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IMPACT IDENTIFICATION ,PREDICTION AND EVALUATION TECHNIQUES

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO IMPACT
CHAPTER : FIVE (5)
❑Impact
➢A change in parameters over a specified period within a defined area
resulting from a particular activity compared with the situation which
would have occurred had the activity not been implemented.

❑Impact Assessment
➢It refers to the identification and evaluation of environmental changes
occurring as a result of implementing a project.

IMPACT VS EFFECT PHASES OF IMPACT ANALYSIS

Impact Effect
1. It can be defined as a marked effect that 1. It can be defined as a change that is a
can have positive or negative outcomes. result or a consequence of an action or the
other cause. Identification Prediction Evaluation
2. It is the influence of an action/ 2. It is the consequence or outcome of an • To specify the • To forecast the • To determine the
phenomenon on something or someone. action or a phenomenon. impacts nature, significance of the
associated with magnitude, extent residual impacts.
3. It cannot be used synonymously with 3. It can be synonymously with the result, each phase of the and duration of i.e. after taking
result, consequence, outcome etc. consequence, outcome etc. project and the the main impacts into account how
activities mitigation will
4. It refers to how a consequence of some 4. It only refers to consequence undertaken reduce a
action is going to affect someone or predicated impact.
something.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACTS

• Impacts can be classified according to:

➢Type
➢Nature
➢Magnitude
➢Extent
➢Duration
➢Reversibility
➢Significance

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CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACT ACCORDING TO TYPE Impact Description

According to
Impact According Description Type
to Type
4. Cultural • Refers to effects on historic and archeological sites, religious shrines or
Impacts other places of religious significance and traditional values.
1. Biological impact • Relates to effects on biological resources, crops and aquatic life

5. Health •Results in the chances of vector diseases like cholera due to unmanaged
2. Chemical impact •Relates to a chemical change in the quality of the ambient air,
Impact sanitation from the establishment of labor camps for the project
water or soil caused by project activities e.g. untreated effluent •Chances of spread of pandemic diseases like COVID-19 from the influx
discharged directly into a river by a factory may change the of outside labors to the project area
chemical characteristics of the river

3. Social Impacts •Demographic impacts 6. Economic •Project construction and operation

•Economic impacts Impact •Workforce requirement and income earned by workers
•Institutional impacts •Materials and other inputs for the project
•Gender impacts •Capital Investment

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACT ACCORDING TO

NATURE CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACT ACCORDING TO NATURE
Impact Description Impact According Description
According to to Nature
Nature
1. Direct Impact • Alteration in the existing environmental conditions in the proposed
site 2. Indirect Impact • Impacts that arise due to activities related to direct impact.
•It is site specific •These are reasonably foreseeable and occur as a result of an action, but
•It cannot be avoided completely but can be minimized. occur later in time or are removed from the action location.
•Examples •Examples
✓Increased noise and dust ✓Increased traffic
✓Increased Employment (3000 jobs at peak construction) ✓Increased commercial activity
✓Increased training and education ✓Increased employment
✓Increased infrastructure development ✓Small business development
✓Decreased air quality ✓Impact due to laborers by using forest resources involved in
✓Decreased water quality construction activities
✓Increased solid waste
✓Chopping of trees through a forest because of road development.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACT ACCORDING TO MAGNITUDE

Impact Description OR SEVERITY
According to
Nature • High Impact
• Moderate Impact
3. Cumulative •Accumulation of impacts due to multiple development activities in
Impact an ecosystem. • Low Impact
•Impacts may add up in terms of magnitude, spatial extent and long
term duration
•Difficult to identify the cumulative impacts
•Impacts has to be identified individually for individual activities'
of projects.

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CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACT ACCORDING TO CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACT ACCORDING TO

EXTENT DURATION
Impact According to Description Impact According to Description
Extent Duration

1. Site Specific •Limited to project area

1. Short Term Impact •Impact lasts for <3 years after project completion
Impact
2. Local Impact •Within the locality of the proposed project
2. Medium Term •Impact continues for 3-20 years after project
3. Regional Impact •Extend beyond the local area Impact completion
3. Long Term Impact •Impact lasts beyond 20 years after project completion
4. Trans-boundary •International
Impact

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACT ACCORDING TO CLASSIFICATION OF IMPACT ACCORDING TO

REVERSIBILITY SIGNIFICANCE
Impact According to Description • Insignificant Impact
Reversibility • Significant Impact

1. Reversible Impact •Loss of forest cover

•Proponent has obligations to reforest the area
wherever possible

2. Irreversible Impact •Loss cannot be replaced

•Loss of an aquatic ecosystem because of diversion of
a river for hydropower generation or irrigation purpose

IMPACT IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES AD HOC METHOD

➢Simple method based on subjective environment impacts on broad aspects.

