1.

1 STANDARDS OF LENGTH, MASS, AND TIME

There are three fundamental quantities are Prefixes for Powers of Ten
length, mass, and time. All other quantities in Power Prefix Abbreviation
mechanics can be expressed in terms of these 10-24 yocto y
three. 10-21 zepto z
10-18 atto a
Measurement standards used by different 10-15 femto f
people in different places—throughout the 10-12 pico p
Universe—must yield the same result. In 10-9 nano n
addition, standards used for measurements 10-6 micro μ
must not change with time.
10 -3
milli m
10-2 centi c
In 1960, an international committee established
10-1 deci d
a set of standards for the fundamental
103 kilo k
quantities of science. It is called the SI (System
International), and its fundamental units of 106 mega M
length, mass, and time are the meter, kilogram, 109 giga G
and second, respectively. 1012 tera T
1015 peta P
Other standards for SI fundamental units 1018 exa E
established by the committee are those for 1021 zetta Z
temperature (the kelvin), electric current (the 1024 yotta Y
ampere), luminous intensity (the candela), and
the amount of substance (the mole).
1.2 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

LENGTH Is the distance between two points in In physics, the word dimension denotes the
space. physical nature of a quantity. The distance
between two points, can be measured in feet,
The MASS of an object is related to the amount meters, or etc.
of material that is present in the object, or to
how much that object resists changes in its In many situations, you may have to check a
motion. specific equation to see if it matches your
expectations. A useful procedure for doing that,
A TIME is a description of an instant relative to a called dimensional analysis, can be used
reference time because dimensions can be treated as algebraic
quantities.
a. You should note that we will use the
notations time and time interval differently. For example, quantities can be added or
subtracted only if they have the same
dimensions. Furthermore, the terms on both
METRIC IMPERIAL sides of an equation must have the same
Length Millimetre Inch dimensions. By following these simple rules, you
Centimetre Foot can use dimensional analysis to determine
Metre Yard whether an expression has the correct form.
Kilometre Mile
Quantity Area Volume Speed Acceleration
Mass Milligram Ounce
(A) (V) (v) (a)
Gram Pound Dimension L2 L3 L/T L/T2
Kilogram Stone s
Capacity Millilitre Pint SI units m2 m3 m/s m/s2
Centilitre Gallon U.S. ft2 ft3 ft/s ft/s2
Litre customary
units
It is necessary to convert units from one
measurement system to another or convert
within a system to correct the equation.

1 mile = 1 609 m = 1.609 km

1 m = 39.37 in = 3.281 ft
1 ft = 0.304 8 m = 30.48 cm
1 in = 0.025 4 m = 2.54 cm
2.1 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION

The displacement Δx of a particle is defined as The average velocity V x, avgof a particle is

its change in position in some time interval. defined as the particle’s displacement Δx
divided by the time interval Δ t during which
Δx=x f − x i that displacement occurs.

It is very important to recognize the difference Δx

between displacement and distance traveled. V x, avg=
Δt
Displacement is an example of a vector quantity.
The average speed v avg of a particle, a scalar
quantity, is defined as the total distance d
traveled divided by the total time interval
required to travel that distance.

D
v avg=
Δt

Note: In everyday usage, the terms speed and

velocity are interchangeable. In physics,
however, there is a clear distinction between
these two quantities
Instantaneous Velocity – is the velocity at a
certain point in time.

The instantaneous velocity v x equals the limiting

Δx
value of the ratio as Δ t approaches zero.
Δt

Δx dx
v x = lim =
Δ t →0 Δ t dt

This is useful if the velocity is not constant.

(meaning there is an acceleration)

When the velocity of a particle changes with

time, the particle is said to be accelerating.

The average acceleration a x ,avg of the particle is

defined as the change in velocity Δ V x divided
by the time interval Δ t during which that
change occurs.

ΔV x
a x ,avg =
Δt

The instantaneous acceleration as the limit of

the average acceleration as Dt approaches zero.

