Overview of Quantitative Methods

This modules provides a basic overview of quantitative research, including its

key characteristics and advantages.

Learning Objectives
 Define quantitative research
 Describe the uses of quantitative research design
 Provide examples of when quantitative research methodology should
be used
 Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative research

Quantitative methods are used to examine the relationship between

variables with the primary goal being to analyze and represent that
relationship mathematically through statistical analysis. This is the type of
research approach most commonly used in scientific research problems.
Following is a list of characteristics and advantages of using quantitative
methods:

 The data collected is numeric, allowing for collection of data from a

large sample size.
 Statistical analysis allows for greater objectivity when reviewing results
and therefore, results are independent of the researcher.
 Numerical results can be displayed in graphs, charts, tables and other
formats that allow for better interpretation.
 Data analysis is less time-consuming and can often be done using
statistical software.
 Results can be generalized if the data are based on random samples
and the sample size was sufficient.
 Data collection methods can be relatively quick, depending on the type
of data being collected.
 Numerical quantitative data may be viewed as more credible and
reliable, especially to policy makers, decision makers, and
administrators.

There are a variety of quantitative methods and sampling techniques that

will be discussed in detail in the other modules in this unit. However,
following are examples of research questions where quantitative methods
may be appropriately applied:

 How often do college students between the ages of 20-24 access

Facebook?
 What is the difference in the number of calories consumed between
male and female high school students?
  What percentage of married couples seek couples counseling?
 What are the top 5 factors that influence a student’s choice of college
or university?
 How many organized sports activities has the average 10 year old child
competed in?

The collection of numerical data through quantitative research methods

lends itself well to large variety of research questions. The following modules
in this series will explore when to choose quantitative methods, how to write
a good research question, types of quantitative methods, data analysis,
ethics and many other topics that will lead to better understanding of
quantitative research.

Suggested Readings
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and
evaluating quantitative. Prentice Hall.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage Publications, Incorporated.
Neuman, W. L., & Robson, K. (2004). Basics of social research. Pearson.
Neuman, W. L., & Neuman, W. L. (2006). Social research methods:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Malterud, K. (2001). Qualitative research: standards, challenges, and
guidelines. The lancet, 358(9280), 483-488.
Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (Vol. 2). Oxford: Blackwell publishers.

When to Use Quantitative Methods

This module describes when to choose quantitative methodology in research

and explores the difference between qualitative and quantitative research.

Learning Objectives
 Compare and contrast quantitative and qualitative research methods
 Describe when quantitative research methods should be used to
examine a research problem
 Provide examples of the appropriate use of quantitative research
methodology
Suggested Readings
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and
evaluating quantitative. Prentice Hall.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage Publications, Incorporated.
Judd, C. M., McClelland, G. H., & Ryan, C. S. (2009). Data analysis: A model
comparison approach . Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Neuman, W. L., & Robson, K. (2004). Basics of social research. Pearson.
Neuman, W. L., & Neuman, W. L. (2006). Social research methods:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Malterud, K. (2001). Qualitative research: standards, challenges, and
guidelines. The lancet, 358(9280), 483-488.
Quinn, G. G. P., & Keough, M. J. (2002). Experimental design and data
analysis for biologists. Cambridge University Press.
Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (Vol. 2). Oxford: Blackwell publishers.
Vogt, W. P. (2006). Quantitative research methods for professionals in
education and other fields. New York: Allyn & Bacon. Instrument Validation
Study.

Writing Research Questions and Hypotheses

The purpose of this module is to discuss research questions and research

hypotheses and to provide definitions, comparisons and examples of both.
Learning Objectives
 Define research question and research hypothesis
 Explain the difference between a research question and a research
hypothesis and describe the appropriate use of each
 Describe the purpose of each and understand the importance of a well-
developed question or hypothesis
 Provide examples of research questions and research hypotheses

Once you have chosen your research topic or subject, you will need to decide
how you will approach the research process – by formulating a hypothesis or
developing a research question. This can be determined by starting with the
following questions. Is there a significant body of knowledge already
available about your subject that allows you to make a prediction about the
results of your study before you begin? If so, you will be using a hypothesis.
Or is your research more exploratory and investigative in nature and will
require that you collect data and analyze results before drawing any
conclusions? If this describes your research topic, you will be developing a
research question. Understanding this difference and choosing the correct
approach will drive the rest of your research project. The following sections
further describe research questions and hypotheses and provide examples of
each.

