Physica B 685 (2024) 416027

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Physica B: Condensed Matter

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/physb

Dye-sensitized solar cell: Effect of light on N3 dye/BMII electrolyte

based architecture
Mustafa Okutan a, b, *, Fahrettin Yakuphanoğlu b, c, Mücteba Ibrahim Okutan a, b,
Andreas Bablich d, Peter Haring Bolívar a, **
a
Institute of High Frequency and Quantum Electronics, University of Siegen, 57068, Siegen, Germany
b
Muson Engineering, Yildicz Technical University Technopark, Davutpaşa, 34220, Istanbul, Turkey
c
Department of Physics, Faculty of Arts and Science, Firat University, 23169, Elazig, Turkey
d
Institute of Graphene-Based Nanotechnology, University of Siegen, 57068, Siegen, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study evaluates the photovoltaic performance of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) for various light con­
Photovoltaic cell efficiency ditions. This work focuses on exploring the experimental characteristics of a thin-film solar cell composed of an
DSSC ITO/TiO2/N3-Dye and BMII electrolyte molecules/Pt/ITO. A meticulous investigation is conducted to under­
TiO2 nanoparticles
stand the impact of different illumination intensities on the efficiency of these solar cells. In the experiments, the
N3 dye
BMII electrolyte
power conversion efficiencies (PCE) of the device reached 7.61 % with a maximum open-circuit voltage (Voc) of
Solar simulator 0.67 V under 100 mW/cm2 AM 1.5 solar irradiance. The morphology of the TiO2 nanoparticles that have been
synthesized for the DSSC were analyzed by Ultraviolet–Visible Spectrometry, X-Ray Diffractometry, as well as
Scanning Electron Microscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
parameters and Nyquist plot results showed that a systematic understanding of charge transfer within the DSSC is
essential to extract an equivalent circuit model. The results of this study allow optimizing the performance of
future DSSCs for sustainable energy systems.

1. Introduction (bipyridine-2,2′-bis(trifluoromethyl)-4,4′-dicarboxylate), has emerged

as a quintessential sensitizer in DSSC research. Renowned for its excel­
Current investigations on dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) reveal lent light-harvesting properties and efficient electron injection into the
complex relations between structural order on the atomic scale, sensi­ semiconductor, N3 dye plays a pivotal role in enhancing the overall
tizing effects, and the effect of acidic processes not only to improve photovoltaic performance of DSSCs [5] also known as “Grätzel cells” [6,
materials, but to increase solar cell efficiencies and long-term stability 7]. The first invention of DSSCs dates to 1870, at which time photo­
further. Such studies include innovative approaches on electrode prep­ electrochemical studies and photographic applications carried out by
aration, incorporation of unique materials, and meticulous tuning of Vogel formed the basis of this type of dyes [8]. DSSC architectures
manufacturing processes [1–4]. Dye-sensitized solar cells have garnered (anode-dye-electrolyte-cathode) generally consist of a photoanode, a
significant attention as a promising alternative to traditional photovol­ counter electrode, an electrolyte, and an organic dye which is sensitive
taic devices, primarily due to their cost-effectiveness and ease of fabri­ to light and can provide photo-induced electrons/holes. Grätzel [9],
cation. Among various architectures, especially multi-layer structures who is the inventor of DSSCs, placed an approximately 10 μm thick
centered around a N3 dye sensitizer and a 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium mesoporous titanium dioxide layer on a conductive substrate (ITO) and
iodide (BMII) electrolyte have demonstrated considerable potential. designed a large surface with special paint. The choice of electrolyte
This review provides a comprehensive overview of the key improve­ significantly influences the redox stability and charge transport prop­
ments and achievements in DSSCs employing the N3 dye/BMII erties of DSSC’s. BMII, a commonly used iodine-based electrolyte, has
electrolyte-based architecture and sheds light on their unique attributes garnered attention for its redox stability and compatibility with various
and challenges. The N3 dye, also known as Ruthenium (II) tris sensitizers. The redox shuttle characteristics of BMII contribute to

