he
learned: "You can't shunt any trains at Lewes; and you can only run
trains through with luck. It is under heavy shell-fire." Then every
half-hour subsequently he got a new order, diverting traffic from one
point to another, changing the destinations of his trains and so on.
The transport situation for the moment was saved by the Motor
Transport. But the Commander-in-Chief had to act promptly and set
up a "jury-mast" arrangement for railway control to tide over the
crisis. In effect he took the supreme control of the railways out of
the hands of the Transportation Directorate and put it under a
"Board of Directors" meeting daily, at which the Q.M.G. presided. A
later development made the Chief of General Staff Chairman of this
Board. Then, when things settled down, the system that had been
set up by the civilian experts was largely scrapped. Military Railways
were again put under the control of the Quartermaster-General. The
"stupid soldiery" did rather well with them, not only in the period of
pause that came between the German advance and our great
counter-attack, but in the gigantic task of following up our advance.
The task of pulling together the railways was not an easy one. The
enemy advance had caused a direct loss of some light railway
systems, and on the broad-gauge systems important engine depôts
were lost, and our front lateral line was brought at several points
under the fire of the enemy's artillery. Use of this front lateral line
had thus become precarious. The results of this were felt in every
part of the railway system. Good circulation is the essence of railway
working; and a block at any point has an effect similar to that of an
aneurism on a human artery. Because of the loss of engine depôts,
and the hindrances to circulation on the front lateral line, the back
lateral line along the coast became seriously congested. This
congestion reduced the capacity of every engine by an average of 15
per cent.
Further, our rear lateral line had two particularly vulnerable points,
one at Etaples, where it crossed the Canche, and the other at
Abbéville, where it crossed the Somme. Upon these points enemy
aircraft made frequent attacks, imposing delays, occasionally causing
minor destruction, always adding to the effects of the existing
congestion. An excellent piece of work reduced very considerably the
effect of one successful enemy air-raid. Half an hour after midnight,
one night in May, the Canche railway-bridge at Etaples was
damaged. At once an avoiding line—constructed for such an
emergency—was put into operation, and trains were running
through at 2 a.m.
On one of the worst nights of the German advance, when we went
up to the situation-map without any enthusiasm, half afraid of what
we should see, young Captain Hannibal Napoleon deepened our
gloom by declaring oracularly:
"If we hold on to Amiens we shall be all right. If Amiens falls to the
Germans it is goodbye to Montreuil, and no more Paris leave for a
few years."
Hannibal Napoleon (that, of course, was not his name) was very
junior and very confident of his strategical genius. It was a favourite
amusement to "pull his leg" and draw from him an "appreciation" of
the situation, which he was always willing to give with the authority
of a Commander-in-Chief.
This oracle was displeasing, because on the appearance of things
that night we had not an earthly chance of holding Amiens. But the
unexpected happened. Not very many hours afterwards the news
came through that a successful stand was being made in front of
Amiens; and young Hannibal Napoleon was able to crow like a Gallic
cock over his profound strategical judgment.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
THE MOTOR LORRY THAT WAITED.

How a motor lorry waited at the Ecole Militaire to take away

the maps to the Coast—The Motor Lorry Reserve—An
"appreciation" of the position—Germany lost the War in the
first three months—Some notes of German blunders.

One night in the Spring of 1918 a mysterious motor lorry drew up in

the yard of the Ecole Militaire at Montreuil. Its driver reported and
was ordered to stand by. He stood by all that night; and in the
morning was relieved by another driver. But the empty lorry still
waited. At night a relief driver came on duty. But the empty lorry still
waited.
 THE ÉCOLE MILITAIRE