2. Checklists 3. Interaction Matrix
➢A good example of an Ad hoc method is a team of expert assembled for a
• Simple Checklists • Simple Matrix
short time to conduct an Environmental Assessment.
1.Ad-hoc Method
• Descriptive Checklists • Leopold Matrix ➢Each expert’s conclusions are based on a unique combination of experience,
• Scaling Checklists • Modified Graded Matrix training, and intuition. These conclusions are assembled into a report.
• Scaling weighing Checklists • Impact Summary Matrix
• Questionnaire Checklists ➢While varying considerably with the team of experts, they usually identify a
broad area of impact rather than define specific parameters which should be
investigated or attempt a quantitative assessment.
4. Network 5. Overlay Mapping
6. Geographic
Information System 7. Task-specific
➢There are 3 types
(GIS) ▪ Opinion poll
▪ Expert opinion
▪ Delphi method

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AD

AD HOC METHOD HOC METHOD
➢It is useful when time constraints and lack of information require that the Advantages Disadvantages
EIA must rely on expert opinion. 1. Specialists on a particular area will 1. It requires expert person.
➢It serves as a preliminary assessment which helps in identifying more provide guidance 2. It provides minimal guidance for
important areas like wildlife, natural vegetation, noise, groundwater, open 2. Simple and easily understandable. impact analysis, while suggesting
space, public facilities etc. 3. Overall environmental components are subjective area of impacts.
enlisted. 3. Not good for organizing, reviewing
➢Being simple, it can be performed without any training.
and interpreting data.
➢It provides minimal guidance for total impact assessment while suggesting 4. The identification and prediction of
the broad areas of impacts. short and long term impacts are poor
because it examines on a guess basis.

AD HOC METHOD CHECKLISTS METHOD

➢Checklists are standard lists of the types of environmental potential

impacts, which may be associated with respective project.
➢The lists are prepared with highly structured approaches and involve
importance with weighing of factors and ensure that no potential impact is
overlooked.
➢Checklists are very effective in impact identification and capable to spread
awareness and attention for respective people.
➢Checklists should enable identification of impacts on soil, water,
atmosphere, flora, fauna, resources, recreation and culture etc.

Checklists SIMPLE CHECKLIST

A. Simple Lists:
➢ These are very simple to use contain only a list of environmental
factor
➢ These focus attention only on those factors which have to be
considered for EIA analysis
➢ Their use ensures that a particular factor is not omitted from analysis
➢ In essence these checklists act as an aide de memoire. (assistance to
description)
B. Questionnaire checklist:
➢ This method includes a set of question to be answered
➢ The questions are listed under generic categories such as
➢ A. terrestrial system B. disease vectors

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SIMPLE CHECKLIST TYPES OF CHECKLISTS

• Descriptive Checklist
• It includes an identification of environmental parameters and guidance on how
parameter data are to be measured.

TYPES OF CHECKLISTS TYPES OF CHECKLISTS

• Scaling Checklist
• It is similar to descriptive checklist with the addition of information to subjective
scaling or parameter values

• It is similar to scaling checklist, with

additional information for the subjective
Scaling Weighting evaluation of each parameter with respect
Checklist to all other parameters.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

TYPES OF CHECKLISTS CHECKLIST METHOD
• Questionnaire Checklist
• It is a list of questions or
items used to gather data
Advantages Disadvantages
from respondents about 1. Useful for summarizing information 1. They are too general or incomplete.
their attitudes,
experiences or opinions.
to make it accessible to experts in 2. They do not illustrate interactions
• Questionnaires can be
different fields or decision makers between effects.
used to collect who have little technical knowledge. 3. The number of categories to be
quantitative and/or 2. Preliminary analysis will be available reviewed can be immense, which will
qualitative information. in scaling checklists. create confusion about significant
3. Information on ecosystem functions impacts.
can be clearly understood from 4. Involves the identification of effects
weighing methods which are qualitative and subjective.

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MATRIX METHOD FUNCTIONS OF MATRIX METHOD

➢It provides a framework for interaction between project activities and their ➢Preliminary identification of impacts (scoping)
environmental impacts. ➢Comparative analysis of alternatives.
➢It can evaluate degree of impacts of project activities on environmental ➢Impact assessment.
resources.
➢Presentation of evaluation results.
➢It is a grid like table that one axis displayed project activities and other axis
displayed environmental characteristics.
➢It can also evaluate the cumulative and indirect impacts as well as
interaction with resources.
➢Observed as a two dimensional checklist:
✓Axis of actions
✓Axis of environmental components.
✓The intersections are the impacts.

