CDI 311 FIRE PROTECTION AND ARSON INVESTIGATION (PART I)

History of Fire
Many scientists believe that Homo erectus, an ancient human ancestor, likely first achieved the controlled use of
fire during the early Stone Age, with evidence suggesting its use could date back almost two million years.

Fire in Legend:
 In Persian literature, fire discovered during a fight of hero with a dragon. A stone that the hero used as
weapon missed the monster and struck a rock. Lights show forth and human beings saw fire for the first
time.
 In Greek mythology, Prometheus was bestowed with god like powers when he steals the god's fire to give it
to humanity.
Fire in Religion:
 Fire has played a central role in religion. It has been used as God (for example the Indo – Iranian Agni) and
recognized as a symbol of home and family (the heart fire) in many cultures.
- The temple of Vesta in Rome was an outstanding example of the importance of fire to the Romans.
- Vesta is the Roman Goddess of fire and the hearth, whose circular temple in Rome was considered the
central hearth of the City.

Prehistoric Uses of Fire

• Hunter gatherers (people who lived by hunting and gathering wild food) made use of fire so that they can
remain active after the sun set protect themselves from predators, warm themselves, cook and make
better weapon and tools.
• Source of light by taking advantage of the glow of wood-burning fires to continue their activities after dark
and inside their dwelling

Early Methods of Producing Fire

1. Friction Method – Friction increases the temperature of combustible material from kindling to ignition
temperature.
2. Percussion Method – This method generates a spark to set kindling a fire.

Friction Method:
1. Fire Plough – the simplest form of primitive fire making using only natural materials. It consists of rubbing
two sticks together with the base board being one and the other. The rubbing creates friction between the
sticks, and the friction generates heat. This produces its own tinder by pushing out particles of wood ahead
of the friction. This heat eventually causes the wood to ignite. This produces its own tinder by pushing out
particles of wood ahead of the friction.
2. Hand Drill – the hand drill is a more efficient method of rubbing two pieces of wood together. Rapidly
spinning a stick of wood against another piece of wood can generate enough friction and heat to cause the
wood to ignite.
3. Bow Drill – this method is more complicated to build than the other two methods. Of all the friction-fire-
starting methods, the bow drill is the most efficient at maintaining the speed and pressure needed to
produce coal and the easiest to master.
4. Pump Fire Drill – the pump fire drill is the most difficult to construct of all the primitive fire-starting tools.
This is due to its more mechanically complicated nature. The Iroquois invented this ingenious pump drill,
which uses a flywheel to generate friction. The crossbar and flywheel are made of hardwood; the spindle
and fireboard are made from softwoods (as in the hand drill).

Percussion Method:
1. Flint and Steel - This is the easiest of all bushcraft fire starting methods. All that is required is a flint and a
piece of carbon steel (such as your survival knife).

Use of Magnifying Glass

The magnifying glass focuses the sunlight on the tinder, and the energy of the sunlight heats the tinder until
it ignites.

Uses of Fire
Fire is an element that is helpful to human
• source of warmth and light
• protection against enemies
• signaling purposes/ communication
• use to cook the food we eat
• cause chemical changes to foodstuffs to suit man’s body structure
• provides processes for modifying chemicals into medicines
 • provides heat to convert wood, metals, and bones into domestic tools or instruments for aggression
• Used in appliances that rely on fire to operate
• Used to supplement the main heating system in homes
• Used over campfires
• Used in land clearing or fertilization (agricultural purposes)
• Used in incinerators to destroy garbage
• Used to manufacture products and dispose of waste
• Used in heating large boilers to generate steam, which then powers large turbines
• Used as propulsion/ energy
• Used in industrial (smelting, forging)
• Used in power plants to generate electricity
• Used as a weapon in times of war (controlled weapon)

Fire can be dangerous, if not controlled

- It can pollute the atmosphere with emissions harmful to human beings
- It consumes oxygen
- It can destroy things that are essential to life
- It can cause injury and death
- It can be used as a weapon (destruction)

What is Fire?
 The active principle of burning, characterized by the heat and light of combustion (RA 9514)
 A rapid oxidation process, which is an exothermic chemical reaction, resulting in the evolution of light and
heat in varying intensities. (NFPA 921)
 It is a result of the rapid chemical reaction between a fuel, heat, and oxygen (oxidizing agent).

Physical Properties of matter related to fire:

 Specific gravity - refers to the ratio of the weight of the liquid or the solid substance to the weight of an
equal volume of water.
 Vapor density - is the weight of the volume of pure gas opposed to the weight of a volume of dry air with the
same temperature and pressure.
 Temperature - refers to the measure of the degree of thermal agitation or disturbance of molecules.
 Vapor pressure - is the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at equilibrium.
 Kindling temperature - also referred to as ignition temperature - refers to the minimum temperature to
which the substance in the air must be heated in order to start a self-contained combustion without adding
heat from other sources.
 Boiling point - is the constant heat at which vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure.
 Flashpoint - refers to the heat at which a flammable liquid forms a vapor-air mixture that ignites. The
lowest temperature at which substance gives off vapor that burns momentarily (when a flame or spark is
applied)
 Fire point - refers to the lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which vapors are developed
fast enough to support uninterrupted combustion. The temperature at which the fuel continues to burn
after it has been ignited, that even the source of ignition has been removed, the fuel continues to burn.