Δvx d vx
a x = lim =
Δt→0 Δt dt
2.2 KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE

v xf =v xi +a x t
(for constant a x )

v xi + v xf
v x ,avg =
2
(for constant a x )

1 2
x f =x i+ v xi t + a x t
2
(for constant a x )

1
x f =x i+ (v xi + v xf )t
2
(for constant a x )

2 2
v xf =v xi +2 a x (x f − x i)
(for constant a x )
 2.3 FREE FALLING BODY

In the idealized case, in which air resistance is

absent, such motion is referred to as free-fall
motion.

When we use the expression freely falling

object, we do not necessarily refer to an object
dropped from rest. A freely falling object is any
object moving freely under the influence of
gravity alone, regardless of its initial motion.

We shall denote the magnitude of the free-fall

acceleration, also called the acceleration due to
gravity, by the symbol g.

The only modification for freely falling objects

that we need to make in these equations is to
note that the motion is in the vertical direction
(the y direction) rather than in the horizontal
direction (x) and that the acceleration is
downward and has a magnitude of 9.80 m/s2.
 3.1 VECTOR VS SCALAR

Scalar: number with units. SIGNS OF VECTOR COMPONENTS

Vector: quantity with magnitude and direction.

Two vectors A and B may be defined to be equal

if they have the same magnitude and if they
point in the ssame direction.

COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
VECTOR ADDITION
Vectors can be resolved into perpendicular
The rules for vector addition are conveniently
components using a two dimensional coordinate
described by a graphical method.
system:

A geometric construction can also be used to

add more than two vectors.
When three or more vectors are added, their
sum is independent of the way in which the
individual vectors are grouped together.

Adding vectors using components:

1. Find the components of each vector to be
added.
2. Add the x- and y-components separately.
3. Find the resultant vector

VECTOR SUBTRACTION

Subtracting Vectors: The negative of a vector is a

vector of the same magnitude pointing in the
opposite direction.
3.2 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION
IN TWO DIMENSION

Average velocity of a vector Relative Motion: The speed of the passenger

with respect to the ground depends on the
∆ ⃗r relative directions of the passenger’s and train’s
⃗v xf = speeds R.
∆t

So Vav is in the same direction as Δr .

Instantaneous velocity vector is tangent to the

path

Average acceleration vector is in the direction of

the change in velocity.

∆ ⃗v
a⃗ av =
∆t

Velocity vector is always in the direction of

motion; acceleration vector can point anywhere.
 4.1 FORCES 4.2 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

A force is a push or pull. An object at rest needs First Law: A body at rest remains at rest, a body
a force to get it moving; a moving object needs a in motion continues to move at constant
force to change its velocity. velocity, unless acted upon by an external force.

Force is a vector, having both magnitude and

direction. The magnitude of a force can be 4.3 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
measured using a spring scale.
Second Law: A force acting on a body causes an
acceleration of the body, in the direction of the
force, proportional to the force, and inversely
proportional to the mass.

Σ⃗
F =m a⃗

4.4 NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

Third Law: To every action there is an equal and

opposite reaction. This pushing force is directed
CONTACT FORCES - they involve physical contact
perpendicular to the surface, and thus is called
between two objects
the normal force.
FIELD FORCES - does not involve physical contact
between two objects. These forces act through
empty space.

⃗
N =− ⃗
W

4.5 FREE-BODY DIAGRAM

A hockey puck is sliding at constant velocity

across a flat horizontal ice surface that is
assumed to be frictionless. Which of these
sketches is the correct free-body diagram for
this puck? What would your answer be if the
puck slowed down?
 4.6 KINETIC FRICTIONS

Sliding friction is called kinetic friction.

Approximation of the frictional force:

F fr =μ k F N

Here, F N is the normal force, and μk is the

coefficient of kinetic friction, which is different
for each pair of surfaces.

STATIC FRICTIONS

Static friction applies when two surfaces are at

rest with respect to each other (such as a book
sitting on a table).

The static frictional force is as big as it needs to

be to prevent slipping, up to a maximum value.