TYPES OF MATRIX SIMPLE MATRIX

❑Simple Matrix
➢It is simply a list of environmental aspects listed along the
vertical axis. Against which we determine whether an
activity would have an adverse effect, no effect or
beneficial effect.
➢A simple “x” or “tick” is given under the appropriate
column.
➢Sometimes, the activities are listed along the horizontal
axis with the environmental aspects in the vertical axis,
and the same “x” is given to those pairs that have an
interaction between themselves.

SIMPLE MATRIX LEOPOLD MATRIX

➢It is a qualitative measurement of environmental/ social

impacts of a development project.
➢This matrix consists of a list of project activities on the
horizontal axis and environmental/ social aspects on the
vertical axis.
➢The environmental aspects listed on the vertical axis are
those that are likely to be affected by any of the project
activities.
➢This was designed by Leopold in 1971.
➢This matrix is one of the two major forms of matrices
used in EIAs.

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LEOPOLD MATRIX LEOPOLD MATRIX

➢The cells of the matrix are divided by a diagonal line.

➢The top division is used to describe the magnitude of the impact that the
activity will have on the environmental aspect, and the bottom division is
used to describe the significance of that impact.
➢Both, the magnitude and the significance, are rated on a scale of 1 to 10.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

DISADVANTAGES OF LEOPOLD MATRIX MATRIX METHOD
➢It does not explicitly(clearly) describe spatial and temporal(time based, Advantages Disadvantages
progressive) effects of the environmental activity. It merely gives us the
magnitude and significance of the interaction. 1. Visually describe relationship 1. Difficult to distinguish direct
between two sets of factors. and indirect impacts.
➢It tends to be too simplified when you require a comprehensive analysis of 2. Expanded or contracted to meet 2. Significant potential for double
the impacts on the project area. A numerical value of the magnitude and needs of the proposal being –counting of impacts.
impact is not sufficient for a contractor to understand the impact their assessed. 3. Qualitative.
activities are having and why they should overcome it. 3. Identify impacts of different
➢They cannot explain linkages between two environmental aspects. In other phases of project, construction,
words, it does not describe secondary and tertiary impacts. operation and so on.
4. Help separate site-specific
impacts from impacts affecting
region.

Impact Identification Matrix

Impact Summary Matrix (ISM)
➢ It is an easy method
➢ complete form of matrix which is helpful for decision makers
➢ It can clearly identify the potential impact areas, predict the
impact severity ,specify the corresponding mitigation measures
➢ It is simple and covers all the aspects, and provides a complete
EIA overview is summary form
➢ It provides an easy guide for decision makers

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NETWORK METHOD NETWORK METHOD

➢Network method identifies the pathway of an impact using a series of

chains (networks) between a proposed action and the receptor of an
impact.
➢It attempt to recognize a series of impacts that may be triggered(
produced) by a project action.

OVERLAY METHOD
Advantages and Disadvantages of Network Method ➢It is based upon a set of transparent maps.
➢Each represent the spatial distribution of an environmental characteristics.
Advantages Disadvantages
➢The set of transparent maps have information about physical, social,
Link action to impact. Can become overly(very) complex if ecological, aesthetic characteristics of the project area and after
used beyond simplified version. overlapping to produce a composite characterization of the regional
environment.
Useful in simplified form in checking for Qualitative
second order impacts. ➢Older technique: environmental features are mapped on transparent plastic
in different colors.
➢Newer Technique: Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
Handles direct and indirect impacts.

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GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR

OVERLAY METHOD OVERLAYS
• These are now being used as layered overlay techniques.
• Computer modules can be used to store the characteristics of the proposed
developments and the surrounding area.
• This enables us to introduce impact weightings into assessment.
• The computer can perform the complex mathematical operation required when
a large number of variables are weighted.
• GIS is a powerful management tool for resource managers and planners.
• Its applications are limited only by the quality, quantity and coverage of data
that are fed into the system.
• Some of the standard GIS applications are integrating maps made at different
scales, overlaying different types of maps which show different attributes and
identifying required areas within a given distance from roads or rivers.
• For example by overlaying maps of vegetation and soils, a new map on land
can be generated and the impact of proposed projects can be studied.

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

OVERLAY METHOD 5.1.2 Impact Analysis
Advantages Disadvantages EIA identifies and predicts the likely Environmental and social impact of the
proposed project and evaluates the significance.
1. It is a simple technique to display impact 1. Address only direct impacts.
areas. 2. Do not address impact duration or
2. Intensity of impacts can be presented by probability. Methods of Impact Analysis
color shading 3. It cannot be used to quantify impacts to
3. Effective visual aid identify secondary and tertiary
1. Impact Identifications
4. Useful for documentation of environmental interrelationships. 2. Impact Prediction
conditions before and after project 3. Impact Evaluation
implementation.
5. May describe both biophysical and social
aspects of area under study.
6. Highly communicative.
7. Easy to integrate multiple information.