Chemical Properties of Fire:

1. Endothermic reaction – refers to changes whereby heat is added or absorbed before the reaction takes
place. Energy is conserved in chemical reactions. If stronger bonds break than are formed, heat must be
absorbed from the surroundings, and the reaction is endothermic. Spontaneous endothermic reactions,
are also well known such as the dissolving of salt in water.
2. Exothermic reaction – are those that give off or release energy or heat which produces substance with
less energy than the reactants.
3. Oxidation - refers to the chemical changes in which combustible materials and oxidizing agents react.
Some reactions, such as explosions and fire, take place swiftly. Other reactions, such as rusting, transpire
slowly.
4. Flames - refers to a glowing body of mixed gases undergoing the process of combustion. Flames
commonly consist of a mixture of oxygen (or air) and another gas, usually such combustible substances as
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or hydrocarbon.

Combustion
 A chemical process of oxidation that occurs at a rate fast enough to produce heat and usually light in the
form of either a glow or flame. (NFPA 921, 2021 edition)
Two different processes/modes of combustion:

1. Flaming combustion (e.g., that caused by an open flame source, such as a match, cigarette lighter or candle) is
the process occurring when visible flames and plume of a fire are visible. A flame is the visible, luminous body
where the oxidation reaction is occurring.

2. Smoldering or glowing combustion (e.g., that caused by a cigarette or by radiant heat from a remote fire), is the
slow, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a
condensed-phase fuel.

Theories of Combustion
1. Fire Triangle Theory
2. Fire Tetrahedron Theory
3. Life Cycle of Fire Theory

Fire Triangle
A geometrical figure that diagrams the relationship of the three elements of fire.
The theory of fire states that to produce fire, three (3) things or conditions must exist.
All of these three elements must be present so that there will be a development of the fire. The oxidation
process cannot be sustained without any one of these elements. Thus, the principle of fire extinguishment or
control would be to remove any of the elements in the fire triangle.

Elements of Fire (Fire Triangle)

1. HEAT
- a form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy, as in combustion or burning
(ignition temperature).
- a form of energy characterized by vibration of molecules and capable of initiating and supporting
chemical changes and changes of state.
- a form of energy measured in degree of temperature.
- For a fire to start, there must be a source of ignition.
Heat Sources:
- Open Flame - Hot surfaces
- Electrical circuit - Friction
- Sparks - All sources of ignition
Common Sources of Heat (Types of Heat Energy):
- Chemical Heat Energy - Electrical Heat Energy
- Nuclear Heat Energy - Mechanical Heat Energy
- Heat - Light

 Chemical Heat Energy

The most common source of heat in combustion reactions. Energy released as a result of a chemical
reaction such as combustion. When any combustibles are in contact with oxygen oxidation occurs.
Example:
a) Heat generated from a burning match
b) Self-heating (spontaneous heating)

 Electrical Energy
An energy developed when electrons flow through a conductor. Electrical energy can generate
temperatures high enough to ignite any combustible materials near the heated gases.
Factors involving Electrical Heating:
a) Current flow through a resistance
b) Arcing
c) Sparking
d) Static
e) Lightning

 Nuclear Energy
An energy generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion). Nuclear power plants
generate power as a result of the fission or Uranium-235.
Examples:
a) Fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity
b) The solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction (a form of nuclear energy)

 Mechanical Energy:
 An energy created by friction and compression.
Heat of friction – the movement two surfaces against each other. This movement produced sparks being
generated.
Heat of Compression – heat is generated when a gas is compressed in a container or cylinder.

Energy exists in two types:

Potential Energy – an energy possessed by an object that can be released in the future.
Kinetic Energy – an energy possessed by a moving object.

 Heat:
An energy that is transferred between two objects of differing temperature such as sun and the earth.

 Light:
A visible radiation created at the atomic level, such flame produced during combustion.

2. FUEL
- any substance/ combustibles which react chemically with oxygen and produces flames. For a fire to start there
must be something to burn. A fuel may come in three physical states such as: gases, liquid and solid.
- any material that is combustible, whether solid, liquid or gas (most solid and liquids become vapor or gas before
they will burn).