F fr ≤ μ s F N

Usually, the coefficient of static friction is

greater than the coefficient of kinetic friction.
 5.1 WORK

Work and energy are the same thing. When a

force moves something along any distance, we
say that work has been done and energy has
been transformed (energy has been changed
from one type to another type).

The different kinds of energy:

 Kinetic
 Potential
 Light
 Sound
 Nuclear
 Heat
 Electrical
 Chemical

How do we calculate the work done?

Energy transformed
= work done
= applied force x distance
 5.2 ENERGY

Kinetic energy K is energy associated with the

state of motion of an object. The faster an object
moves, the greater its kinetic energy.

1 2
KE= m v
2

Potential energy U represents stored energy,

e.g., in a spring. It can be released later as kinetic
energy.

PE=mgh

WORK-KINETIC ENERGY THEOREM

Mechanical Energy
= Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy
 5.3 POWER

Power is the way we measure how quickly

energy is being changed. When we look at the
power of a moving object, we are really looking
at how fast work is happening.

Power
= work done / time taken ; Force x Velocity

Power is measured in Watts

1KW = 1000W , 1hp = 746W

 IMPULSE, MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS

6.1 MOMENTUM

 The momentum of a body is defined as the

product of its mass by its velocity
 Momentum can be defined as "mass in
motion." All objects have mass; so if an
object is moving, then it has momentum.
 The momentum of a body is a vector
quantity, for it is the product of mass, a
scalar, by velocity, a vector.
 An object’s momentum will change if its
mass and/or velocity (speed and direction)
changes.

 Momentum of a car driving North at 20 m/s

is different from momentum of the same
car driving East at the same speed
 Ball thrown by a major-league pitcher has
greater magnitude of momentum than the
same ball thrown by a child because the
speed is greater

Momentum = mass x velocity

p=m× v
p = momentum (kg*m /s)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m /s)
 6.2 IMPULSE

If momentum changes, its because mass or

velocity change.

Most of ten mass doesn't change so velocity

changes and this is acceleration. And then we
get:
p=mass × Δv
p = mass x Acceleration
p = force

 Applying a force over a time interval to an

object changes the momentum. A change
in momentum is known as an impulse.
 The vector quantity for impulse is
represented by the letter “J”, and since it's
a change in momentum, its units can be
one the same as those for momentum,
[kg·m /s], and can also be written as a
Newton-second [N·s].

: In sports, impulse is called the “follow through”

IMPULSE - MOMENTUM THEOREM

Since momentum is equal to mass times

velocity, we can write that.

We also know that impulse is a change in

momentum, so impulse can be written as

J = Δp
If we combine these equations, we find:
P = mv
J = Δp

J = Δp = Δ(mv)
Impulse Formula:
Impulse = force x time
Impulse = Δp
J = F · t (N·s)
J = Δp = (pf – pi ) (kg·m/s)
J = Impulse
p = momentum (kg·m/s)
F = force (N)
t = time (s)
 6.3 CONSERVATION OF TOTAL MOMENTUM  Completely Inelastic Collisions - the loss of
kinetic energy is the maximum possible.
Concept of momentum is particularly important The objects stick together after the
in situations when you have two or more collision.
interacting bodies.  Elastic Collisions - the kinetic energy o f
the system is conserved
Principle of conservation of momentum:
If the vector sum of the external forces on a
system is zero, the total momentum of the
system is constant

P1 + P2 = 0

6.4 COLLISION

Collision is any strong interaction between

bodies that lasts a relatively short time
• Bowling ball striking pins
• Car’s collision

If the forces between the bodies are much larger

than any external forces, we can neglect the
external forces entirely and treat the bodies as
isolated system.