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5.2.1 Impact Prediction OBJECTIVE OF IMPACT PREDICTION

• Refers to the analysis of the condition of potential impacts in future.

Objective of impact prediction is to find out
• Takes reference point based on the baseline and describe the condition with or
without action. ➢How any project component may give rise to an impact
• Prediction of impacts helps to know what will happen on the environmental ➢Probability of occurrence of impacts
resources during and after Project implementation in a given area.
➢Magnitude of each impact
• Impact prediction or forecasting is a technical exercise.
➢Spatial and temporal of each impact
• focuses on prediction of significant environmental modification, forecasting of
quantity, spatial dimensions of changes in environment.

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TYPICAL PARAMETERS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT IN Impact Prediction

IMPACT PREDICTION
➢Nature (positive, negative, direct, indirect, cumulative) Magnitude:
➢Magnitude (severe, moderate, low) Severity of impact

➢Extent/ location (area/ volume covered, distribution)

➢Timing (during construction, operation, decommissioning, immediate, Extent:
delayed, rate of change) Basis For Impact Prediction
Zone of influence
➢Duration (short term, medium term, long term)
➢Reversibility/ irreversibility
➢Likelihood (probability, uncertainty or confidence in the prediction) Duration:
Continuity of impact
➢Significance (local, regional, global)
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Impact Prediction
Types of Impact prediction methods
A. Extrapolative Approach B. Normative methods 1. Mathematical models
2. Statistical models
3. Geographic models
➢Predictions are made on the • Normative methods examine how 4. Field and experimental methods
basis of past and present data, the fulfillment of a desired target is 5. Physical models
trend or scenario. achieved. 6. Expert judgement

Have to fulfill (almost all if possible) the following objectives : Such models/methods
should
➢It include trend and scenario • Prediction by setting targets e.g. if 1. Produce acceptable results
analysis (the common sense in one construction project, a target 2. Be replicable
forecast of the future), analogies set is to employ 50% of the local 3. Be consistent
(transferring experience from populace. Meeting this target, may 4. Be adoptable.
elsewhere), and intuitive forecast require changing the project and 5. Be simple to use
from group consensus. associated employment policy 59

1. Mathematical model MATHEMATICAL MODEL

➢ Based on Cause – effect Relationship usually expressed in the form of mathematical functions.
➢ May be simple Input Output model or complex dynamic types. ❑Air Quality Model
➢ Models which are comprehensive and provide holistic approach are often rare in use.
For a given set of these conditions, the plume will rise
➢ Are generally developed for estimating quantitative change on physical environment, particularly air, water and
noise. to some height (∆h)
Mathematical Models are also divided into 3 types
1. Deterministic : Derived through fixed relationship.
The height of the stack plus the plum rise (∆h) is called
➢ Commonly used in socioeconomic impact prediction. effective stack height.
• For example, concentration of BOD mix can be calculated using BOD and discharge of stream and sewage using
following formula.
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑠 ∗ 𝑄𝑠 + 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑟 ∗ 𝑄𝑟
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑟
2. Stochastic : Is probabilistic type. Depends upon the degree of probability of occurrence.
These models reflect the natural variations occurring in the environment and results are presented as a frequency
distribution of probable outcomes rather than as a single value.

3. Mass Balance : Primarily useful for predicting impacts from industries and manufacturing sectors.

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MATHEMATICAL MODEL
2.Statistical model

➢Statistical analysis are used to indicate the relationship between the data and test
hypothesis.
➢Statistical techniques such as regression or component analysis are used to establish
cause and effect relationships
➢For example in predicting flood frequencies.

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3.Geographic model 4. Field And Experimental methods

• Satellite images, physical maps and aerial photographs are used ➢ Field inventories before project implementation provide baseline condition of resources.
with GIS system. ➢ Laboratory tests provide some insight on the effect of certain activities on the resources.
• Can be made by analyzing the effect of project activities on the
resources present in the location. ➢ For example: A fish resource survey in Kaligandaki River in Nepal indicated that a long distance
migratory fish species are existing in the river.
➢It could be then determined that the construction of dam in the u/s part of the river might create
an obstruction for their u/s migration of the fish for breeding

➢Such an impact would lead to decline of the fish population in the u/s of the dam unless
migration is planned to deal with the problem.