Fuel Sources:
Solid – molecules are closely packed together. (Solid Fuels)
Liquid – molecules are loosely packed. (Liquid Fuels)
Gas – molecules are free to moved. (Gas Fuels)

Common types of solids:

A. Bulky B. Finely Divided C. Dust
1. Coal 1. Plastic 1. Saw dust
2. Wood 2. Paper 2. Sugar
3. Wax 3. Cork 3. Grain
4. Grease 4. Leather 4. Others

Common types of gases:

1. Natural gas 2. Propane 3. Butane
4. Hydrogen 5. Acetylene 6. Carbon monoxide
7. Others

Common types of liquids:

1. Gasoline 2. Kerosene 3. Turpentine
4. Alcohol 5. Cod liver oil 6. Paint
7. Varnish 8. Lacquer 9. Olive oil

3. OXYGEN
- the common oxidizing agent is oxygen - it is a tasteless, odorless, colorless gas that is generally found within the
Earth's atmosphere - and one of the compositions of air which is approximately 21% by volume. Oxygen – 16% is
required. Normal air contains 21% oxygen. Some fuels contain enough oxygen within their make-up to support
burning.
Oxygen Sources: Oxygen Requirements:
a. 21% of normal oxygen a. 12% - no fire
b. 78% of nitrogen b. 14-15% - flashpoint
c. 1% of other gases c. 16-21% - fire point

Fire Tetrahedron
is a four-sided geometric representation of the four factors necessary for fire: fuel (any substance that can
undergo combustion), heat (heat energy sufficient to release vapor from the fuel and cause ignition), oxidizing agent
(air containing oxygen), and uninhibited chemical chain reaction (sufficient exothermic reaction energy to produce
ignition).
The fire tetrahedron is useful in illustrating and remembering the combustion process because it has room
for the chain reaction and because each face touches the other three faces.
The basic difference between the fire triangle and the fire tetrahedron is that: The tetrahedron illustrates how
flaming combustion is supported and sustained through the chain reaction. In this sense, the chain reaction face
keeps the other three faces from falling apart.
 1. Oxygen (oxidizing agent) – material/substance that yields oxygen or oxidizing gases during the process of a
chemical reaction. Oxidizers are not themselves combustible, but they support combustion when combined
with fuel. For purposes of discussion, the oxygen in the air in the surrounding area is considered the primary
oxidizing agent.
Common Oxidizing Agents:
- Bromates - Iodine - Permanganates
- Fluorine - Perchlorates - Chlorine
- Nitrites - Chlorates - Nitric Acid
- Bromine - Nitrates - Peroxides

2. Fuel (reducing agent) – material or substance being burned in the combustion process. The fuel in a
combustion reaction is known as the reducing agent. Most common fuels contain carbon along with
combinations of hydrogen and oxygen.

3. Heat – the energy component of the fire tetrahedron. When heat comes in contact with a fuel, the energy
supports the combustion process. Heat generated in the oxidizing reaction increases molecular activity.
The rise and fall of molecular activity increases and decreases temperature accordingly.
Temperature is an indicator of heat and is a measure of warmth or coldness of an object based on some
standard.

4. Uninhibited Chemical Chain Reaction (Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction) – the fourth element
- a series of events that occur in sequence with the results of each individual reaction being added to the
rest.
- this process is necessary for continuous combustion. The continuous collisions of molecules in the
reducing and oxidizing agents create thermal energy which sustains the combustion process. This sustained
combustion process is what referred to as chain reaction. If a chain reaction in a fire ceases to exist, the fire
will be extinguished.

Life Cycle of Fire Theory

- stages of combustion wherein fire is created.

The six elements of the life cycle of fire are described by Dawson Powell in The Mechanics of Fire. These
elements are:
- input heat
- fuel
- oxygen
- proportioning
- mixing
- ignition continuity
All of these elements are essential for both the initiation and continuation of the diffusion flame
combustion process

Conditions for a Fire

A fire can be started and sustained only when fuel and oxygen are available in the correct ratios. The only
fuel that can burn is the fuel in a vapor or gaseous state.
A heat source is required to produce these vapors at the surface of the solid or liquid. The quantity of heat
required to initiate the process depends on the combustibility of the materials.

COMBUSTION PROCESS
Combustion Reaction/Process:
- Causes pyrolysis or vaporization of solid and liquid fuels and the production of ignitable vapors or gases;
- Provides the energy necessary for ignition;
- Causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases to continue the combustion
reaction.

THE NATURE OF FIRE

- Often a misconception is that fire burns the actual chair or piece of wood. It is the gases given off by an object
that burns. Heat causes objects to give off these flammable gasses. When the gases reach their ignition
temperature, you see the light given off during the oxidation, known as fire. The fire itself generates more heat
to the object, and thus, an endless cycle begins until all of the gases have been exhausted from the object.
Then the remaining particles or ash are what is left.
- Even the most flammable materials (capable of being easily ignited) do not actually burn. The vapor given off
by a material is the part that burns. When a piece of wood is ignited, the fire is not from the burning wood,
 rather, from the vapors that are given off by the wood. The heat causes the substance in the wood to vaporize.
The heated vapors mix quickly with oxygen in the air and fire results. This process is known as PYROLYSIS.

Pyrolysis defined:
A process in which material is decomposed, or broken down, into simpler molecular compounds by the
effects of heat alone; pyrolysis often precedes combustion.
The chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel. It is the thermal
decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat.