Since a collision constitutes an isolated system

(where the net external force is zero), the
momentum of the system is conserved(the
same before and after the collision)

Collision types: inelastic and elastic collisions

INELASTIC COLLISION
In any collision in which external forces can be
neglected, momentum is conserved and the
total momentum be fore equals the total
momentum after

 Collisions are classified according to how

much energy is "lost" during the collision

 Inelastic Collisions - there is a loss of

kinetic energy due to the collision

Automobile collision is inelastic: the structure of

the car absorbs as much o f the energy o f
collision as possible. This absorbed energy
cannot be recovered, since it goes into a
permanent deformation of the car.
 ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS AND OSCILLATIONS

7.1 ANGULAR QUNATITIES

In circles around the axis of rotation ( “ O “ ). The

radius of the circle is r . All points on a straight
line drawn through the axis move through the
same angle at the same time. The angle θ in
radians is defined:

θ=(L/r )

ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT

Angular Displacement:
∆ θ=θ2 −θ1

The average angular

velocity is defined as the
total angular
displacement divided by
time.

∆θ
w=
∆t

The instantaneous
angular velocity:

∆θ
w= lim
∆ t →0 ∆t

ANGULAR ACCELERATION

The angular acceleration is the rate at which the

angular velocity changes with time
∆ w w1 −w 2
α= =
∆t ∆t

Where instantaneous acceleration ;

∆w
α = lim
∆ t →0 ∆t
 CONSTANT ANGULAR ACCELERATION The lever arm for FA is the distance from the
knob to the hinge; the lever arm for FD is zero;
and the lever arm for FC is as shown.

7.2 TORQUE

 To make an object start rotating, a force is

needed the position and direction of the
force matter as well.
 The perpendicular distance from the axis of
rotation to the line along which the force
acts is called the lever arm.
 7.3 EQUILIBRIUM

 Statics is the branch of mechanics which

deals with the study of bodies at rest under
a number of forces, the equilibrium,
conditions of equilibrium, types of
equilibrium and torque etc.

 A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is at

rest or moving with uniform velocity. In
other words, if the linear and angular
acceleration of a body are zero, the body is
said to be in equilibrium. Or we can say
that when two or more forces act on a
body such that their resultant or combining
effect on the body is Zero and the body
retains its state of rest or of uniform
motion then the body is said to be in
equilibrium.

TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM
 If the combined effect of all the forces
acting on a body is zero and the body is in
the state of rest then its equilibrium is
termed as static equilibrium. For example:
All stationary bodies

 Dynamic equilibrium when a body is in

state of uniform motion and the resultant
of all the forces acting upon it is zero then
it is said to be in dynamic equilibrium. For
example: Jump by using parachute.

FIRST CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM

To maintain the transitional equilibrium in a

body the vector sum of all the forces acting on
the body is equal to zero i.e. In other words we
can say that to maintain equilibrium the sum of
all the forces acting along X-axis is zero and the
sum of all the forces acting along Y-axis is zero.
i.e.

SECOND CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM

The second condition of equilibrium stated as

follow: A body will be in rotational equilibrium
when the algebraic sum of clock wise torque and
anti clock wise torque is zero. In other words: A
body will be in rotational equilibrium if vector
sum of all the torque acting on the body is zero.
 7.4 CENTER OF GRAVITY

 The torque due to the gravitational force

on an object of mass M is the force Mg
acting at the center of gravity of the object
 If g is uniform over the object, then the
center of gravity of the object coincides
with its center of mass
 If the object is homogeneous and
symmetrical, the center of gravity coincides
with its geometric center
 8.1 SOLIDS AND KINEMATICS OF FLUIDS

PRESSURE

 Pressure is defined as the force per unit

area applied perpendicular to the surface
to which it is applied.
 In SI units, the unit of pressure is the Pascal
(Pa), which is equal to a Newton / meter2
(N/m2 ).
 Other important units of pressure include
the pound per square inch (psi) and the
standard atmosphere (atm).