* Corresponding author. Institute of High Frequency and Quantum Electronics, University of Siegen, 57068, Siegen, Germany.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Okutan), [email protected] (P. Haring Bolívar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physb.2024.416027
Received 12 January 2024; Received in revised form 16 April 2024; Accepted 24 April 2024
Available online 28 April 2024
0921-4526/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Okutan et al. Physica B: Condensed Matter 685 (2024) 416027

efficient charge transport and, consequently, improved photogenerated 2. Experimental

current in DSSCs [10]. The N3 dye/BMII electrolyte architecture typi­
cally involves the assembly of transparent conductive contacts, an All chemicals were reagent grade from Sigma-Aldrich, Merck and
additional semiconductor layer coated with the N3 dye, and a counter Ossila. The chemicals and devices used to create DSSC are shown in
electrode immersed in the BMII electrolyte. The dynamic interaction Table 1 according to their intended use and areas. Indium Tin Oxide
between these components is critical for achieving a high sun-light ab­ (ITO) transparent conductive coated electrodes on glass were used as
sorption, charge separation, and electron transport [11]. Several studies substrates for Dye Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs). The ITO glass sub­
have reported notable achievements with absorbing dye, N719, and N3 strates (TeknoMa Camp.) possess dimensions of 3 cm × 3 cm x 0.1 cm
dye/BMII electrolyte based DSSCs, showcasing competitive power con­ and a resistance range of 10–15 Ω/square. ITO glasses have been cleaned
version efficiencies and stability [12–17]. However, challenges such as using in mixed solution of acetone and isopropanol. Before TiO2 coating,
electrolyte leakage, solvent evaporation, and long-term stability issues ITO coated glasses were cleaned with a mixture of acetone and iso­
persist, prompting ongoing research endeavors to address these con­ propanol solvents to remove any organic contamination that may occur
cerns and advance the technology [18]. Especially in the studies con­ on the surface and create a clean surface. Prior to this cleaning pro­
ducted by Yella and his colleagues, they increased DSSC efficiency cedure, the ITO glasses have been put in an ultrasonication bath in so­
thanks to dye selection and electrolyte change and increased the lution of acetone and isopropanol for 10–15 min, followed by water
importance of these photovoltaic application even more [19,20]. rinsing with an additional detergent for 5–10 min. Subsequently, the
Exploration of alternative redox mediators and advancements in mate­ substrates were rinsed in DI water and ethanol for an additional 10–15
rials science are expected to contribute to the sustained progress of N3 min. The final step involved dry cleaning the surface with a nitrogen gun
dye/BMII electrolyte based DSSCs. to eliminate any remaining surface particles.
The presented work focuses on a comprehensive investigation of dye- Formation of electrical contacts utilizing commercially acquired
sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), specifically examining the feasibility and high purity aluminum (Al 99.999 %) and platinum (Pt 99.99 %) was
photovoltaic properties of thin-film solar cells using N3 dye and BMII executed using a UNIVEX 450 thermal evaporation system from Leybold
electrolyte molecules under varying white light distributions. The syn­ Vacuum. The process was conducted under a vacuum pressure of
thesized TiO2 nanostructure is analyzed using the X-Ray technique to approximately 5 × 10− 6 mbar, involving both the working electrode
reveal the particle size at the atomic scale. AFM and SEM images of ITO (ITO-coated surface) and the counter electrode (Pt-coated ITO). For J-V
and TiO2 structures in the working electrode reveal a visual represen­ measurements in the solar simulator, Al coating was provided by ther­
tation of the surface morphology and nanostructure. UV–Vis absorption mal evaporation to enable easy contact from both the working and
spectrum and bandwidth were revealed. The electron-hole exchange counter electrodes without mechanical contact with the surface. To
compatibility of the dye and the electrolyte declares the photovoltaic ensure optimal contact area for electrical measurements, aluminum (Al)