The Process of Pyrolysis:

- The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point;
- Decomposition takes place - moisture in the fuel is converted into vapor;
- Decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel. These combustible vapors
are technically termed as free-radicals;
- Free radicals undergo combustion if the proper amount of oxygen is present.
- Pyrolysis typically starts between 100°C and 250°C. Fuel pyrolysis vapors are the fuel vapors that burn in a
fire. If pyrolysis happens in the presence of oxygen, which is commonly the case in fires, it is called
oxidative pyrolysis. The vapors will be composed of different materials than those occurring when only
thermal pyrolysis takes place.
- In addition to the formation of flammable vapors, some materials will also char. It is this char that reacts
directly with oxygen on the surface during non-flaming combustion.

Char is defined as a carbonaceous material that has been burned or pyrolyzed and has blackened
appearance .

To burn a fuel (combustible material), its temperature must be raised until ignition point is reached. Thus,
before a fuel start to burn or before it can be ignited, it has to be exposed to a certain degree of
temperature. When the temperature of a certain substance is very high, it releases highly combustible
vapors known as FREE RADICALS.

The Most Common Type of Free-Radicals (combustible vapors)

- Hydrogen Gas
- Carbon Monoxide
- Carbon Dioxide
- Nitrogen

VAPORIZATION - Phase change from liquid to vapor state, which is what occurs in a boiling pot of water.

SUBLIMATION - Phase transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase without passing through
the intermediate liquid phase. An example of this would be dry ice.

TYPES OF COMBUSTION
 Rapid Combustion
Rapid combustion causes fire and occurs with the release of a large amount of heat and light. Burning
kerosene oil in a kerosene lamp or burning LPG in gas stoves are examples of rapid combustion
 Explosive Combustion
Explosive combustion occurs when combustion occurs very fast, and ignition occurs to produce heat,
light, and sound. Explosive combustion occurs when a firecracker is ignited, and there is release of heat,
light, and sound energies
 Spontaneous Combustion
Spontaneous combustion occurs when a substance or fuel undergoes combustion and spontaneously
burns in the environmental condition without any external heat supply. When white phosphorus is kept in
the air, it reacts with oxygen to form phosphorus oxide and spontaneously ignites due to a low ignition
temperature of 30°C.
 Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion occurs when fuel burns in a limited supply of oxygen or air to form carbon
monoxide, soot, water vapor, and heat. Incomplete combustion occurs when there is some blockage in
the gas burner, due to which air supply becomes limited and LPG burns with yellow-orange flame, and soot
is also released
 Complete Combustion
Complete combustion occurs when fuel burns in a sufficient air supply to produce carbon dioxide, water
vapor, and heat. LPG burning in an adequate air supply, producing blue flame, indicates complete
combustion of LPG
  Slow Combustion
As the name indicates, combustion that occurs slowly is known as slow combustion. It is low temperature,
a flameless form of combustion. When a smoldering matchstick is dropped on a cloth, it burns slowly with
no flame, and one can observe a hole in that area of the cloth.

PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION:

1. Fire gases – chemical composition of the fuel, percent of oxygen present, and the temperature of the fire. Are
those that remain when other products of combustion cool to normal temperature.
Common combustibles contain carbon, which forms carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide when burned.
Records of fatal fires show that more people died from inhaling these super-heated and toxic fire gases than
from any other cause. The complete combustion of fuels containing carbon will produce CO2, but seldom will there
be enough oxygen for complete combustion. When only part of the carbon is oxidized, carbon monoxide is formed.
When CO is not the most toxic fire gas, it causes more deaths than any other gases because it robs the body
of oxygen. It burns rapidly when combined with oxygen at high temperatures, causing dangerous backdraft or
explosions. Carbon Monoxide, which is sewers, caves, well, mines, stove furnaces, and automobile exhaust.

Types of Poisonous Gases:

Hydrogen Sulfide (HS) – a fire gas formed during fires involving organic material containing sulphur, such as:
Rubber, hair, wood, meat and hides. It is colorless, highly toxic gas with strong odor of rotten eggs. Exposure for
even a short time is dangerous. It will ignite at 500°F.
Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) – a toxic fire gas found in oxygen-starve fires involving nitrogen-containing materials
such as:
Wool, silk, urethane, polymides, and acrylics. These gases are also used as a fumigant which can pose serious
danger to firefighters working in recently fumigated buildings. Hydrogen cyanide smells like bitter almonds which
may not be easily detected.
Hydrogen Chloride (HCL) – is a gas which can be fatal after only a few breaths, is produced in fires involving
chloride-containing plastic. Plastics can be found anywhere; from furnishing to electrical insulation, conduit, and
piping.

2. Flame – the luminous body of a burning gas which gets hotter and less luminous when mixed with more oxygen.
Flame fades when carbon burns completely, so flame is considered a product of incomplete combustion. It is the
manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas phased combustion.
Types of Flames:
A. According to Color and Completeness of Combustions.
1. Luminous flame – a reddish-orange in color, it deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete
combustion; it has lower temperature.
2. Non-luminous flame – bluish in color; it does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete
combustion; it has a higher temperature than luminous flame.
B. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture:
1. Premixed flame – example of a Bunsen burner. Premixed flames occur in any homogeneous mixture where
the fuel and the oxidant are mixed prior to the reaction.
2. Diffusion flame – example of flame of the oxyacetylene torch (diffused-dispersed; widely spread).
Diffusion flame is a flame in which the oxidizer and fuel are separated before burning.
C. Based on Smoothness:
1. Laminar flame – (smooth flame) flame is laminar when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous
flame.
2. Turbulent flame – (rough flame) those having unsteady, irregular swirls and edges.