Research Questions
 Used to analyze and investigate a topic. It is written as a question and
is inquisitive in nature.
 A properly written question will be clear and concise. It should contain
the topic being studied (purpose), the variable(s), and the population.
 Three main types of questions:
o Causal Questions – Compares two or more phenomena and
determines if a relationship exists. Often called relationship
research questions. Example: Does the amount of calcium in the
diet of elementary school children effect the number of cavities
they have per year?
o Descriptive Questions – Seek to describe a phenomena and often
study “how much”, “how often”, or “what is the change”.
Example: How often do college-aged students use Twitter?
o Comparative Questions – Aim to examine the difference between
two or more groups in relation to one or more variables. The
questions often begin with “What is the difference in...”.
Example: What is the difference in caloric intake of high school
girls and boys?
 The type of research question will influence the research design.
 Once data has been collected, it will be analyzed and conclusions can
be made.
Hypothesis
 It is predictive in nature and typically used when significant knowledge
already exists on the subject which allows the prediction to be made.
 Data is then collected, analyzed, and used to support or negate the
hypothesis, arriving at a definite conclusion at the end of the research.
 It is always written as a statement and should be developed before any
data is collected.
 A complete hypothesis should include: the variables, the population,
and the predicted relationship between the variables.
 Commonly used in quantitative research, but not qualitative research
which often seeks answers to open-ended questions.
 Examples: A company wellness program will decrease the number sick
days claimed by employees. Consuming vitamin C supplements will
reduce the incidence of the common cold in teenagers.

Suggested Readings
Bryman, A. (2012). Social research methods. Oxford university press.
Alon, U. (2009). How to choose a good scientific problem. Molecular Cell,
35, 726-728.
Cox, C. (2012). What makes for good research? [Editorial] International
Journal of Ophthalmic Practice, 3(1), 3.
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and
evaluating quantitative. Prentice Hall.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage publications.
Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1971). Handbook in research and evaluation.
Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (Vol. 2). Oxford: Blackwell publishers.
Taylor, D. (1999). Introduction to Research Methods. medicine, 319, 1618.

Variables and Operational Definitions

The following module explains the different types of variables in quantitative

research and discusses operational definitions of variables.

Learning Objectives
 Define and explain the types of variables in a quantitative research
project
 Identify the variables in research examples
 Define and explain operational definitions and provide an example

The goal of quantitative research is to examine the relationships between

variables. A variable is a characteristic or attribute of interest in the
research study that can take on different values and is not constant.
Variables may be straightforward and easy to measure including
characteristics such as gender, weight, height, age, size, and time. Other
variable may be more complex and more difficult to measure. Examples of
these types of variables may include socioeconomic status, attitudes,
achievement, education level, and performance.

This module will focus on five types of variables: independent, dependent,

extraneous, moderator and mediator variables. The two primary types of
variables are dependent and independent variables. An independent
variable is the variable manipulated or changed by the researcher. The
independent variable affects or determines the values of dependent variable.
The dependent variable is sometimes referred to as the outcome variable
because the resulting outcome of manipulating the independent variable is
typically the focus of the research study. The dependent variable is the one
that the researcher is attempting to predict or explain. The distinction
between independent and dependent variables is especially important when
studying cause-effect relationships. Following are two examples:

 A researcher wants to study the effectiveness of different dosages of a

particular antibiotic in clearing an infection.
o The independent variable - varying dosages of antibiotic.
o The dependent variable - the presence or absence of infection
following a specific time period.
 The researcher plans to study the relationship between the amount of
time spent in a study group and test scores.
o The independent variable – number of hours spent in a study
group.
o The dependent variable – test scores.

Extraneous variables, sometimes referred to as nuisance or confounding

variables, are not the variables of primary interest. However, they are
believed to be related to the independent or dependent variable and
therefore, may impact the results. Researchers should attempt to control
extraneous variables in order to attain meaningful results. If they cannot be
controlled, extraneous variables should at least be considered when
interpreting results.