The elementary mathematical expression for

pressure is given by:

Pressure=Force / Area

PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
 BAROMETER Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device called a barometer;
thus, the atmospheric pressure is often
referred to as the barometric pressure.
Patm
 MANOMETER A manometer is a tube,
usually bent in a form of a U, containing a
liquid of known specific gravity, the surface
of which moves proportionally to changes
of pressure. It is used to measure pressure

TYPES OF MANOMETER
 OPEN TYPE MANOMETER - has an
atmospheric surface in one leg and is
capable of measuring gage pressures
 DIFFERENTIAL TYPE MANOMETER -
Without an atmospheric surface and
capable of measuring only differences in
pressure
 PIEZOMETER - The simplest form of open
manometer. It is a tube tapped into a wall
of a container or conduit for the purpose of
measuring pressure. The fluid in the
container or conduit rises in this tube to
form a free surface.
PRESSURE AT A CERTAIN DEPTH
PASCALS LAW
P=P atm + pgh
A change in the pressure applied to a fluid is
That is, the pressure P at a depth h transmitted undiminished to every point of the
Patm is atmospheric pressure fluid and to the walls of the container.
P is the absolute pressure
Example:
Patm =1.00 atm=101.325 x 103 Pa
A downward force of 100N is applied to the
Gauge pressure small piston with a diameter of 50cm in the
¿ pgh hydraulic lift system shown below.

(a) What is the upward force exerted by the

large piston with a diameter of 2m?
(b) If the input force of 100N pushes the small
piston down by 2m, how high will the large
piston rise?

Example:

A diver is currently located at a depth of 50m in

the ocean.
(a) What is the gauge pressure at this point?
(b) What is the absolute pressure? (The density
of sea water is 1025 kg/m3)
BOUYANT FORCE

The upward force exerted by a fluid on any

immersed object is called a buoyant force.

“The magnitude of the buoyant force on an

object always equals the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object”.

This statement is known as Archimedes'

principle.
B= p ∨ g

If the Object is fully Submerged:

B=TW – AW

If the Object is partially Submerged:

Buoyant force = Weight of the fluid displaced

FLUID DYNAMICS

Mass flow rate

( )
△ m △ vp
△t
=
△t
d
¿ pA
△t
¿ pAv

Volume flow rate

( )
△V
△t
=
A△h
△t
¿ Av
FLUID DYANMICS

Continuity of Fluids

△m
From mass flow rate = pAv
△t

pA1 v 1= pA 2 v 2=constant

This expression is called the equation of

continuity for fluids. It states that the product of
the area and the fluid speed at all points along a
pipe is constant for an incompressible fluid.
 9.1 HEAT TRANSFER

Thermometer and Temperature Scales

Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects would not exchange energy by heat or
electromagnetic radiation if they were placed in thermal contact.

zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, they are also in equilibrium

On the Celsius temperature scale, this mixture is defined to have a temperature of zero degrees
Celsius, which is written as 0C; this temperature is called the ice point of water.

Another commonly used system is a mixture of water and steam in thermal equilibrium at atmospheric
pressure; its temperature is defined as 100C, which is the steam point of water.

THERMAL EXPANSION

 If its temperature increases, its volume increases. This phenomenon, known as thermal
expansion.
 Thermal expansion is a consequence of the change in the average separation between the atoms
in an object.

LINEAR EXPANSION

∆ L=α Lo Δ T ; α=coeff . of linear expansion

Lf − Li =α Lo (T f −T i ¿

VOLUME EXPANSION

∆ V =β V o Δ T
β=3 α
 HEAT AND INTERVAL ENERGY

Internal energy is all the energy of a system that is associated with its microscopic components—
atoms and molecules—when viewed from a reference frame at rest with respect to the center of mass
of the system.

Heat is defined as a process of transferring energy across the boundary of a system because of a
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings. It is also the amount of energy Q
transferred by this process.

Initial notions of heat were based on a fluid called caloric that flowed from one substance to another
and caused changes in temperature. 1 cal = 4.186 J This equality is known, for purely historical reasons,
as the mechanical equivalent of heat.
 SPECIFIC HEAT AND CALORIMETRY

The specific heat c of a substance is the heat capacity per unit mass.

Therefore, if energy Q transfers to a sample of a substance with mass m and the temperature of the
sample changes by ∆ T, the specific heat of the substance is:

Q
c= ΔT ; Q=cm ΔT
m

One technique for measuring specific heat involves heating a sample to some known temperature Tx,
placing it in a vessel containing water of known mass and temperature Tw , Tx, and measuring the
temperature of the water after equilibrium has been reached. This technique is called calorimetry, and
devices in which this energy transfer occurs are called calorimeters.