3. Heat - A form of energy measured in degree of temperature, It is the product of combustion that spread the fire. It
causes burns and other injuries such as dehydration, heat exhaustion, and carbon monoxide formation are the
primary hazards in fires. Energy transferred from one body to another when the temperatures of the bodies differ.
Heat is the most common form of energy found on earth. Temperature is an indicator of heat and is measure the
warmth or coldness of an object based on some standards. In most cases at present, the standards used is based
on the freezing (32*F and 0*C), and boiling points (212*F and 100*C), of water. Temperature is measured using
degrees Celsius in SI and degrees Fahrenheit in the Customary System.

4. Smoke – a visible product of incomplete combustion, a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, CO, CO2 and finely divided
particles released from the burning material.

Meaning of Color of Smoke, Flame and Odor

• White Smoke = indicates burning of humid substances, vegetable compounds, hay or phosporus
• Black smoke with deep red flames = indicates the presence of petroleum products, tar, plastic,
rubber
 • Reddish – brown smoke = indicates nitrocellulose, S1, H2, S04, HN03, HCl.
• Heavy brown smoke with bright red flames = nitrogen products
• White smoke and bright white flames = magnesium
• Black smoke with red and blue – green flames = asphalt
• Biting smoke – indicates the presence of sulfur or chlorine
• Yellow or brownish color = film, nitric acid, sulfur, hydrochloric acid or smokeless gunpowder
• Blue flames and garlic like odors = indicates the presence of alcohol and acetone
• Reddish – brown flames = indicates the presence of substances related to explosives.
• Purple, violet or lavender flames = potassium
• Greenish – yellow flames = chlorine or manganese
• Bright reddish-yellow flames = calcium
• Rotten-Cabbage like odor = indicates the presence of carbon disulfide

* Flame color is not an accurate indicator of what is burning. (NFPA 921)

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
 Based on Cause
 Based on Burning Fuel
– Five Classes of Fire

 BASED ON CAUSE
- Natural fire/ Providential
- Accidental Fire
- Intentional Fire/ Incendiary
- Undetermined

o Natural fire/ providential - Involves fires without direct human intervention; caused by acts of
God. This kind of fire can never be prevented as usually hard to control. It comes in the form of
lightning bolts, erupting volcanoes, or as a result of tremors.
Examples:
- Earthquake
- Typhoon
- Lightning
- Spontaneous combustion arising from the storage of combustible materials in poorly ventilated
places
- Explosion from petroleum products, alcohol, and other substances
- Sun rays focused on glasses which may serve as a convex lens

o Accidental fire – it is caused mostly by human error and negligence. Such as smoking in bed,
defective LPG containers, faulty electrical wiring, leaving plugged electrical appliances.
Examples:
- Carelessly discarded cigarettes
- Careless disposition of readily combustible materials
- Poorly managed or defective heating facilities
- Overheating, spark and electrical defects
- Overload electric circuits/ Octopus connections
- Children playing matches
- Use of candles
- Purely accidental causes
- Negligence and other forms of human error
Accidental Causes – such as
Electrical accidents in the form of:
Induced Current – induced line surge – increased electrical energy flow or power voltage; induced
current; sudden increase of electrical current resulting to the burning of insulating materials,
explosion of the fuse box, or burning of electrical appliances.
Over heating of electrical appliances – the increase or rising of amperage while electric current is
flowing in a transmission line resulting to the damage or destruction of insulating materials, maybe
gradual or rapid, internal or external.
Short Circuit – unusual or accidental connections between two points at different potentials
(charge) in an electrical circuit of relatively low resistance.
Arcing – the production of sustained luminous electrical discharge between separated electrodes;
an electric hazard that results when electrical current crosses the gap between 2 electrical
conductors.
 Sparking – production of incandescent particles when two different potentials (charged
conductors) come in contact; occurs during short circuits or welding operations.

o Intentional Fire/Incendiary – this is known as incendiarism or classified as Arson. This kind of fire
is set on purpose either to collect insurance, cover-up another crime or personal/business rivalry.
If in the burned property, there are preparations or traces of accelerant, plants and trailers,
then the cause of fire is intentional.
• Accelerant – highly flammable chemicals that are used to facilitate flame propagation.
• Plant – the preparation and or gathering of combustible materials needed to start a fire.
• Trailer – the preparation of flammable substances in order to spread the fire.
o Undetermined – whenever the cause cannot be proven, the proper classification is undetermined.