A moderator variable is a variable that interacts with the independent

variable and may influence the strength of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables. This variable is measured and taken
into consideration, making it different than an extraneous variable. For
example, if studying the relationship between exercise and weight loss, the
number of calories consumed maybe a moderating variable.
Mediating variables, commonly referred to as intervening variables, are
processes that may not be observable but link the independent and
dependent variables. An instructor may have a new teaching approach for a
mathematical concept and plans to study the use of this approach and its
relationship to test scores. The differing levels at which students in the class
are able to process abstract mathematical concepts is a mediating variable.

While it is important to identify, understand, and consider the variables

within a study, the researcher must also consider the measurement of those
variables and the types of values that may be collected. When measuring the
values of variables, there are two main classifications: categorical and
quantitative variables. Categorical variables are those that express a
qualitative attribute and do not express a numerical ordering. These
variables refer to different types or categories of phenomenon or
characteristic. Some examples would include gender, eye color, race,
religion, payment method, or social status. Quantitative variables vary in
degree or amount and are expressed using numerical ordering. Height,
weight, shoe size, income, and test scores are quantitative variables.

The specific way in which a variable is measured in a particular study is

called the operational definition. It is critical to operationally define a
variable in order to lend credibility to the methodology and to ensure the
reproducibility of the results. Another study may measure the same variable
differently. The operational definition also helps to control the variable by
making the measurement constant. Therefore, when it comes to operational
definitions of a variable, the more detailed the definition is, the better. For
example, if the researcher was planning to weigh research subjects, there
would several constructs that should be spelled out including what the
subjects were to wear, whether or not they would wear shoes, what type of
scale was being used, and time of day. It may also be important to define the
measurement of the outcome. For example, if a study was examining the
relationship of swimming on overall fitness, the researcher would need to
define how the outcome of overall fitness would be measured. Similarly, if a
researcher was studying the impact of a nutrition education program, the
outcome to be used in measuring the program’s effectiveness would need to
be defined.

Suggested Readings
Bennett, J. A. (2000). Mediator and moderator variables in nursing research:
Conceptual and statistical differences. Research in nursing & health, 23(5),
415-420.
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and
evaluating quantitative. Prentice Hall.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage publications.
Hopkins, W. G. (2008). Quantitative research design.
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2008). Educational research: Quantitative,
qualitative, and mixed approaches. Sage.
Kumar, S., & Phrommathed, P. (2005). Research methodology (pp. 43-50).
Springer US.
Neuman, W. L., & Robson, K. (2004). Basics of social research. Pearson.

Key Issues in Quantitative Research

The purpose of this module is to examine the key issues related to

quantitative research that must be addressed to ensure a quality research
study that is valid, reliable, generalizable and reproducible.

Learning Objectives
 Define validity, reliability, falsifiability, generalizability, and
reproducibility as they relate to quantitative research
 Explain the importance of each in a quantitative study

If the results of quantitative research are to be considered useful and

trustworthy, there are several key issues that must be considered and
addressed as part of the experimental design and analysis. Following is a
description of these issues:

Validity

The term validity refers to the strength of the conclusions that are drawn
from the results. In other words, how accurate are the results? Do the results
actually measure what was intended to be measured? There are several
types of validity that are commonly examined and they are as follows:

 Conclusion validity looks at whether or not there is a relationship

between the variable and the observed outcome.
 Internal validity considers whether or not that relationship may be
causal in nature.
  Construct validity refers to whether or not the operational definition of
a variable actually reflects the meaning of the concept. In other words,
it is an attempt to generalize the treatment and outcomes to a broader
concept.
 External validity is the ability to generalize the results to another
setting.
There are multiple factors that can threaten the validity in a study. They can
be divided into single group threats, multiple group threats, and social
interaction threats. For more information, on the threats to validity click
here.

Reliability

Reliability is defined as the consistency of the measurements. To what level

will the instrument produce the same results under the same conditions
every time it is used? Reliability adds to the trustworthiness of the results
because it is a testament to the methodology if the results are reproducible.
The reliability is often examined by using a test and retest method where the
measurement are taken twice at two different times. The reliability is critical
for being able to reproduce the results, however, the validity must be
confirmed first to ensure that the measurements are accurate. Consistent
measurements will only be useful if they are accurate and valid.

Falsifiability

The term falsifiability mean that any for any hypothesis to have credence, it
must be possible to test whether that hypothesis may be incorrect. A
researcher should test his/her own hypothesis to prove or disprove it before
releasing results to prevent another researcher from proving it wrong. If a
theory or hypothesis cannot be tested in such a way that may disprove it, it
will likely not be considered scientific or valuable to those in the field.