performance of DSSCs. It highlights the importance of electron-hole coating was uniformly applied to both the ITO surface and the Pt-coated
exchange compatibility between dye and electrolyte, which plays an ITO surface through thermal evaporation, employing a 1 mm diameter
important role in determining the photovoltaic performance of DSSCs. mask. The Al coating process was executed simultaneously on both
This research paves the way for advances in renewable energy tech­ electrodes. The Al coating thickness was monitored as ~1 μm by
nologies by providing valuable insights into optimizing the material checking using a conventional quartz balance during the thermal
compatibility, structural integrity, and photovoltaic efficiency of DSSCs evaporation process.
based on N3 dye/BMII electrolyte architecture. The change of imped­ TiO2 nanoparticles were synthesized by the Sol-Gel method con­
ance parameters of the N3 dye/BM II electrolyte based DSSC device, sisting of two solutions. Following the typical synthesis process, 10 mL
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) technique was used, and of Titanium (IV) isopropoxide was mixed with 100 mL of deionized
the device structure was determined. water and stirred for 30 min. 10 mL of NaOH was added to adjust the pH
value of the mixture. The sol–gel solution was maintained at 100 ◦ C
during hydrolysis and stirred continuously for 12 h. This process pro­
vides convenience in applications for the synthesis of nanoparticle ox­
ides by the sol-gel method, even at relatively low temperatures such as
100 ◦ C [21]. The solution was allowed to mature for 10 h and then
Table 1 filtered using Whatman paper. The precipitate was washed several times
Chemicals used, deposition and characterization methods. with distilled water and ethanol. The resulting precipitate was dried and
Process Step Chemical/Deposition and Characterization kept in a tube furnace at 450 ◦ C for 10 h for calcination. Then, it was
Systems manually grounded on the ceiling to obtain fine TiO2 nanoparticles. The
ITO substrate Cleaning and Solvent Acetone, Isopropanol, DI Water, fact that TiO2 has a wide band gap and is a cheap, easily synthesized, and
Acetonitrile, and tert-Butanol obtainable semiconductor prevents TiO2 from being excited and
TE-PVD Thermal evaporation physical UNIVEX 450 (Leybold vacuum) donating electrons under visible light illumination [22–24]. Based on
vapor deposition the principle of binding of dyestuff molecules to the TiO2 surface, it is
Prepare TiO2 semiconductor material Titanium n-butoxide, Acetic acid, Ethyl
alcohol, NaOH, Pentanol, DI Water
desired that TiO2 has a large surface area and can bind more dyestuff due
Platinum Pt Platinum, nanoparticle dispersion to its nanostructure. TiO2 can obtain different crystallographic struc­
N3 Dye: 2-(4-carboxypyridin-2-yl) CAS Number: 141460-19-7 Ossila Ltd, UK tures: rutile, anatase and brookite [25]. The best photocatalyzed form of
pyridine-4-carboxylic acid; TiO2, which is commonly found in dyestuff solar cells, is in the Anatase
ruthenium(2+); dithiocyanate
phase. Since the photoreaction occurs faster due to the use of anatase,
BMII: C8H15IN2, 1-Butyl-3-methyl- CAS-Nummer: 65039-05-6 Sigma-Aldrich
imidazolium-iodid & Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Deutschland TiO2 was used as the anode in the working electrode and nano sized TiO2
Spectrometry Cary 5000 UV–Vis–NIR nanoparticles were attached to the ITO surface [26,27].
J-V characteristics Fytronix 9000 Solar Simulator, Keithley The anatase phase TiO2 layer was coated using the doctor blade
2400 Source Meter technique [4]. Here, one of the most important factors in the ideal
X-Ray Diffractometer, Atomic Force A Rigaku D-max 2200 Powder X-Ray
Microscopy (AFM), and Scanning Diffractometer, NanoScope IV Scanning
surface coating of TiO2 nanoparticle is greatly affected by its viscoelastic
Electron Microscopy (SEM) Probe Microscope Controller, Digital behavior. It needs to be carefully monitored for the desired thickness
Instruments, Veeco Metrology Group, and uniformity and homogeneity. The thickness is ~20 μm. After coating,
Zeiss EVO MA10 Scanning Electron nano sized TiO2 particles were sintered at a temperature of 450 ◦ C to
Microscope
obtain a smooth nanostructured surface. Surface roughness (Ra) value,