Lorries in those days were precious. Because the German had seized
many of our light railways, had put under his shell-fire our main
front lateral line and had brought our whole railway system to a
point perilously close to collapse, the fate of the British Army was to
a great extent dependent on its motor lorries. By an intuitional
stroke of genius, or of luck, the new Quartermaster-General had just
brought to completion one of his "gyms"—the building up of a
G.H.Q. reserve of motor lorries. There had been all kinds of
explanations of that reserve—mostly of the humorous-malicious
order. It had been said that they were intended to carry about the
baggage of the G.H.Q. Generals; that the reserve had no other
reason for being than to find a soft job for some potentate near to
the golf links of the coast. But whether it was just a guess or a bit of
far-seeing on the part of Sir Travers Clarke, that G.H.Q. Motor Lorry
Reserve had been built up; and it was available to rush into the
breach when the railways could not face the task of supply.
Very nobly the Motor Transport—including that reserve—did its duty.
There were drivers who held the wheel for thirty-six hours at a
stretch, and were lifted from their seats fainting or asleep; a few—
who carried on until no longer able to see through their bloodshot
and torturing eyes—ran their cars into trees or walls or ditches.
There were many casualties, but the situation was saved.
It was just at this time, when a motor lorry was above rubies in
value, that an entirely healthy, well-preserved example, with driver
attached, was ordered to remain in the yard of the Ecole Militaire.
Everyone wanted to know the reason why. The position was then at
its very worst, so the humourist who surmised that it was "waiting
for the wine orders of the —— Mess," for once found his jape fall
flat. The truth was for a long time known only to a select few. That
motor lorry was told off to carry away the maps and important
papers from Montreuil to the coast, since the evacuation of the town
and of all France north of the Somme was possible at an hour's
notice.
So critical was the position for some days that that motor lorry was
never off duty night or day.
But G.H.Q. went about its work unperturbed to all outward seeming,
and there was not a whisper of losing the war, not even from those
who knew what would be the full consequences of evacuating Pas
de Calais. One officer—he would not like his name to be published
even now—spoke with the most frank recognition of facts and yet
with a robust confidence that was distinctly comforting:
"If we go behind the Somme it will give the Germans the Coast from
the Canche right up to the Scheldt for their submarines. That is the
most serious factor. We won't leave them much in the way of
harbour works, of course; but still they will be able in a year or two
to restore things a bit."
"In a year or two? But will it last...?"
"Oh yes, you can give the war another ten years at least in that
event. For there won't be any American Army to speak of; no port to
land them or supply them from. Our British Army will have to come
down in strength for the same reason. You can't keep a bigger army
anywhere than you can keep supplied with food and shells. Look at
the ports and the railways. There will be Havre, Brest, Cherbourg,
Bordeaux as ports of supply and the railways from them as the
channels of supply to the front line. No good talking of millions of
Americans pouring in. They can't pour. Funnel's too narrow."
But there wasn't in that officer's mind a hint of the possibility of
failure.
"It's only a question of organising to get at them. In time weight
must tell. The Germans and their friends are, say, 140,000,000 in
population. The allies who are in the war against them have
600,000,000 of population and another 400,000,000 of reserve
population if Japan came in fully, and China, and Brazil. I count
Russia on neither side, but she is still a liability more than an asset
to the Germans. In money and resources the odds against them are
even greater. I like to go back to the simple basis of arithmetic
sometimes. Of course weight doesn't tell against skill. But now the
skill is about even. The Germans had their one and only chance at
the beginning, the very beginning, of the war; because they were
ready and no one else was. They had to win by Christmas, 1914, or
not to win at all."
He went on to sketch vividly the story of the war up to that date, the
very nadir of our depression. He argued that the enemy had
obviously committed some tremendous blunders. The Prussian
military leaders had been very clever in securing spectacular
victories (generally after a preliminary corruption of some weak
section of their opponents) and thus the military position was not
easy to see in its true proportion. But even a surface consideration
must show that whilst Germany was always announcing victories,
she was never really within sight of victory.
"In the first instance the Prussian Empire had made no sound
reckoning of the forces she had to meet. That was the first
elementary duty of the strategist. The man who goes out to fight ten
thousand and finds he has to fight twenty thousand has blundered
irreparably. In 1914 Prussia calculated that Great Britain would not
participate in the war, and would consent not only to the destruction
of France but to the betrayal of her obligations towards Belgium. The
bewildered dismay with which Germany learned that Great Britain
would not look upon the treaty with Belgium as a 'scrap of paper,'
the wild hatred toward England which found one expression in the
'Hymn of Hate,' were the screams of a savage creature caught in a
trap.
"She had then one slender chance, a rush attack on Paris. But the
Battle of the Marne killed that chance. Then the only hope of saving
Germany was to make peace. But she had made the ghastly blunder
of the Belgian atrocities.
"When a man goes out to fight ten thousand and finds himself
confronted by twenty thousand it is common prudence to strive to
make the stakes as low as possible, the penalty of failure as small as
possible. There was a chance that, if that policy had been followed,
the war would have come to an end soon after the Battle of the