LATENT HEAT AND PHASE CHANGE

Latent heat of fusion Lf is the term used when the phase change is from solid to liquid (to fuse means
“to combine by melting”), and latent heat of vaporization

Lv is the term used when the phase change is from liquid to gas (the liquid “vaporizes”) whenever the
physical characteristics of the substance change from one form to another; such a change is commonly
referred to as a phase change.

Q=ml ¿

Q =amount of heat energy (absorbed or released)

M = mass in kg
L = latent heat of fusion or vaporization

Q=mc ∆ T
Q=amount of heat energy ( absorbed∨released)
C=specific heat capacity
∆ T =change∈temperature
 10.1 WAVES AND SOUND
TYPES OF WAVES
HOOKE’S LAW
Two types of waves classified on their particle
Hooke's law describes the elastic properties of motion and wave direction:
materials only in the range in which the force  Longitudinal – particle motion and the
and displacement are proportional wave velocity are parallel to each other –
Sound is a longitudinal wave.
F s=− kx  Transverse – particle motion is
perpendicular to the direction of the wave
velocity – Light is an example of a
F s=spri ng force transverse wave.
k =spring constant
x=spring stretch∨compressio n Longitudinal Wave (sound)

Example:

A force of 235N stretches a spring by 4.5m.

What is the spring constant?

Transverse Wave (light)

WAVES

We know that when matter is disturbed, energy

emanates from the disturbance. This
propagation of energy from the disturbance is WAVES DESCRIPTION
know as a wave. – We call this transfer of energy
wave motion. Wavelength (λ) – the distance of one complete
wave
Examples include ocean waves, sound waves,
electromagnetic waves, and seismic Amplitude – the maximum displacement of any
(earthquake) waves. part of the wave from its equilibrium position.

 The energy transmitted by the wave is

WAVES MOTION directly proportional to the amplitude
squared.
Waves transfer energy and generally not matter
through a variety of mediums. – The wave form
is in motion but not the matter.
 Water waves (liquid) essentially bob you up
and down but not sideways.
 Earthquakes waves move through the
Earth. (solid)
 Sound waves travel through the air. (gas)
 Electromagnetic radiation waves travel
through space. (void) WAVES CHARACTERIZATION
 Frequency ( f ) – the number of oscillations
or cycles that occur during a given time (s)

 The unit usually used to describe frequency

is the hertz (Hz). One Hz = one cycle per
second

 Period (T) – the time it takes for a wave to

travel a distance of one wavelength

 Frequency and Period are inversely

proportional

1 1
 frequency= ;f=
period T

Frequency = cycles per second – If a wave has a

frequency of f = 4 Hz, then four full wavelengths
will pass in one second

Period = seconds per cycle – If 4 full wavelengths

pass in one second then a wavelength passes
1
every ¼ second (T = = ¼ s)
f

WAVE COMPARISON

WAVE SPEED

Since speed is distance/time

λ
then v= or v=λ f
T
v = wave speed (m/s)
λ = wavelength
T = period of wave (s)
f = frequency (Hz)
SOUND WAVES LOUDNESS & INTENSITY
Sound - the propagation of longitudinal waves
through matter (solid, liquid, or gas) Loudness is a relative term.

The vibration of a tuning fork produces a series The term intensity (I) is quantitative and is a
of compressions (high pressure regions) and measure of the rate of energy transfer through a
rarefactions (low pressure regions). given area .

With continual vibration, a series of high/low Intensity is measured in J/s/m2 or W/m2.

pressure regions travel outward forming a – The threshold of hearing is around 10-12
longitudinal sound wave. W/m2.
– An intensity of about 1 W/m2 is painful to the
ear.

Intensity decreases with distance from the

source (I a 1/r2).
– This is called an inverse square relation.