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M. Okutan et al. Physica B: Condensed Matter 685 (2024) 416027

2D (two-dimensional) AFM nano image and analysis results are given in (EIS) measurements on the symmetric cell. The measurements were
Fig. 1. This image analysis confirms that the Ra value is 0.354 nm. The taken across a frequency range of 5 kHz to 5 MHz with an amplitude of
nanostructured surface enables effective diffusion of the redox electro­ 10 mV at room temperature. This experimental setup allows to inves­
lyte into all gaps and the formation of a very wide electrolyte-dye tigate the efficiency and electro-optical characteristics of DSSCs and to
interface. systematically optimize the fabrication process.
After comprehensive cleaning of the ITO glass surfaces, the prepared
TiO2 semiconductor nanoparticles were coated on the transparent and 3. Results and discussion
conductive ITO glass surface. To create the counter electrode (CE) for
the anode section, Pt (platinum) thickness of 50 nm was evaporated on Fig. 2 shows 2D (two-dimensional) and 3D (three-dimensional) AFM
the cleaned in the same way on the glass/ITO surfaces by UNIVEX 450. roughness analysis of 500 nm × 500 nm sized ITO thin films on the left-
The working electrode (WE) was created by coating TiO2 nanoparticles side and TiO2 thin films on the right-side. Root Mean Square (RMS) and
on the glass/ITO substrate surface. Once the TiO2 coating was applied, Maximum roughness (Rmax) values of the film were measured to be
the substrates were immersed in N3 dye (2-(4-carboxypyridin-2-yl) 0.047 nm and 0.124 nm for ITO and 0.432 nm and 1.879 nm for TiO2,
pyridine-4-carboxylic acid; ruthenium(2+); dithiocyanate) solution was respectively. When we look at the surface roughness value analysis, the
prepared with mixed solution of acetonitrile and tert-Butanol in 1:1 ratio image Z range was 0.124 nm for ITO, while the value was 1.829 nm for
for 24 h using a dip coating system. The construction of the DSSC the TiO2 surface. It was thus observed that the roughness of the TiO2
structure involved positioning the N3 organic dye between the anode coated surface area compared to the ITO surface would contribute to an
and cathode materials on two ITO electrodes. Additionally, 1-methyl-3- increase of the active interaction area for the electrolyte. The AFM
butyl imidazolium iodide (BMII) electrolyte was introduced to fill all the profiles further verify the homogeneity of the thin-film coating. The ITO
gaps, resulting in a sandwich structure with a surface area of 0.4 × 0.5 surface has a homogeneous and less roughness structure and is shown in
cm2. The surfaces coated with N3 dye and BMII electrolyte were posi­ its 3D view in Fig. 2c. Coating the ITO substrate with TiO2 nanoparticles
tioned between two overlapping sandwich-shaped electrodes and results in a rougher surface and the formation of a more active domain in
secured together using clips. This configuration was designed to ensure a smaller area shown in 3D Fig. 2d. From the AFM images, the mean
that the organic materials at the interfaces remained isolated from roughness (Ra) value was obtained to be 0.130 nm for the ITO surface
contact with air. and 0.354 nm for the TiO2 coated surface. In addition, the AFM profiles
The presence of phases in all powders have been confirmed by X-Ray proof that TiO2 nanoparticle coated thin films may not contain any
Diffraction. A Rigaku D-max 2200 Powder X-Ray Diffractometer with a significant structural defects.
CuKα radiation source of a wavelength of 1.5406 Å over a 2θ range from Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) analysis of the XRD peaks was
20◦ to 80◦ with a scanning speed of 3◦ /min. at 40 kV/40 mA are shown performed. The average values obtained here were used in the Scherrer’s
in Fig. 2a. It allows for phase characterization of all materials used in this equation to calculate the size of the nanoparticles [28]:
DSSC. The surface morphology of the ITO and ITO coated with TiO2
nλ
surfaces were analyzed using atomic force microscopy (AFM) model D= (1)
β cos θ
NanoScope IV, Scanning Probe Microscope Controller, Digital In­
struments, Veeco Metrology Group. The surface morphology of the TiO2 where D is the particle size of the sample, λ is the wavelength of source
thin films was studies using a Zeiss EVO MA10 scanning electron mi­ radiation (1.540 Å for CuKα), n is the correction factor for the crystalline
croscope (SEM). Absorption spectra of the TiO2 thin film were taken shape in the range of 0.87–1.0, β is the peak width at half-maximum
using a Cary5000 UV–Vis–NIR spectrometer. The performance of the (FWHM) density in radians and θ is the peak position [28]. As shown
DSSC was evaluated through J-V measurements using a Fytronix 9000 in Fig. 3, the peak, which originates only from the plane (101), has a
Solar simulator and a Keithley 2400 Source Meter. To investigate the remarkable density compared to other peaks. Therefore, the nano­
change in charge transfer resistance at the N3 dye/BMII electrolyte particle size has been calculated using this peak. The diffraction peak of
interface and to construct an equivalent circuit based on impedance the TiO2 thin film based on the miller index at 2Theta 25.339 was
parameters, we conducted electrochemical impedance spectroscopy

Fig. 1. 2D AFM nanograph (500 × 500 nm) used to measure roughness of TiO2.