Marne, an end not favourable to Prussian ideas of European
domination, giving those ideas a severe check, but still not wrecking
them irrevocably nor exacting a very heavy penalty. But the Prussian
spirit added blunder to blunder. Having launched a hopeless war it
set itself to give that war an 'unlimited' character. Instead of going
through Belgium as a reluctant trespasser, the Prussian army
trampled through as a ravaging devastator in full blast of
frightfulness. By the time Prussia had fought and lost the Battle of
the Marne she had steeled her enemies to an inflexible resolution
against a compromise peace."
Prussia, he argued, thus early by two blunders of the first magnitude
(1) entered into a campaign against an alliance which ultimately
could command vastly superior forces, and (2) embittered the
conditions of the campaign so that her withdrawal from it was made
exceedingly difficult. Several blunders of a lesser order marked the
first stages of the campaign. Belgium having been attacked and
Liége taken, the Prussian army showed a strange hesitancy and lack
of enterprise when faced by the little Belgian army on the line
Haelen-Tirlemont-Namur. Precious days were lost in pottering.
Whether it was expected that the Belgian nation would give way
after one defeat, or it was thought that French and British armies
had been pushed up into Belgium, the German millions were held up
an unduly long time by the Belgian thousands.
At Mons the German Army neither crushed the French-British force
nor pushed it back so quickly that the main deployment was
harassed. Whether this failure of the German Army was due to its
bad handling or to the excellent virtues of the French-British force,
did not matter. But the Battle of Mons frustrated the only hope that
was left to Germany at that time—a successful rush on Paris opening
the way to a quick peace. It proved that there was no military genius
at the head of the German invaders. Then the Army which had been
delayed in Belgium was defeated on the Marne and had to fall back
on the Aisne. The explanation for this given in some German
quarters was that the Army had outstripped its big guns and
ammunition supplies. That was as good as any other. No explanation
would clear the Prussian Military Command from the stigma that it
failed when there was that one remaining desperate chance of
success.
And having failed on the Marne and retreated to the Aisne the
German strategic plan lost all coherency. True, the war was lost so
far as any hope of winning European dominancy was concerned. But
there was still as a possible objective a peace which would secure
Prussia something in return for the territory which she had overrun.
Such a peace had been made difficult by the cold rage inspired by
Prussian frightfulness. But it was the only possible aim left and, from
a military point of view, it could only be pursued in one way, by a
definite hammering at some vital point to secure a decisive result,
with a defensive stand in other quarters. A defensive campaign in
the East with a determined offensive in the West, or a defensive on
the West with a resolute offensive on the East.
The Prussian vacillated between the two; his effort was always
shuttlecocking East to West, West to East, getting a decisive result
nowhere. Like a baited bull in the arena Prussia was constantly
making sensational rushes here and there, gratified often by the
sight of fleeing foes, but never breaking out of the arena of doom,
and always losing blood.
"The first three months of the war," he concluded dogmatically,
"were decisive. They do not redound to the military glory of Prussia.
During those three months the disciplined and trained devotion of
the German troops worked wonders in the battle line. But indecision
at Headquarters prevented the proper concentration of their efforts.
Prussia had failed to conquer Europe unprepared. She was
afterwards face to face with the task of conquering Europe
prepared; and her indecision increased. She was always looking for
success in a new quarter and never finding it. Recklessness and
vacillation and impatience are not sound military qualities, but they
mark the whole military history of Germany since November, 1914.
Recklessness of ultimate consequences was shown in such matters
as the bringing of poison gas into use. Vacillation was shown by the
effort which was organised to take the French Channel ports at all
costs, and, failing, was diverted to the Eastern Front, and back again
to this Front, and then again to the Balkan Front, and back to this
Front and then to the Italian Front and finally back to this Front.
Impatience was shown in the general failure to push any effort to its
logical conclusion, and in details, such as the haste with which
poison gas was put into use on a small and ineffectual scale instead
of being kept in reserve for a great and possibly decisive effort."
"Take it year by year," this officer concluded, "it has been always the
same. Germany has added always to the area of destruction. She
has never got nearer to victory. It will be the same with this Push. If
that motor lorry has to carry away the maps from Montreuil it may
be another ten years before we beat the Germans, but we will beat
them."
"But if France gives in?"
"France won't give in. Look at her now, ready to smash up all Pas de
Calais—to blow up every harbour and canal and road. That does not
look like giving in. Even if she were forced to it we could go back to
our island and carry on the fight from there."
Then we talked of lighter things.
Going out from dinner my friend reverted to the war position.
"Anyhow that lorry is not going to take the maps. I bet you a cigar
to nothing."
He was right. Going up to the map room on the Intelligence side we
heard that our troops were holding in front of Amiens. We had
actually passed the lowest point of our fortunes, and within a week
the motor lorry had gone.
I asked one of the drivers detailed to it, who either did not know or
wisely professed not to know what he had been kept in waiting for,
what he thought about it all. He replied with that sound philosophy
of the British soldier:
"It was a splendid 'mike,' Sir."
"Mike," it need hardly be explained, is a trade term in the Army for a
soft job.
 CHAPTER XIX.
THE UNITY OF COMMAND.