Generalizability

Generalizability refers to whether or not the research findings and

conclusions that result from the study are generalizable to the larger
population or other similar situations. The ability to generalize results allows
researchers to interpret and apply findings in a broader context, making the
finding relevant and meaningful.

Replication

Replication is the reproducibility of the study. Will the methodology produce

the same results when used by different researchers studying similar
subjects? Replication is important because it ensures the validity and
reliability of the results and allows the results to be generalized.

Suggested Readings
Adcock, R. (2001, September). Measurement validity: A shared standard for
qualitative and quantitative research. In American Political Science
Association (Vol. 95, No. 03, pp. 529-546). Cambridge University Press.
Becker, B. J. (1996). The generalizability of empirical research results.
Neuman, W. L., & Neuman, W. L. (2006). Social research methods:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Neuman, W. L., & Robson, K. (2004). Basics of social research. Pearson.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2000). Expanding the Framework of Internal and External
Validity in Quantitative Research.
Winter, G. (2000). A comparative discussion of the notion of validity in
qualitative and quantitative research. The qualitative report, 4(3), 4.

Quantitative Approaches

In this module, the four approaches to quantitative research are described

and examples are provided.

Learning Objectives
 List and explain the four approaches to quantitative research
 Provide an example of each method
 Describe how to identify the appropriate approach for a particular
research problem

There are four main types of quantitative research designs: descriptive,

correlational, quasi-experimental and experimental. The differences between
the four types primarily relates to the degree the researcher designs for
control of the variables in the experiment. Following is a brief description of
each type of quantitative research design, as well as chart comparing and
contrasting the approaches.

A Descriptive Design seeks to describe the current status of a variable or

phenomenon. The researcher does not begin with a hypothesis, but typically
develops one after the data is collected. Data collection is mostly
observational in nature.

A Correlational Design explores the relationship between variables using

statistical analyses. However, it does not look for cause and effect and
therefore, is also mostly observational in terms of data collection.
A Quasi-Experimental Design (often referred to as Causal-Comparative)
seeks to establish a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.
The researcher does not assign groups and does not manipulate the
independent variable. Control groups are identified and exposed to the
variable. Results are compared with results from groups not exposed to the
variable.

Experimental Designs, often called true experimentation, use the scientific

method to establish cause-effect relationship among a group of variables in a
research study. Researchers make an effort to control for all variables except
the one being manipulated (the independent variable). The effects of the
independent variable on the dependent variable are collected and analyzed
for a relationship.

Suggested Readings
Bernard, H. R., & Bernard, H. R. (2012). Social research methods: Qualitative
and quantitative approaches. Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage publications.
Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R., & Gall, J. P. (1996). Educational research: An
introduction . Longman Publishing.
Mertens, D. M. (1998). Research methods in education and psychology:
Integrating diversity with quantitative & qualitative approaches.
Neuman, W. L., & Neuman, W. L. (2006). Social research methods:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Punch, K. F. (2013). Introduction to social research: Quantitative and
qualitative approaches. Sage.

Quantitative Scales of Measurement

This module discusses the basics of measurement and scales of

measurement commonly used in quantitative research.

Learning Objectives
 List and describe the four types of scales of measurement used in
quantitative research
 Provide examples of uses of the four scales of measurement
 Determine the appropriate measurement scale for a research problem

Quantitative research requires that measurements be both accurate and

reliable. Researchers commonly assign numbers or values to the attributes
of people, objects, events, perceptions, or concepts. This process is referred
to as measurement. The variables that are measured are commonly
classified as being measured on a nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio scale.
The following discussion defines and provides examples of each of the four
levels of measurement.

Nominal Scale: The nominal scales is essentially a type of coding that

simply puts people, events, perceptions, objects or attributes into categories
based on a common trait or characteristic. The coding can be accomplished
by using numbers, letters, colors, labels or any symbol that can distinguish
between the groups. The nominal scale is the lowest form of a measurement
because it is used simply to categorize and not to capture additional
information. Other features of a nominal scale are that each participant or
object measured is placed exclusively into one category and there is no
relative ordering of the categories. Some examples include distinguishing
between smokers and nonsmokers, males and females, types of religious
affiliations, blondes vs. brunettes and so on. In a study related to smoking,
smokers may be assigned a value of 1 and nonsmokers may be assigned a
value of 2. The assignment of the number is purely arbitrary and at the
researcher’s discretion.