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M. Okutan et al. Physica B: Condensed Matter 685 (2024) 416027

Fig. 2. 2D and 3D AFM nanographs (500 × 500 nm) of roughness analysis: those on the left side are for ITO and those on the right side are for TiO2.

graph of TiO2 nanoparticles enables analysis of images at the 100 nm

scale, as placed inside in Fig. 3. Examining the SEM image, they are
closely aligned to the size value of approximately 83.25 nm obtained by
XRD analysis, confirming a size distribution of less than 100 nm. In
particular, the aggregation-free SEM image on the left provides addi­
tional support for the observed grain size. This value verifies the results
extracted from the SEM analysis.
To investigate the electronic interactions of TiO2 nanoparticles in
DSSC, UV–Vis absorption measurement was performed on the produced
nanoparticles. The absorption coefficient (α) of TiO2 was calculated
from the absorption spectra of the films direct using the following
correlation:
1240
E = hν = (eV) (2)
λ

Fig. 3. XRD pattern, and SEM nanograph of TiO2 nanoparticles. where hν is the photon energy, and λ is the wavelength. Optical prop­
erties such as optical band gap of the prepared TiO2 thin film were
determined as (101) and the calculated nanoparticle size was found to determined using UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy. The UV–Vis ab­
be approximately 83.25 nm. sorption spectrum obtained from the standalone TiO2 nanoparticles is
Fig. 3 shows the XRD spectrum, and SEM nano graph of the ITO presented in Fig. 4. The optical band gap energy (Eg) could be extracted
surface coated with TiO2 nanoparticles. The X-ray diffraction pattern of from the slope in the absorption spectra of the thin film. The prepared
TiO2 thin film is given in Fig. 3 and the Miller indices of the pattern are film exhibits an optical band gap of ~3.19 eV.
indexed on the graph. Anatase phases in different planes are determined The current density versus voltage (J-V) characteristics of the solar
and shown on the pattern. It can be seen that i) there are grains/clusters cell was measured using a Fytronix 9000 Solar Simulator and a Keithley
of a different size in the nanostructure and ii) that several gaps have 2400 Digital Source Meter at room temperature (25 ◦ C). In the mea­
been formed between the nanometer-sized grains. By using Scherrer’s surements, the white-light intensity has been varied from 2.5 mW/cm2
formula in conjunction with data extracted from the XRD peaks, the to 100 mW/cm2. The results are shown in Fig. 5. As expected, the
average size of the particles was found to be ~83.25 nm. SEM nano photocurrent and the open-circuit voltage of the solar cell increases with

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M. Okutan et al. Physica B: Condensed Matter 685 (2024) 416027