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5. Physical Models
Types of Uncertainties in Impact Prediction 34
• Closely liked to the field and laboratory experiments. Application of
similar condition on models.
• Basically, a model of an area likely to be impacted is constructed but on a smaller Scientific Uncertainty: Data uncertainty: Policy uncertainty:
scale limited understanding of Incomplete unclear or
➢For example: the exposure of fish in a laboratory to concentrations of pollutants to ecosystem or community information/insufficient disrupted objectives
determine mortality levels affected methodology or standards
➢Field trials of the effectiveness of different methods of erosion control.

6. Expert Judgement Approaches to Address Uncertainties in Impact Prediction

• The experience of one place could be utilized for similar places elsewhere here
environmental impacts are unknown. “Best” and “worst”
case prediction to Attaching confidence “Sensitivity analysis to
• For example: many irrigation development projects produce effects of salinization.
illustrate the spread limits to impact determine the effect of small
• Decisions on anticipated impact based on past experience are the result of conceptual predictions; and changes in impact magnitude
model often referred to as expert judgements. of uncertainty
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Impact Evaluation
Impact Evaluation provides useful information to decision makers for selecting appropriate choice. Once ➢ Can be of various types including formal, informal, quantitative or qualitative and,
the impacts are predicted, there is need to assess their relative significance/insignificance/non -significance, aggregated or disaggregated.
Called Evaluation.
➢ The most formal method is the comparison of likely impacts against legal
Criteria for significance include: EVALUATION OF IMPACTS
➢ Magnitude requirements and standards such as air quality and water quality thresholds, building
➢ Likelihood of impacts codes etc.
➢ Spatial and temporal extent, ➢ Beyond this, the evaluation involves interpretation and application of judgment.
➢ Likely degree of recovery of affected environment Significance of assessment may be based on factors such as:
➢ Value of affected environment
➢ Consideration to impact characteristics such as magnitude, geographic extent,
➢ Level of public concerns
➢ Political repercussions duration, reversibility
➢ Comparison with accepted standard, e.g. Dissolved oxygen level, noise level, etc
The evaluation is an attempt to answer whether or not the predicted changes and its consequences are ➢ Legal provisions such as protected species, or features
significant enough to matter. Evaluation of impacts should be based on comparing the values against set ➢ Public sensitivity and social, cultural, economic implications,
standards
➢ Ecological functions and importance
➢ Professional intuitive judgment of potential implications.

METHOD OF IMPACT EVALUATION METHOD OF IMPACT EVALUATION

➢In order to determine the significance of impacts, impact ➢A sum of the impact values for magnitude, extent , duration provides a maximum
ranking methodology shall be used which helps to compare the of 140 and a minimum of 25.
relative environmental impacts of a project. ➢This type of ranking methodology is useful for comparing different project
alternatives.
Magnitude Extent Duration ➢The impact values or scores for each of the alternatives are summed up and
multiplied by the probability of occurrence for the particular impact.
High/ 60 Regional 60 Long 20 ➢The final impact scores for all alternatives can be compared and highest value
Major Term corresponds to the greatest potential for environmental impact.

Moderate 20 Local 20 Medium 10

Term
Minor 10 Site 10 Short 05
Specific Term

Condition for Impact to be significant

• If they are extensive over a space of time

• If they are intensive in concentration
• If they exceed environmental standard or threshold 5.4 Numerical On Impact Prediction
• Do not comply with environmental policies
• Effects ecological sensitive area and heritage resource
• Affect community lifestyle and values

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Necessity of Numerical Calculation Of Impact 5.4.1 Numerical on impact prediction and Evaluation

We will discuss 3 type of numerical

Waste like sewage and smoke produces Due to development of different

infrastructure and industry producing civil engineering material like cement , Brick , 1. BOD problem of sewage in rever

1.1 Final BOD after mixing of sanitary of two or multipal BOD in rever
which cause pollution in environment so mathematical analysis should be done for 1.2 critical DO and its time and location
sustainable development 2. Soil erosion problem
3. Distance up to which smoke of chimney affect

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01

5.4.2 Expression for BOD From graph

BOD remaining at any time t Lt = Lo (e-kt)

L0 Where L0 is the
BOD remove from the sewage (Yt ) = L0 – Lt = L0 (1- e-kt )
initial organic
Lt
BOD exerted ( i.e amount of mater in the 5 days BOD is taken as initial BOD for sewage
&
Yt Bod overcome by bacteria sewage Where K is the decomposition constant at
- Lt is organic 200 c
Amount of BOD
mater or BOD
remaining at any time t Kt = K20 © T-20
- Yt is BOD
Where © = 1.047
Time “t” in days exerted at any
time t

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Factors Affecting self Purification Different equation for critical BOD calculation