Was it necessary?—Was a French Generalissimo inevitable?

—Our share in the guiding of the last phase of the campaign
—Points on which the British had their way.

The "unity of command" achieved in the Spring of 1918 caused

hardly a ripple of comment at G.H.Q. Some days after it had
happened we learned that Lord Milner (then Secretary of State for
War) had been over, and that, with the approval of Lord Haig, Field
Marshal Foch had become Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies.
I suppose that in their secret hearts many officers felt a little sad
that the honour of the united command had not fallen to a British
General. But there was no question as to the wisdom of the choice
nor as to the wisdom of the step itself. It was one of the early
misfortunes of the campaign that the British Government in 1914
had insisted very strongly on keeping our Army as an absolutely
independent unit in France. The reasons, one may presume, were
political rather than strategical; and that there was still some
remnant of the old prejudice against "continental entanglements." I
do not suppose that if the issue had been left to the soldiers
themselves there would have been any doubt but that the small
auxiliary British Force would have "reported to" the main French
Army and acted under its direction. That would have been the
natural military course. But the position became more difficult as the
importance of the British Army grew. At the time that the united
Command was achieved the British Army was in fighting force an
equal unit to the French.
Two questions are often raised in connection with this decision of
1918: Was it necessary? Was it inevitable that the united command
should go to Marshal Foch? Both questions may be answered with
"yes;" though in each case the "yes" needs to be qualified with some
explanation.
 AT THE CHIEF'S CHATEAU