the maximum power point voltage, Pmax. is the maximum power that the
DSSC generates, and Pin is the incident optical power density.
Applying Eqs. (3) and (4), the efficiency and fill factor of the DSSC
were found to be 7.61 % and 27.43 % at 100 mW/cm2 light intensity,
respectively.
The power-voltage (P–V) characteristics were also analyzed under
various light intensities, as seen in Fig. 6. The results highlight the
remarkable performance of the Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC),
particularly in low light conditions. The P–V graph reveals that the ITO/
TiO2/N3 Dye and electrolyte sandwich structure is structurally
compatible with both the dye and electrolyte, leading to enhanced de­
vice efficiency. Notably, optimal performance is observed at a light in­
tensity of 30 mW/cm2. It has been observed that an effective power level
of 40 mW/cm2 is achieved for the significant performance of this device.
It can be seen in this P–V graph that the maximum efficiency ob­
tained under the applied different light intensities of the solar cell power
factor is, as expected, at the highest intensity of 100 mW/cm2. This DSSC
structure indicates that the N3 Dye and the electrolyte ensure high ef­
ficiency for the solar cell operating even at low light intensities of 30 and
40 mW/cm2. This efficiency shows that after a certain level, depending
Fig. 4. UV–Vis absorption spectrum of the TiO2 film.
on increasing light intensities, the efficiency remains at 7 %, which is an
important result in terms of device performance. Then, as the light in­
tensity increases, the maximum power value increases exponentially,
and this value reaches saturation after 80 mW/cm2.
Short-circuit photocurrent density (Jsc) and open-circuit photo­
voltage Voc versus incoming white-light intensity curves are given in
Fig. 7. Here, it is seen that the short-circuit photocurrent density satu­
rates to 40 mW/cm2. In this case, the short circuit current density for the
DSSC device was found to be in between 39.92 and 42.68 mA/cm2. The
photovoltage value of the device increases with the open-circuit value
from 0.48 to 0.67 V for the applied sunlight intensity.
Fig. 8 illustrates the performance characteristics of the Dye-
Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) through curves depicting the maximum
photovoltage, photocurrent, and maximum generated power as a func­
tion of sunlight intensity. Notably, the data unveils that the maximum
photocurrent density and photovoltage exhibit saturation at 80 mW/
cm2, signifying a stable response to varying light intensities. Intrigu­
ingly, the maximum power value showcases its optimal performance at
100 mW/cm2, demonstrating the device’s ability to achieve peak effi­
ciency under specific sunlight conditions. The promising structural at­
Fig. 5. Photocurrent density-voltage (J–V) curves of the DSSC under the
tributes of the DSSC are highlighted by its sensitivity to light and its
illumination. effective photovoltaic response. This suggests its potential for robust and
reliable energy conversion. For a detailed examination of the DSSC pa­
rameters at 100 mW/cm2 under sun simulator light conditions, refer to
increasing intensity. The prepared solar cell is sensitive especially at
low-light intensities. Here, especially when we increase the light in­
tensity from 5 to 10 mW/cm2 incident, the short-circuit current density
is increased from and creates a photo reactive effect even under low light
intensity. When the light intensity increased from 10 to 20 mW/cm2, the
measured short circuit current density value increased from ~5 to 12.5
mA/cm2, and at 30 mW/cm2 light intensity, the short circuit current
density value was measured at ~20 mA/cm2. It has shown us that this
level of short circuit current value may be efficiency in terms of device
performance.
The solar cell efficiency (η) and fill factor (FF) are calculated using
Eq. (3) and Eq. (4), respectively:
Pmax Vmax .Jmax Jsc . Voc . FF
ƞ= = = (3)
Pin Pin Pin

where the FF is determined from the measurement of the J-V curve. The
FF is given by
Jmax . Vmax
FF = (4)
Jsc . Voc
here, Jsc is the short-circuit current density, Voc the open-circuit
Fig. 6. Power-voltage (P–V) curves of illuminated DSSCs under the
voltage, Jmax is the maximum power point current density, and Vmax is
illumination.

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M. Okutan et al. Physica B: Condensed Matter 685 (2024) 416027

Table 2
Photovoltaic parameters values and standard deviations for DSSC (Al/ITO/
TiO2/N3/BMII/Pt/ITO/Al).
Sample Name FF % η% Voc Jsc Vmax Jmax
N3/BMII (mV) (mW/ (mV) (mW/
Solar Simulator cm2) cm2)
Light (mW/
cm2)

5 23.33 0.56 524 4.62 ± 388 1.46 ±

± 0.01 ± 0.02 ±3 0.04 ±3 0.05
10 26.64 1.40 552 9.53 ± 455 3.08 ±
± 0.01 ± 0.02 ±3 0.04 ±3 0.04
20 29.45 4.20 580 24.59 458 9.16 ±
± 0.01 ± 0.01 ±3 ± 0.04 ±3 0.04
30 27.61 5.90 600 35.66 424 13.94 ±
± 0.01 ± 0.01 ±3 ± 0.04 ±3 0.04
40 26.55 6.52 616 39.92 448 14.57 ±
± 0.01 ± 0.01 ±3 ± 0.04 ±3 0.04
50 26.61 6.96 632 41.41 464 15.01 ±
± 0.01 ± 0.01 ±3 ± 0.04 ±3 0.04
Fig. 7. Short-circuit photocurrent (Jsc) and open-circuit photovoltage (Voc)
60 26.69 7.29 640 42.68 476 15.32 ±
versus solar simulate light curves of DSSCs.
± 0.01 ± 0.01 ±3 ± 0.03 ±3 0.03
70 27.27 7.50 652 42.21 488 15.38 ±
± 0.01 ± 0.02 ±3 ± 0.03 ±3 0.03
80 27.54 7.63 660 42.02 500 15.28 ±
± 0.01 ± 0.01 ±3 ± 0.03 ±3 0.03
90 27.65 7.68 668 41.57 508 15.12 ±
± 0.01 ± 0.01 ±3 ± 0.03 ±3 0.03
100 27.67 7.61 670 41.06 512 14.87 ±
± 0.01 ± 0.01 ±3 ± 0.03 ±3 0.03