Oxidation
𝐾𝐿0
1. Dt = [10-KT - 10-RT] + D0 * 10-Rt
Reduction Dilution 𝑅−𝐾
𝐾
2. Dc = 𝑅 L0 10 –kt c

Factors affecting self R𝜃 = R20(1.016)𝜃-20

Temperature purification 𝑅
Current
1
3. Tc = 𝑅−𝑘log10 [ f ( 1-(f -1 )L ) ]
s s
𝐷0
0
Where fs =
K
K𝜃 = K20(1.047)𝜃-20
K20= 0.1 /day

4. Xc = V*tc
Sedimentation
Sunlight 𝐷
[𝑓𝐿0𝐷 ](fs -1) =[ fs ( 1-(fs-1) 0 ]
𝑠 L0 79
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Type one problem of BOD Type one problem of BOD

A stream saturated with DO has a flow of 1.5 m3/s ,BOD 4 mg/lit and rate constant (K1) of 0.1 per day A stream saturated with DO has a flow of 1.5 m3/s ,BOD 4 mg/lit and rate constant (K1) of 0.1 per day . It Receive an
. It Receive an effluent discharge of 0.5 m3/s having BOD 20 mg/lit and DO 5 mg/lit . The average effluent discharge of 0.5 m3/s having BOD 20 mg/lit and DO 5 mg/lit . The average velocity of flow of stream is 0.2
velocity of flow of stream is 0.2 m/sec . The average depth of stream is 1.2 m . Calculate DoO deficit m/sec . The average depth of stream is 1.2 m . Calculate DoO deficit at 30 KM downstream . Assume temperature
at 30 KM downstream . Assume temperature throughout 20 0C and BOD is measured in d days . The throughout 20 0C and BOD is measured in d days . The saturation DO at 20 0C as 9.17 mg/lit
saturation DO at 20 0C as 9.17 mg/lit

Solution Solution
Dostream = 9.17 mg/lit Dosewage = 5 mg/lit 9.17∗1.5+20∗0.5
2) Domix = = 8.1275 mg/lit
Qstream = 1.5 Qsewage = 0.5 1.5+0.5
Rate costant (K1 ) = 0.1 per day DO deficit at 30 KM = ? 3) Initial DO deficit (D0 ) = 1.0425 mg/lit
Velocity of flow (v) = 0.2 m/s 4) BODmix = L0(1-10-kt )
Depth of flow (H) = 1.2 m Bed coefficient (ղ) = 0.1( taken ) 8 = L0(1-10-0.12*5)
L0 = 10.68 mg/lit
𝑉 0.2
1) Kd = K + ղ= 0.1 + ∗ 0.1 = 0.12 per day and , ( 6) At Xt =30 KM
𝐻 1.2 𝑋 30∗1000
t= = = 1.736 days
𝑉 𝑉0.2∗24∗3600
𝑉 0.2
. = 3.9
Rr = 3.9
1.21 5= 1.33 per day
.
𝐻1 5

Where , V= velocity in m/s , H = depth in m and ղ = Bed activity coefficient . (0.1)

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Q.1 A town discharge 120 m3/sec of sewage into a river having a rate of flow 1600 m3/sec, during lean period with a
Using streterphelp’s equation, velocity 0.1 m/sec . The day BOD of sewage at the given temperature is 250 mg/lit . Find the amount of critical DO deficit
and when and where it will occur in the downstream of the river . Assume deoxygenation costant ‘k’ as 0.1 per day and
𝐾𝐿 coefficient of self purification fs as 3.5 . Saturation DO at given temperature is 9.2 mg/lit
Dt = 𝑅−𝐾0 [10-kt- 10-Rt] + Do*10-Rt
Solution

D1.736 = 0.655 mg/lit Qriver = 1600 m3/sec

Qsewage = 120 m3/sec
( where K=0.12; Self purification constant (fs) = 3.5
𝐿0 =10.68; R =1.33; K= 0.12; D0 =1.0425) BODsewage = 250 mg/lit
Velocity of flow (v) = 1 m/s
DO deficit at 30 KM = 0.655 mg/lit Rate costant (k1) = 0.1 m/s
Assume BODriver = 0 mg/lit
Dosewage = 0 mg/lit
Let DO in river is saturated DO i.e Dosewage = Doriver = 9.2 mg/lit

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𝐷𝑂𝑠∗𝑄𝒔+𝐷𝑂𝒓∗𝑄𝑟
1) Domix = 5) Time of critical DO deficit
𝑄𝒔+𝑄𝑟
0∗120+9.2∗1600
=
120+160 tc=
1
𝑘(𝑓𝑠−1)
log10 [ f {1-( f -1)𝐷𝐿 }]
s s
o
o