It is, for instance, hardly correct to say that the decision to unite the
command "won the war;" though it is probably correct that it
hastened the date of victory. Before it was achieved there was good
co-operation, though not perfect co-operation, between the Allied
Forces. After it was achieved there was maintained a certain
independence of outlook and of policy on the part of the British
Command which was a great factor in the speedy consummation of
victory. If that independence had not been maintained, the
operations of 1918 would, almost certainly, not have been so
gloriously decisive. This aspect of the final campaign has never been
discussed to my knowledge, yet a knowledge of it is important if the
events of 1918 are to be viewed in their proper perspective.
I suppose the average "man in the street" takes the view that early
in 1918, the British Army, which had been blundering along up till
then, was put under French Command and straightway the war was
won. But it was not at all like that. The British Army command,
whilst giving the most loyal support to the French Generalissimo and
bowing to his decisions when they were finally made, read it as its
duty still to keep a share in the conduct of the campaign; and in
many most important conclusions it upheld its own view as against
the French view. The final result in some matters showed that the
British view was the right view, and that if it had not been taken the
victorious advance would not have been possible.
In an earlier chapter I have given the facts about the forage ration.
It was not exactly a matter of the first importance, some may say.
But if the French view had been accepted and the British and
American horse ration had come down to the French level our horse
transport would not have been able to carry on as wonderfully as it
did from August to November, 1918. As things were, it had nothing
to spare during the last week, as our pursuing troops can tell. The
French with their logical minds argued that if their horses could do
with a certain ration, ours could. In this case the apparently logical
conclusion was not the sound one; for it left out of consideration
some factors—as to whether we did not use our horses more, and as
to whether our men could get, or would try to get, the same work
out of ill-fed horses. In this matter it was well for the Allied cause
that the British had their way.
In another matter logic threatened to lead to a step which might
have proved disastrous. The French saw, as the logical corollary of
the united command, a union, a pooling of all the supply and
transport departments. Not only should the Armies fight under one
strategical direction but they should share and share alike all their
resources. A decision to this effect was actually come to, the
Americans agreeing with the French view. It was logical without a
shadow of doubt. But British common-sense recognised that if this
radical reorganisation were attempted in 1918 it would be 1920
before the Alliance would have been ready for a great Push. The
British Army—let it be confessed with appropriate candour and
shamefacedness—was much more exigent in its demands than the
French. It needed, or thought it needed, more food, more clothing,
more comforts, more ammunition, more transport. It had evolved for
itself during the campaign a system of "housekeeping" which was
over-liberal, perhaps, as compared with the French, but which was
mainly a result of the generosity of the Home people, and was so
deeply rooted in our Army organisation that to have torn it up in
1918 would have caused all kinds of trouble.
In June, 1918, the "Executive Inter-Allied Committee on Supply" was
formed by an agreement between the French and the American
governments, to which the British government at first (apparently)
assented. It was to take over control of all Supply, Storage, and
Transport, and to have executive functions, i.e., its decisions would
be binding on all the Armies. The British Command at once saw that
this was impracticable—that it was impossible in the very midst of
the preparations for the Great Push to throw into a common pool so
much of the actual equipment of the Army. The Allied Command was
very stubborn in supporting its plan. But in time British common-
sense proved stronger than abstract logic, and in July all was made
happy by a decision that the functions of the Board were to advise
on matters of Supply and Storage and methods of utilising material,
as far as practicable, for the common benefit of the Allies. The
Board, in short, was to have its scope in assisting to maintain the
excellent understanding which already existed between the Armies
of the Allies in regard to Supplies and Services.
The position was not at all that the British Army wanted to wallow in
luxury whilst its Allies went short, for it was always willing to help in
every possible way; but that its command knew that the essentially
national system of "housekeeping" which had been set up, could not
be thrown down at an hour's notice without grave danger.
The same sort of problem was always cropping up on a smaller scale
in areas where French troops were fighting with the British. The
French had at first a logical aspiration for an identity of supply
systems. Our view was that when British and French troops were
operating together, it was not possible to serve both from a common
stock, nor by a common railway service. Ammunition and Supplies
differed in almost every respect, and the systems of Supply could
not be identical. Except in regard to a few items, one Army could not
supply the other satisfactorily. Therefore, each Army should have its
own depôts, railheads, and—for the sorting of supplies—its own
regulating stations, which would receive from Base full trains loaded
with particular items of supply and send out to Divisions full trains
loaded with the necessary assortments of different items. Something
could be done in the way of pooling bulk stores, such as forage,
coal, and petrol; but for most things there must be different
channels of supply.
British policy was that a British Force in a French area should provide
completely for its own maintenance, and organise its supply lines
and depôts accordingly. Ultimately it was recognised on both sides
that this was the only possible policy, and that the trouble of
providing separate regulating stations, separate railheads, and
depôts must be faced. Any half-way policy was seen to be fraught
with too many possibilities of dangerous failures.
To cite yet one more instance of the British policy proving the
sounder: In July, 1918, there were very strong indications that the
German power of offensive had passed its zenith and that the enemy
might be forced shortly to a great withdrawal. There was set on foot
in the British Army at the earliest opportunity an examination of the
measures of Transport and Supply which would become necessary if
the Germans were forced to withdraw their line. In 1916-1917 the
enemy had been able to avoid, to a great extent, the consequences
of his defeats on the Somme and the Ancre by retiring his line; a
promptly effective pursuit was hindered by lack of the necessary
material on our part. A foreseeing preparation would enable a better
harvest of victory to be reaped if the position of 1916-1917 were
reproduced in 1918. We wanted to be sure of being able to follow up
with about 2,000 tons of supplies per day per mile of front to carry
our troops over the Hindenburg Line.
There was found to be a divergence of view as to the best means of
following up. The French were inclined to put their faith chiefly in
light railways. The British idea was that light railways could be
overdone; that there was not a full appreciation of the modification
in the rôle of the light railway consequent on the change from trench
to moving warfare; that there was a tendency for light railways to
attempt to duplicate the work of broad-gauge railways; and a hint of
a tendency to look upon light railways as a substitute for, instead of
a reinforcement of, roads in the forward area.
The British "pursuit policy," to put it briefly, was to concentrate all
available labour on pushing forward with the broad-gauge railways
and the roads forward from them, trusting to motor transport and to
horse transport to pick up the burden from broad-gauge railhead.
This was maintained to be a superior policy to concentrating on light
railways, which could not allow so much freedom in lines of advance.
The British view prevailed in our sector, and in the Great Pursuit it
proved to be sound. The Germans were followed up on our sector of
the Front in really fine fashion. In the Somme sector of the Front
between August 8th and September 8th our broad-gauge railheads
were pushed forward an average of 30 miles. To these new
railheads, all kinds of traffic could go direct from the Base to meet
there our Motor Transport (and, of course, light railways; these were
not neglected but given secondary importance).
It was at first the French idea to "sandwich" the various Divisions of
the two Armies, to have a British Division or Corps side by side with
a French wherever possible. This again would have been a
beautifully logical illustration of the complete identity and fraternity
of the two armies, but it was not business. It multiplied difficulties of
administration, and it was finally abandoned, much to the advantage
of the common cause.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com