Fig. 8. Maximum photovoltage, photocurrent, and power versus solar simulate

light curves of DSSCs.

Table 2 below. This table encapsulates essential parameters, providing a

comprehensive understanding of the device’s behavior and affirming its
viability for solar energy harvesting applications.
Calculation results of the DSSCs fill factor and efficiency for Fig. 9. The fill factor (FF) and solar cell efficiency (η) versus solar simulate
increasing sunlight level are given in Fig. 9. It was observed that the fill light curves of DSSCs.
factor was activated at the lowest level depending on the electron-hole
mobility. It was observed that while this change was 18.71 % for 2.5 deviations. At 100 mW/cm2, the efficiency of the prototype reaches 7.61
mW/cm2, it reached 29.45 % for 20 mW/cm2 and then reached satu­ %. This efficiency is derived with the fill factor calculated from the
ration for the capacitive field of the cell with increasing irradiance. This current-voltage analysis for different light intensities using a solar sim­
value of the fill factor shows that the solar cell performs effectively in ulatorconsidering short-circuit photocurrent density, open-circuit pho­
low sunlight conditions and that the device works well by providing tovoltage, maximum photocurrent density, photovoltage, and overall
hole-electron mobility between the working and counter electrode. power output. The data presented demonstrate the remarkable perfor­
Therefore, a higher fill factor percentage value means a more effective mance of the DSSC system for the given light conditions, especially at
solar cell in terms of electricity production efficiency. Maximum power low light levels.
can be obtained if an electrochemical balance is achieved in unwanted To assess the performance of the DSSC device, we conducted elec­
recombination reactions in the cell structure and internal electrical trochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements in the dark to
losses are prevented by maintaining the potential difference required for determine the impedance (IZI) and phase (deg.) of the circuit element.
electron-hole transfers. Depending on the structural compatibility of the The measurement of these values is shown in Fig. 10a. Fig. 10b presents
DSSC device, the maximum power conversion efficiency appears to the Nyquist plot derived from these measurements. As depicted in
reach saturation with increasing irradiances. Fig. 10a, the absolute impedance value starts at approximately 258
The DSSC parameters extracted for different white-light irradiance Ohms at a low frequency of 5 kHz and decreases exponentially to 90
values are comprehensively outlined in Table 2. The table presents a Ohms at a high frequency of 5 M Hz. This trend suggests variations in the
comparison of the measured values along with their relative standard photovoltaic structure between the working and counter electrodes. We

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M. Okutan et al. Physica B: Condensed Matter 685 (2024) 416027

Fig. 10. a) Impedance parameters (IZI, Phase), and b) Nyquist plots (R–X) of the DSSCs based on equivalent circuit by EIS.