= 8.56 mg/lit
2) initial Do deficit (Do) = Dos –DOmix = 9.2-8.56 = 0.64 mg/lit =
1
log10 [ 3.5 {1-( 3.5 -1)
0.64
}]
0.1(3.5−1) 25.508

3) BODmix =
𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑠∗𝑄𝑠+𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑟∗𝑄𝑟
=
250∗120+0∗1600
=17.442 mg/lit
2.064 days
tc =
𝑄𝑠+𝑄𝑟 120+1600
6) Critical DO deficit
BODmix = Lo (1-10-kt ) 1 1
Dc = 𝑓 Lo 10-k*tc = 3.5*25.508* 10-0.1*2.064 = 4.532 mg/lit
c

17.442 = Lo (0.684) Dc = 4.532 mg/lit

( Where, k=0.1 per day and t=5 day) 8) The distance of critical DO deficit from the outfall,

Lo =25.508 mg/lit Xc = v*tc = 0.1(2.064*24*3600)

84
Xc = 17.83 Km 85

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Oxygen Sag Analysis Deoxygenation,Reoxygenation and Oxygen Sag Curve

➢Deficit means "Lacking".

➢Oxygen deficit or oxygen sag in the stream, at any point of time during the self
purification process is the difference between the saturation DO content and the
actual DO content at that time;
➢ Oxygen deficit, D= Saturation DO - Actual DO

➢The normal saturation DO value for fresh water depends upon the temperature and
total dissolved salts present in it; and its value varies from 14.62 mg/L at 0 oC to
7.63 mg/L at 30oC respectively.

➢The variation of oxygen deficit (D) with the distance along stream or time of flow
from the point of application is depicted by oxygen sag curve.

21 22

• The amount of the resultant oxygen deficit can be obtained by

algebraically adding the deoxygenation and re-oxygenation curve. The
➢The major point in sag analysis is point of minimum DO or the point of resultant curve so obtained is called the oxygen sag curve. From the
maximum deficit.
curve, the oxygen deficit D and oxygenation balance (100-D)% in a
stream after a certain lapse of time can be found out.
➢The maximum or critical deficit (Dc) occurs at the inflection point of the
oxygen sag curve. • It can be seen that when deoxygenation rate exceeds the reoxygenation
rate, the oxygen sag curve shows increasing deficit of oxygen; but when
➢In running polluted stream exposed to atmosphere, the de-oxygenation both rates become equal, the critical point is reached, and finally when the
and reoxygenation process occurs simultaneously. If the deoxygenation rate of deoxygenation falls below that of reoxygenation, the oxygen
is more rapid than the reoxygenation, an oxygen deficit occurs. deficit goes on decreasing till becoming zero.

24 25

The rate of reoxygenation depends upon:

Reoxygenation Curve
➢Velocity of the stream and the resulting turbulence created, more
➢Oxygen which is consumed by the bacteria in oxidation of the velocity more is the rate.
organic matter is replenished from the atmosphere into the
stream through various processes such as photosynthesis, rains ➢The depth of the receiving water, lesser is depth more is the rate.
etc, this process is called reoxygenation.
➢Temperature of water, rate decreases with increase in temperature.
➢The curve representing oxygen gaining process is known as
reoxygenation or reaeration curve. ➢The saturation deficit or the oxygen deficit below the saturation
value.

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6.7 Streeter Phelp's Equation (Mathematical Analysis)

• It gives DO deficit at any time t.
• Oxygen deficit is a function of oxygen consumption and oxygen supply by reaeration;
➢The rate of deoxygenation depends upon the amount of organic matter
remaining (Lt), to be oxidized at any time t, as well as temperature (T) at which dDt/dt = f(deoxygenation and reoxygenation)
reaction occurs. dDt/dt =k'(Lt) - R'(Dt).....................(i)
dDt/dt=Rate of change of oxygen deficit.
➢The curve showing depletion of DO with time is called de-oxygenation curve. k'=Deoxygenation rate constant to the base e.
Lt=BOD at any time t.
➢The ordinates below the deoxygenation curve indicate the oxygen remaining in R'=Reaeration rate constant to the base e.
the natural stream after satisfying the biochemical demand of oxygen. Dt=Oxygen deficit (combined w/w and river).
Lt=Loe-K’t where Lo=BOD remaining at time t=0 hence
➢ The curve is similar to the first stage BOD curve. dDt/dt = K'Loe-K’t - R’Dt
dDt/dt+ R’(Dt)= K'Loe-K’t ….(i’) This is 1st order 1st degree differential equation. Using
standard procedure for the solution of above equation we get

Dt ={K'Lo(e-K't - e-R't)}/(R'-K') + Doe-R't .....(ii)