 BASED ON BURNING FUEL

CLASS A
Ordinary combustibles or materials involving vegetable fibers, wood, paper, cloth, rubber, grain,
grass, and some plastics. Nearly all trash fires are considered as Class A.
CLASS B
Flammable or combustible liquids such as gasoline, fuel oils, lubricating oils, and petroleum
greases; animal fats such as butter, lard, and tallow; vegetable extracts such as alcohol, linseed oil,
and turpentine; vegetable compounds such as shortenings and oleomargarines; natural gases and
compressed gases such as butane, propane, hydrogen, and acetylene.
Does not include fires involving cooking oils and grease.
CLASS C
Energized electrical equipment, electrical motors, electrical appliances and apparatus, switches,
panel boxes, and power tools.
The use of water is usually dangerous because of the risk of electrical shock.
CLASS D
Materials involving combustible metals, alloys, or metal compounds either in a solid, semi-solid, or
liquid state. They may further reduce in shavings, grindings, granules, or dust. Some liquid metals
are kept in a liquid state under pressure. Usually, these liquid metals are extremely dangerous.
Some of the more unusual metals are sodium (NA), magnesium, titanium, sodium potassium, and
uranium, as well as pyrophoric organometallic reagents such as alkylithiums, grignards, and
diethylzinc. These types of materials burn at high temperatures and will react violently with water,
air, and/or other chemicals.
CLASS K
Fires involving combustible cooking fluids such as oils and fats.

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER

 Conduction – it is the transmission of heat through an object/medium or conductor, such as pipe, metal,
hot-air duct, wire, or even wall.
 Convection – it is the transmission of heat by the moving currents of liquid or gas. When these gases or
liquids are heated, they start to move within themselves; and by their free motion, circulation starts.
 Radiation – the transmission through the discharge and spread of heat from a heated or burning source.
This radiation takes place through the air or through space that cause another flammable object to ignite.
 Flame contact – heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct flame contact. Fire spreads
along or through burning material by flame contact. When a material is heated to the point where
flammable vapours are releases, the vapours may be ignited. Any other flammable material may be heated
to its ignition temperature by direct contact with the flame or burning vapours.

STAGES OF FIRE DEVELOPMENT

IGNITION / INCIPIENT STAGE
o Point wherein the fire starts
o There is plenty of oxygen, little heat and smoke
o Fire is still small and generally confined to the fuel that initially ignited (material first ignited)
o The period when the four elements of the fire tetrahedron come together, and combustion
begins
o The developing or embryonic stage of fire is immediately after ignition. It means that the fire
has just begun. You can identify it by factors such as:
- The fire has not affected anything beyond its immediate vicinity.
- Smoke has not reduced visibility, and people around can still breathe.
- Everyone in the area can still escape without too much trouble.
- The heat of the fire is relatively low.
- The smoke alarm sounds.
 o Another important characteristic feature of a developing fire is its liminality or uncertainty. It
is at a point where it can either extinguish and avert disaster or establish itself and begin to
spread.
GROWTH
o Temperature and smoke level increases
o Oxygen level decreased and the fuel is already dried out
o Hot gasses rise to the ceiling and spreads outward the walls
o Can be continuous if there is enough fuel and oxygen
o The smoke layer is getting thicker and fire is starting to spread to nearby furniture
o The growth stage occurs when the fire has established itself and burns self-sufficiently.
There is established burning. Then, the fire generates enough heat to cause a positive heat
feedback loop. Here, the fire uses its heat to cause the combustion of surrounding fuel
sources.
o The fire spreads around the area at this stage, engulfing fuels in its path.
o Ways to identify that a fire is in its growth stage include:
 A plume or layer of smoke is visible above the fire. If indoors, smoke may
accumulate in the top two feet of the room.
 You can feel the room’s temperature has increased.
 Windows start to turn brown around the edges and maybe crack. You can no longer
see any condensation on the windows.
o The growth stage is the shortest fire stage, where the flames spread exponentially. It is
hazardous, and people need to be well and evacuated from the building.

FLASHOVER
o Transition between growth and fully developed stage
o Presence of huge smoke which indicates the rapid change of situation
o May involve exposed combustibles
o Increasing level of smoke with decreased visibility
o Gases are generated by heat
o The growth stage often ends when a ‘flashover‘ occurs. A flashover is a moment
in a fire’s life that has generated so much heat that fuels in the vicinity catch fire
spontaneously.
o During a flashover, you typically see a ‘flash’ where the fire spreads
extraordinarily quickly, engulfing an entire room almost instantly.
o The flashover is incredibly dangerous and can trap and burn people and
firefighters in their homes.
o A transition phase in the development of a compartment fire in which surfaces
exposed to thermal radiation reach ignition temperature more or less
simultaneously and, given sufficient availability of oxygen, fire spreads rapidly
throughout the space, resulting in full room involvement or total involvement of
the compartment or enclosed space. (NFPA)

FULLY DEVELOPED (FREE-BURNING)