SOUND SPECTRUM

Similar to the electromagnetic radiation, sound

waves also have different frequencies and form
a spectrum. DECIBEL SCALE

The sound spectrum has relatively few Sound Intensity is measured on the decibel
frequencies and can be divided into three scale.
frequency regions:  A decibel is 1/10 of a bel.

– Infrasonic, f < 20 Hz The bel (B) is a unit of intensity named in honor

– Audible, 20 Hz < f < 20 kHz of Alexander Graham Bell.
– Ultrasonic, f > 20 kHz  The decibel scale is not linear with respect
to intensity, therefore when the sound
intensity is doubled, the dB level is only
AUDIBLE REGION increased by 3 dB.

The audible region

for humans is about
20 Hz to 20 kHz.

Sounds can be
heard due to the
vibration of our
eardrums caused by
the sound waves
propagating
disturbance.
 DECIBEL SCALE

ULTRASOUND

Sound waves with frequencies greater than

20,000 Hz cannot be detected by the human ear,
although may be detected by some animals (for
example dog whistles).

The reflections of ultrasound frequencies are

used to examine parts of the body, or an unborn
child – much less risk than using x-rays.

Also useful in cleaning small hard-to-reach

recesses – jewelry, lab equipment, etc.
SPEED OF SOUND

The speed of sound depends on the makeup of

the particular medium that it is passing through.
 The speed of sound in air is considered to
be, vsound = 344 m/s or 770 mi/h (at
20oC).
 The speed of light is MUCH faster than the speed
Approximately 1/3 km/s or 1/5 mi/s of sound. So in many cases we see something
 The velocity of sound increases with before we hear it (lightening/thunder, echo,
increasing temperature. (at 0oC = 331 m/s) etc.).
 A 5 second lapse between seeing lightening
In general the velocity of sound increases as the and hearing the thunder indicates that the
density of the medium increases. (The speed of lightening occur at a distance of
sound in water is about 4x that in air.) approximately 1 mile.
THE DOPPLER EFFECT BOW WAVES & SONIC BOOM

The Doppler effect - the apparent change in

frequency resulting from the relative motion of
the source and the observer

As a moving sound source approaches an

observer, the waves in front are bunched up and
the waves behind are spread out due to the
movement of the sound source.

The observer hears a higher pitch (shorter l) as

the sound source approaches and then hears a STANDING WAVE
lower pitch (longer l) as the source departs.
Standing wave – a “stationary” waveform arising
from the interference of waves traveling in
Approach – the waves are bunched up  higher opposite directions
frequency ( f )
Behind – waves are spread out  lower Along a rope/string, for example, waves will
frequency ( f ) travel back and forth.

– When these two waves meet they

constructively “interfere” with each other,
forming a combined and standing waveform.

Standing waves are formed only when the string

is vibrated at particular frequencies

A general effect that occurs for all kinds of

waves – sound, water, electromagnetic

In the electromagnetic wavelengths the Doppler

Effect helps us determine the relative motion of

astronomical bodies.
– ’blue shift’ – a shift to shorter l as a light source
approaches the observer
– ’redshift’ – a shift to longer l as a light source
moves away from the observer

These ’shifts’ in l tell astronomers a great deal

about relative movements in space.
RESONANCE

Resonance - a wave effect that occurs when an

object has a natural frequency that corresponds
to an external frequency.

– Results from a periodic driving force with a

frequency equal to one of the natural
frequencies.

 Common example of resonance: Pushing a

swing – the periodic driving force (the
push) must be at a certain frequency to
keep the swing going

When one tuning fork is struck, the other tuning

fork of the same frequency will also vibrate in
resonance.
 The periodic “driving force” here are the
sound waves.

Musical Instruments use standing waves and

resonance to produce different tones.

 Guitars, violins, and pianos all use standing

waves to produce tones.
 Stringed instruments are tuned by
adjusting the tension of the strings.
– Adjustment of the tension changes the
frequency at which the string vibrates.
 The body of the stringed instrument acts as
a resonance cavity to amplify the sound.

1
f= Frequency − Period Relationship
T
λ
v= =λ f Wave speed
T
3.00 x 108 m/ s Speed of Light