29 30

Changing the equation to base 10, we get,

Critical time (base 10)
-Kt -Rt -Rt ......(iii)
Here, Dt ={ KLo(10 -10 )}/(R-K) + Do10 • tc=(1/(R-K))[log10{(R/K){1-(Do(R-K)/KLo)}
K=Deoxygenation rate constant to the base 10.
R=Reoxygenation rate constant to the base 10. • The distance xc is given by:
Do=Initial oxygen deficit at the point of waste discharge at time t=0 xc=tc*v
Lo=Initial BOD load where v=velocity of the flow in the stream
• Equation(iii) is the classic Streeter Phelps oxygen sag equation which is • Deoxygenation constant(K) varies with temperature,T as :
commonly used in river analysis.
KT=K20θ(T-20)
• Determination of critical DO deficit (Dc) at point xc is of engineering significance.
The value of Dc can be obtained by putting dDt/dt=0 in eqn (i’) where θ=constant whose value is taken as 1.056 for T=(200to300C) and 1.135 for
T=(40to200C)
Critical DO Deficit , Dc=(K'/R')Loe-K'tc K20=Deoxygenation constant (base 10) at T=200C
Dc=(K/R)L 10-Ktc (iv)
• In equation(iv), o • Reoxygenation constant also varies with temperature,T as:
tc=time required to reach the critical point which can be calculated by Rt=R20(1.024)(T-20)
differentiating w.r.t t and setting dDt/dt = 0 thus: where R20=Reoxygenation constant (base 10) at T=200C
tc=(1/(R'-K'))[loge{(R'/K'){1-(Do(R'-K')/K'Lo)} • Ratio (R/K) or (R'/K') is called self purification constant(fs).
31 32

6.8 Numerical on self purification of river

Formula to remember

33

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K2=R=Reoxygenation rate

34 35

Q.A city is discharging its sewage into a river. The following data are available.

36

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105

➢ Frequently used to analyze the air quality impacts of single,elevated point sources.
1 𝑦 1 𝐻
𝑄
➢ 𝐶𝑥,𝑦,0 = 𝜋𝜎 𝑒 − 2( ൗ𝜎𝑦)^2
.𝑒 −2(ൗ𝜎𝑧 )^2
𝑦 𝜎𝑧 u

where , 𝐶𝑥,𝑦,0 =G.L. concentration of gas,or particulate ˂ 20 μm in size at a distance x m in downwind from
source and distance y in m crosswind (90⁰ from wind direction) from source in 𝜇𝑔/𝑚 3 .
Q=release rate of gas or particulate ˂ 20 𝜇𝑚 in size from elevated point source, 𝜇𝑔/sec.
𝜎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑧 =horizontal and vertical dispersion coefficients representing amount of plume spreading in
crosswind and vertical direction resp. at dist. x
downwind from a source and under a given atmospheric stability condition.
u = mean wind speed
H = effective stack height = actual ht.+ plume height

106

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Q. A cement factory burns 8 tons of coal/hr and discharges the combustion products through a stack of effective ht. 672×1000
Rate of emission of 𝑆𝑂2 = 60×60
= 186.67 g/sec
of 75 m.The coal has a sulphur content of 4.2% and the wind velocity at top of stack is 6 m/s. The atmospheric
conditions are moderately to slightly unstable. Take 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜎𝑧 as 220 m and 190 m,respectively. Predict the maximum
G.L. concentration of 𝑆𝑂2 at 1500 m downwind and 400 m crosswind direction. Now, maximum G.L. concentration of 𝑆𝑂2 ,
1 𝑦 1 𝐻
𝑄
𝜎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎𝑧 =horizontal and vertical dispersion coefficients 𝐶𝑥,𝑦,0,𝐻 = 𝜋𝜎 𝑒 −2 ( ൗ𝜎𝑦)^2
.𝑒 −2( ൗ𝜎𝑧 )^2
representing amount of plume spreading in crosswind and 𝑦𝜎𝑧 u
Solution :- 1 1 75
vertical direction resp. at dist. x 186.67 − (400Τ220)^2 Τ190)^2
Rate of emission of 𝑆𝑂2 ,
= 𝜋×220×190×6 𝑒 2 𝑒 −2(
= 4.2× 10−5 g/𝑚 3
Coal burnt per hr = 8 tons = 8000 kg = 42 𝜇𝑔/𝑚 3.
So, Sulphur produced per hr= 8000 × 4.2%
= 336 kg.
Sulphur combines with oxygen on a one to one basis as the
molecular mass of both S and 𝑂2 is 32 to produce 𝑆𝑂2

So , 𝑆𝑂2 produced per hr = 336 kg of S + 336 kg of 𝑂2 =672 kg

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