Ordinal Scale: The ordinal scale differs from the nominal scale in that it
ranks the data from lowest to highest and provides information regarding
where the data points lie in relation to one another. An ordinal scale typically
uses non-numerical categories such as low, medium and high to
demonstrate the relationships between the data points. The disadvantage of
the ordinal scale is that it does not provide information regarding the
magnitude of the difference between the data points or rankings. An
example of the use of an ordinal scale would be a study that examines the
smoking rates of teenagers. The data collected may indicate that the
teenage smokers in the study smoked anywhere from 15 to 40 cigarettes per
day. The data could be arranged in order and examined in terms of the
number of smokers at each level.

Interval Scale: An interval scale is one in which the actual distances, or

intervals between the categories or points on the scale can be compared.
The distance between the numbers or units on the scale are equal across the
scale. An example would be a temperature scale, such as the Farenheit
scale. The distance between 20 degrees and 40 degrees is the same as
between 60 degrees and 80 degrees. A distinguishing feature of interval
scales is that there is no absolute zero point because the key is simply the
consistent distance or interval between categories or data points.

Ratio Scale: The ratio scale contains the most information about the values
in a study. It contains all of the information of the other three categories
because it categorizes the data, places the data along a continuum so that
researchers can examine categories or data points in relation to each other,
and the data points or categories are equal distances or intervals apart.
However, the difference is the ratio scale also contains a non-arbitrary
absolute zero point. The lowest data point collected serves as a meaningful
absolute zero point which allows for interpretation of ratio comparisons. Time
is one example of the use of a ration measurement scale in a study because
it is divided into equal intervals and a ratio comparison can be made. For
example, 20 minutes is twice as long as 10 minutes.
Suggested Readings
Abramson, J. H., & Abramson, Z. H. (2008). Scales of Measurement. Research
Methods in Community Medicine: Surveys, Epidemiological Research,
Programme Evaluation, Clinical Trials, Sixth Edition, 125-132.
Berka, K. (1983). Scales of measurement. In Language, Logic and
Method (pp. 1-73). Springer Netherlands
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and
evaluating quantitative. Prentice Hall.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage Publications, Incorporated.
Gaito, J. (1980). Measurement scales and statistics: Resurgence of an old
misconception.
Neuman, W. L., & Robson, K. (2004). Basics of social research. Pearson.
Neuman, W. L., & Neuman, W. L. (2006). Social research methods:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Malterud, K. (2001). Qualitative research: standards, challenges, and
guidelines. The lancet, 358(9280), 483-488.
Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (Vol. 2). Oxford: Blackwell publishers.
Stevens, S. S. (1946). On the theory of scales of measurement.

Quantitative Data

This module describes quantitative data and examines common methods of

data collection in quantitative studies.

Learning Objectives
 Define quantitative data and its characteristics
 Explain the difference between discrete and continuous data
 List examples of quantitative data
 Describe common methods of quantitative data collection

Quantitative data is data that can be counted or expressed numerically. It is

commonly used to ask “how much” or “how many” and can be used to study
events or levels of occurrence. Because it is numerical in nature, quantitative
data is both definitive and objective. It also lends itself to statistical analysis
and mathematical computations and therefore, is typically illustrated in
charts or graphs.

There are two main types of quantitative data: discrete and

continuous. Discrete data is described as having a finite number of possible
values. For example, if a teacher gives an exam that has 100 questions, the
exam scores reflect the number of answers that were correct out of the 100
possible questions. Discrete data may also be defined as data where there is
space between values on a number line, thus values must be a whole
number. For example, if a study examined the number of vehicles owned by
households in America, the data collected would be whole
numbers. Continuous data is defined as data where the values fall on a
continuum and it is possible to have fractions or decimals. Continuous data is
usually a physical measurement. Examples may include measurements of
height, age, or distance.

Quantitative data collection may include ANY method that will result in
numerical values. Common examples of quantitative data collection
strategies may include:

 Experiments and clinical trials

 Surveys, interviews and questionnaires that collect numerical
information or count data by using closed-ended questions
 Observing or recording well-defined events such as the number of
visits patients make to a doctor’s office each year
 Obtaining information from a management information system.