performed Nyquist plot analysis to decipher the equivalent circuit 4. Conclusion

structure based on the electrochemical impedance data. The semicircle
observed in the mid-frequency range corresponds to the charge transfer The foundational architecture incorporating the N3 dye and BMII
at the TiO2/N3 Dye/electrolyte interface. This behavior is indicative of a electrolyte has proven to be a driving force in advancing the capabilities
capacitive effect between the electrodes. Fig. 10b illustrates two series of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs). A comprehensive understanding
resistances (Rs) associated with high and low frequencies. The semicircle of the mechanism between the N3 dye and BMII electrolyte has allowed
in the middle represents the parallel resistance-capacitance (R–C) circuit for innovations in materials, design, and fabrication process. This holds
of the N3 dye and electrolyte in the equivalent circuit. This half Nyquist the promise of not only enhancing the efficiency of DSSCs but also
plot reveals that the N3 dye demonstrates good electrolyte compatibility making strides towards commercially viable dye-sensitized solar cell
for charge transfer and exhibits a low charge recombination resistance technologies.
(Rrec.). A smaller Rrec value typically indicates faster charge recombi­ Using the Scherrer formula, the crystal size was calculated to be
nation and a larger dark current [29]. The observed charge transfer ~83.25 nm. The surface morphology of the TiO2 thin film was analyzed
behavior between TiO2 and N3 dye, or between the dye and electrolyte, by high-resolution AFM and SEM and it was found to have a homoge­
varies significantly based on the surface modifications of the dyes [30]. neous distribution.
In the mechanism observed for DSSCs sensitized with N3 Dye, pre­ Our focus in this study centered on an ITO/TiO2/N3/BMII/Pt/ITO-
vious studies suggest that the recombination of electrons injected into based DSSC, revealing a notable photovoltaic efficiency of up to 7.61 %.
the BMII electrolyte plays a crucial role. This recombination process This result underscores the effectiveness of the selected N3 dye and BMII
contributes to achieving increased efficiency in the DSSC system. electrolyte combination, providing a tangible benchmark for future
We present the comparison of the DSSC produced and the devices advancements. Our extensive investigation into the photovoltaic per­
with high efficiency in the literature in Table 3. At this stage, the device formance of DSSCs under various lighting conditions has yielded crucial
performance depends on both, the dye-electrolyte compatibility and its insights. The experimental scrutiny of a sandwich-structured solar cell
internal size, and it is understood from the literature that solar cells that photovoltaic comprising ITO/TiO2/N3 dye and BMII electrolyte mole­
provide higher returns will be produced in the future by creating a cules/Pt/ITO has deepened our understanding of its behavior, revealing
tandem device. the subtle interplay between varying illumination environments and cell
At this stage, it was revealed that both the electrolyte and the ideal efficiency. Moreover, it emphasizes the pivotal roles played by the ITO/
dye selection (such as N3 Dye/BMII electrolyte structure) increased the TiO2/N3 dye and BMII electrolyte in shaping overall performance.
efficiency for DSSC. The investigation into the compatibility of the selected dye and
electrolyte with the electron donor holds particular importance, with
significant implications for optimizing DSSC functionality. Notably, we
Table 3 observed that the device interaction with the paint and electrolyte is
Comparison of dye and electrolyte based photovoltaic parameters of some
most effective at 30 mW/cm2, with the short-circuit current reaching
produced DSSCs.
saturation beyond this power level. Trends and correlations among pa­
Sample Name FF % η% rameters such as Maximum Power, short-circuit current, and open-
H2Pz [31] 26 0.56 ± circuit voltage suggest that the photovoltaic efficiency of these solar
0.02 cells is maximized under low light conditions. This realization forms the
H2Pz-ICPH [31] 39 1.40 ± basis for deliberate strategies aimed at enhancing DSSC performance,
0.02
ZnPz [31] 45 4.20 ±
especially in low-light scenarios. According to studies in the literature,
0.01 in the mechanism observed for DSSCs sensitized with N3 dye, it has been
ZnPz-ICPH [31] 46 5.90 ± observed that the recombination of electrons injected into the BMII
0.01 electrolyte plays an active role and an increase in efficiency is achieved.
Z907 dye/0.6 M MBII and 0.03 M I2 in acetonitrile 52.40 4.09
Using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) on an N3 dye/BMII
(ACN)/onitrile (VN) (85:15 v/v) with deionized water
0 vol% [32] electrolyte-based DSSC device, we observed from the Nyquist plot that
N719 dye/Cu (bnbip) (X)]1+/2+ redox mediator, Co-MOF 73 3.42 the device exhibits series resistance at both low and high frequencies
additive, and aqueous [33] along with parallel R–C circuit behavior at mid frequencies.
N3-Dye [34] 67 2.37 In conclusion, this research significantly contributes to the field,
Eosin-Y [34] 50 1.51
N3 Dye/BMII 27.67 ± 7.61 ±
acting as a catalyst for further advancements in DSSC technology under
0.01 0.01 low light levels. The insightful understanding gained from this study,

7
M. Okutan et al. Physica B: Condensed Matter 685 (2024) 416027

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