Free-Burning Phase – the phase of burning in which materials or structures are burning in the
presence of adequate oxygen.
o All combustible materials present are continuously burning
o Maximum amount of heat is released
o The volume of fire is dependent on the number and size of ventilation openings
o Unburned gasses begin flowing to adjacent spaces and ignite once it enter a space where
air is more abundant
o A fully developed fire is a compartment fire in which the entire volume is involved in
combustion of varying intensities.
o It occurs when all combustible materials in the area are involved in the fire; maximum heat
release is based on available oxygen.
o A fire is “fully developed” when it reaches its hottest point and engulfs all the available fuel
sources.
o The fire’s intensity will likely decline unless its conditions change. Changing conditions
include getting a new fuel source, changes in wind patterns, etc.
o This stage is the most dangerous moment in a fire’s life when it’s at its hottest and most
ferocious point.
o People should steer well clear of the fire during the fully developed stage.
o Firefighters often fight the fire from a distance and undertake fire reduction practices. These
practices include back burning (for wildfires) to ensure new fuels can’t get to the fire.
 DECAY (SMOLDERING)
Smoldering Phase – the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases, but dense smoke and heat
completely fill the confined room.
o Intensity of fire decreasing due to lack of available fuel
o Most of fuel consumed
o Effort concentrated on cooling of the remaining fuel
o A fire will enter its decay stage when it runs out of oxygen or fuel to sustain itself.
o The decay phase reflects the reduction in the remaining fuel and fuel area available to burn
or some other interruption of the uninhibited chain reaction, including consumption of
available oxygen or suppression activities.
o This decay is the longest stage and can take weeks for larger fires. But some can lead to
self-extinguishment.
o Another danger of the decay stage is the potential for new oxygen or fuels to get to the fire.
After a fire has finished, you must ensure the fire does not reignite. The structural integrity of
buildings or burnt trees may be compromised, which can cause injuries due to collapsing
structures. Furthermore, a fire may still have many dangerous carcinogens to people and
animals in the vicinity.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE SPREAD OF FIRE

PROPAGATION OF FIRE
Propagation of fire simply means the spread of fire. As a substance burns, fire propagation will be increased
by the transmission of heat by nearby materials. This condition causes additional vapors to be released thereby
spreading the fire.

INTENSITY OF FIRE
Intensity of fire means simply “how hot the fire is burning”. Some types of fuels naturally burn hotter (more
intensely) than others. For example, a gasoline fire burns hotter than a wood fire, while an acetylene flame is hotter
than a gasoline flame.
Factors to determine the intensity of fire:
- Type of fuel
- Percentage of oxygen present

EXPLOSIVE LIMITS
The term “explosive limits” means the amount (expressed in percent) of fuel vapor that can be mixed with air
to form and explosive or flammable mixture. If less that this amount is used, the mixture will not burn. This is known
as “lean to burn”. If more than this amount is used, the mixture is called too “rich” and will not burn.
This is a minimum proportion of vapor-to-air below which the vapor will not burn and there is also a maximum
proportion of vapor-to-vapor in which the mixture will ignite or explode are known as the lower and upper explosive
limits.

MAGNITUDE OF FIRE
This means the size of fire, and it is governed by the surface area of fuel exposed to the air. The magnitude of
fire is not always determined by the amount of fuel involved but more often by the amount of fuel exposed to the air.

IGNITION TEMPERATURE
This is the degree of heat necessary to ignite flammable vapors. This temperature can come from an external
source (match, spark, and friction): or if the fuel itself is raised to this temperature, auto-ignition (self-ignition) will
occur.

FIRE BEHAVIOR
The behavior of fire may be understood by considering the principle of thermal balance and thermal
imbalance.
Thermal Balance refers to the rising movement or the pattern of fire, the normal behavior when the pattern
is undisturbed.
Thermal imbalance, on the other hand, is the abnormal movement of fire due to the interference of foreign
matter. Thermal imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point where the fire
originated.
DANGEROUS BEHAVIOR OF FIRE

Fire is so fatal when the following conditions occurred:

FLASHOVER
Flashover occurs when a room or other area is heated enough that flames sweep over the entire surface.
Fire fighters originally believed that combustible gases released during the early stages of the fire cause
flashover by collecting at the ceiling and mixing with air until they burst into flames.

The point in a fire at which other combustibles within the area ignite, changing the fire from one object on fire
to many objects on fire. Flashover occurs with the initial ignition of the fire in the original object, but on a
much larger scale. Combustible gases coming from the materials in a room rise and collect at the ceiling,
thus, these gases ignite, bringing sheet of flame across the ceiling and raising the overall temperature of the
room as the gases are consumed.

When a flashover occurs, firefighters have only two seconds to escape the room before the temperature rises
up drastically, and they will suffer heat-related injury or death. Temperatures ranging from 1000*F (538*C) to
1500*F (816*C) are very dangerous within seconds to firefighters with or without protective clothing.

Flashover - A transition phase in the development of a compartment fire in which surfaces exposed to
thermal radiation reach ignition temperature more or less simultaneously and, given sufficient availability of
oxygen, fire spreads rapidly throughout the space, resulting in full room involvement or total involvement of
the compartment or enclosed space. (NFPA)

BACK DRAFT
Fire fighters operating at fires in buildings must use precautionary measures when opening a building to gain
entry, by providing ventilation either by horizontal/cross ventilation (opening doors or windows) or vertical
ventilation (opening a hole at the highest portion of the affected part of the building). As the fire grows in a
confine area, large volumes of hot, unburned fire gases can collect in unventilated spaces. These gases may
be at or above their ignition temperature but have insufficient oxygen available to actually ignite. Any action
taken during fire fighting operations that allows air to mix with these hot gases can result in an explosive
ignition called backdraft.