The advantage of collecting quantitative data is that the numerical outcomes

result in data that can be statistically analyzed that may be viewed as
credible and useful in decision-making. However, the disadvantage of
quantitative data is that it may be superficial and fail to fully capture
explanatory information.

Suggested Readings
Bryman, A., & Cramer, D. (1994). Quantitative data analysis for social
scientists (rev. Taylor & Frances/Routledge.
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and
evaluating quantitative. Prentice Hall.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches. Sage Publications, Incorporated.
Gaito, J. (1980). Measurement scales and statistics: Resurgence of an old
misconception.
Neuman, W. L., & Robson, K. (2004). Basics of social research. Pearson.
Neuman, W. L., & Neuman, W. L. (2006). Social research methods:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Malterud, K. (2001). Qualitative research: standards, challenges, and
guidelines. The lancet, 358(9280), 483-488.
Robson, C. (2002). Real world research (Vol. 2). Oxford: Blackwell publishers.
Stevens, S. S. (1946). On the theory of scales of measurement.
 Sampling Methods for Quantitative Research

Sampling and types of sampling methods commonly used in quantitative

research are discussed in the following module.

Learning Objectives
 Define sampling and randomization
 Explain probability and non-probability sampling and describes the
different types of each

Researchers commonly examine traits or characteristics (parameters) of

populations in their studies. A population is a group of individual units with
some commonality. For example, a researcher may want to study
characteristics of female smokers in the United States. This would be the
population being analyzed in the study, but it would be impossible to collect
information from all female smokers in the U.S. Therefore, the researcher
would select individuals from which to collect the data. This is
called sampling. The group from which the data is drawn is
a representative sample of the population the results of the study can
be generalized to the population as a whole.

The sample will be representative of the population if the researcher uses

a random selection procedure to choose participants. The group of units
or individuals who have a legitimate chance of being selected are sometimes
referred to as the sampling frame. If a researcher studied developmental
milestones of preschool children and target licensed preschools to collect the
data, the sampling frame would be all preschool aged children in those
preschools. Students in those preschools could then be selected at random
through a systematic method to participate in the study. This does, however,
lead to a discussion of biases in research. For example, low-income children
may be less likely to be enrolled in preschool and therefore, may be
excluded from the study. Extra care has to be taken to control biases when
determining sampling techniques.

There are two main types of sampling: probability and non-probability

sampling. The difference between the two types is whether or not the
sampling selection involves randomization. Randomization occurs when all
members of the sampling frame have an equal opportunity of being selected
for the study. Following is a discussion of probability and non-probability
sampling and the different types of each.
Probability Sampling – Uses randomization and takes steps to ensure all
members of a population have a chance of being selected. There are several
variations on this type of sampling and following is a list of ways probability
sampling may occur:

 Random sampling – every member has an equal chance

 Stratified sampling – population divided into subgroups (strata) and
members are randomly selected from each group
 Systematic sampling – uses a specific system to select members such
as every 10th person on an alphabetized list
 Cluster random sampling – divides the population into clusters, clusters
are randomly selected and all members of the cluster selected are
sampled
 Multi-stage random sampling – a combination of one or more of the
above methods

Non-probability Sampling – Does not rely on the use of randomization

techniques to select members. This is typically done in studies where
randomization is not possible in order to obtain a representative sample.
Bias is more of a concern with this type of sampling. The different types of
non-probability sampling are as follows:

 Convenience or accidental sampling – members or units are selected

based on availability
 Purposive sampling – members of a particular group are purposefully
sought after
 Modal instance sampling – members or units are the most common
within a defined group and therefore are sought after
 Expert sampling – members considered to be of high quality are
chosen for participation
 Proportional and non-proportional quota sampling – members are
sampled until exact proportions of certain types of data are obtained
or until sufficient data in different categories is collected
 Diversity sampling – members are selected intentionally across the
possible types of responses to capture all possibilities
 Snowball sampling – members are sampled and then asked to help
identify other members to sample and this process continues until
enough samples are collected

Suggested Readings
Bryman, A., & Cramer, D. (1994). Quantitative data analysis for social
scientists (rev. Taylor & Frances/Routledge.
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