The danger for backdraft can be minimized with proper application of vertical ventilation causing the
unburned gases rise and release through the opening before an entry is made.

Conditions that indicate the danger for Backdraft:

• Pressurized smoke exiting small openings
• Black smoke becoming dense grey yellow.
• Confinement and excessive heat
• Little or no visible flame
• Smoke leaving the building in puffs or at intervals
• Smoke-stained windows.

Backdraft - A deflagration resulting from the sudden introduction of air into a confined space containing
oxygen deficient products of incomplete combustion. (NFPA)

FLAMEOVER/ROLLOVER
The point at which gases produced by pyrolysis ignites. It involves only any gases and is typified by a brief,
sudden ignition in the overhead air.

If the volatile gases around the ceiling have been disturbed through the improper cooling with water, but not
vented, ignition may occur at lower room heights - a danger for fire fighters. To avoid this to happen, the base
of the fire must first wet water before cooling the upper levels. Open ventilation at ceiling heights will also
help by allowing these heated gases to escape.

The terms flameover and rollover are often used to describe the condition where flames propagate through
or across the upper layer only and do not involve the surfaces of target fuels.

Flameover or rollover generally precede flashover but may not always result in flashover. As the fire
develops, the relative significance of radiation heat transfer comes to dominate over convection heat
transfer.
 Flameover/ Rollover - The condition where unburned fuel (pyrolysate) from the originating fire has
accumulated in the upper layer to a sufficient concentration (i.e., at or above the lower flammable limit) that
it ignites and burns. This can occur without ignition of, or prior to the ignition of, other fuels separate from the
origin. (NFPA)

FLASH FIRE
A flash fire is a fire that spreads rapidly through a diffuse fuel, such as dust, gas, or the vapors of an ignitible
liquid, without the production of damaging pressure. (NFPA)

The ignition of diffuse fuels does not necessarily always cause explosions. Whether an explosion occurs
depends on the location and concentration of diffuse fuels and on the geometry, venting, and strength of the
confining structure or vessel, if present, and the presence of obstacles.

A flash fire is a rapidly moving flame front that spreads through a diffuse fuel. It goes without saying that
workers in the oil and gas industries are at a much higher risk for flash fires, due to the nature of the materials
and liquids around which they operate. When a flash fire occurs, it is generally of a short duration and fuel
limited.

Also known as a dust explosion. This may happen when the metal post that is completely covered with dust
is going to be hit by lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a
violent chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion.

BITE BACK
It is a fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists extinguishment operations and become stronger
and bigger instead.

FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT

The extinguishment of fire is based on an interruption of one or more of the essential elements in the
combustion process. With flaming combustion the fire may be extinguished by reducing temperature, eliminating
fuel or oxygen, or by stopping the uninhibited chemical chain reaction. If a fire is in the smoldering mode of
combustion, only three extinguishment options exist: reduction of temperature, elimination of fuel or oxygen.

METHODS OF FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT

 Extinguishment by REDUCTION OF TEMPERATURE (COOLING)

o One of the most common methods of extinguishment is by cooling with water.
o The process of extinguishment by cooling is dependent on cooling the fuel to a point where it does not
produce sufficient vapor to burn.
o If we look at fuel types and vapor production, we find that solid fuels and liquid fuels with high flash points
can be extinguished by cooling.
o Low flashpoint liquids and flammable gases cannot be extinguished by cooling with water as vapor
production cannot be sufficiently reduced.
o Reduction of temperature is dependent on the application of an adequate flow in proper form to establish
a negative heat balance.
 Extinguishment by REMOVAL OF FUEL (STARVATION)
o In some cases, a fire is effectively extinguished by removing the fuel source.
o This may be accomplished by stopping the flow of liquid or gaseous fuel or by removing solid fuel in the
path of the fire.
o Another method of fuel removal is to allow the fire to burn until all fuel is consumed.
 Extinguishment by EXCLUSION OF OXYGEN (SMOTHERING)
o The method of extinguishment by exclusion of oxygen is the reduction of the oxygen concentration to the
fire area.
o This can be accomplished by introducing an inert gas into the fire or by separating the oxygen from the
fuel.
o This method of extinguishment will not work on self-oxidizing materials or on certain metals as they are
oxidized by carbon dioxide or nitrogen, the two most common extinguishing agents.
 Extinguishment by INHIBITION OF CHEMICAL REACTION
o Some extinguishing agents, such as dry chemicals and halons, interrupt the flame producing chemical
reaction, resulting in rapid extinguishment.
o This method of extinguishment is effective only on gas and liquid fuels as they cannot burn in the
smoldering mode of combustion.
o If extinguishment of smoldering materials is desired, the addition of cooling capability is required.