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Exploring the Morphological Foundations of Fish Culture: A Review

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International Journal of Science, Architecture, Technology, and Environment Volume 01, Issue 05, August 2024
ISSN 3048-8222 (Online) | www.ijsate.com | [email protected]

Exploring the Morphological Foundations of Fish Culture: A Review

Gagan Singh Guru1*, Chiranjeev Pandey1, Majid Ali1, Sanjay Thiske1

1Department of Zoology, Government Digvijay Autonomous Postgraduate College, Rajnandgaon, 491441

[email protected]
*Corresponding author

Abstract

Fish culture, or aquaculture, has become a critical component of global food production, and understanding
the morphological foundations of fish species is essential for optimizing breeding, growth, and sustainability
in this industry. This review explores the morphological characteristics of key fish species cultivated in
aquaculture, focusing on how anatomical traits influence performance in controlled environments. The paper
examines aspects such as body shape, fin structure, gill development, and internal organ configuration,
highlighting their roles in swimming efficiency, respiration, nutrient absorption, and overall health.
Morphological traits also impact disease resistance and adaptability to different aquaculture systems, from
freshwater to marine environments. The review further discusses how selective breeding practices can
enhance desired morphological features, thereby improving production efficiency and reducing costs.
Additionally, the influence of environmental factors such as water quality, temperature, and diet on fish
morphology is addressed, underscoring the importance of optimal conditions for growth. By synthesizing
current research, this paper provides a comprehensive understanding of the connection between fish
morphology and aquaculture practices, with implications for the development of more sustainable, high-yield
aquaculture systems. The review also suggests areas for future research, particularly in the genetic and
environmental determinants of fish morphology and its application in improving aquaculture practices.

Keywords: Aquaculture; Environmental; Fish culture; Growth; Morphology; Selective breeding.

1. Introduction

The rapid growth of global fish farming an essential component of modern aquaculture has made it one
of the most important sectors in the global food production landscape [1]. As the demand for sustainable and
protein-rich food sources increases, so too does the need for innovative approaches to fish culture that
ensure both high yields and environmental sustainability [2]. One of the fundamental, yet often
underexplored, aspects of aquaculture that directly influences the success and efficiency of fish farming
systems is the morphology of fish species [3]. From body shape to skeletal development, fin structure to
organ function, the physical form of fish is more than just a biological feature; it is a critical determinant of
their performance, adaptability, and overall health in a controlled farming environment [4]. Exploring the
Morphological Foundations of Fish Culture: A Review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of how fish
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morphology shapes the practice of fish farming [5]. This comprehensive review delves into the intricate
relationship between fish physical characteristics and the efficiency of aquaculture operations [6].
It offers a synthesis of current research, case studies, and expert analyses that highlight the importance
of various morphological traits, including body size, fin configuration, skeletal structure, and physiological
adaptation to environmental factors such as water quality, stocking density, and stress conditions [7]. At its
core, this article seeks to bridge the gap between theoretical morphological science and practical aquaculture
application [8]. By examining the direct and indirect ways in which fish morphology influences growth rates,
reproductive success, disease resistance, feed efficiency, and welfare, this volume serves as a foundational
resource for researchers, aquaculture practitioners, and policymakers alike [9]. Moreover, it explores how
understanding these morphological underpinnings can lead to the development of more efficient farming
techniques, improved breeding programs, and ultimately, the sustainability of fish culture in an increasingly
resource-limited world [10]. As the aquaculture industry continues to expand, the need for precision in
breeding, management practices, and species selection has never been more critical [11].
Through a detailed exploration of the morphological characteristics of key fish species, it offers a
roadmap for improving the productivity and sustainability of fish culture practices worldwide [12]. Fish
culture, or aquaculture, has become an integral part of global food production, providing a sustainable source
of protein and contributing significantly to economic development [14]. As the demand for aquatic products
rises, understanding the biological and ecological underpinnings of fish farming becomes crucial for
optimizing production practices and ensuring the health and well-being of cultured species [15]. Among the
key biological factors influencing aquaculture, fish morphology plays a fundamental role in shaping growth
patterns, reproductive success, disease resistance, and overall performance in cultured environments [16].
Morphological characteristics, such as body shape, fin structure, and skeletal development, are not only
essential for the physical fitness of fish but also for their adaptability to various environmental conditions

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and farming systems [17]. Moreover, these traits can impact feed efficiency, water quality management, and
the ability to withstand stressors such as overcrowding or pathogen exposure [18]. This review aims to
explore the morphological foundations of fish culture, examining how various physical attributes influence
the success of fish farming operations [19].
By synthesizing current research and highlighting key morphological considerations, this review
provides valuable insights for aquaculture practitioners, researchers, and policymakers seeking to enhance
the sustainability and productivity of fish culture worldwide [20].

2. Review of Literature

By examining the morphological basis of force generation in the chelae (claws) of both molluscivorous
and non-molluscivorous crabs, it is possible to understand better the difference between general crab claw
design and the morphology associated with durophagy. This comparative study investigates the morphology
underlying claw force production and intraspecific claw dimorphism in six brachyuran crabs: Callinectes
sapidus (Portunidae), Libinia emarginata (Majidae), Ocypode quadrata (Ocypodidae), Menippe mercenaria
(Xanthidae), Panopeus herbstii (Xanthidae), and P. obesus (Xanthidae). The crushers of the three
molluscivorous xanthids consistently proved to be morphologically ‘strong,’ having largest mechanical
advantages (MAs), mean angles of pinnation (MAPs), and physiological cross-sectional areas (PCSAs)
(Schenk, S. C., and Wainwright, P. C., 2001) [21].
Despite being currently considered the solid ground of communication studies, or better because of it,
culture needs radical reformulation. The antiquated perspective on culture defined it as an idealized
abstraction, as a means of distinguishing human beings and the variety of their social groups, as well as an
edge severing humanity from the natural world. In that sense, culture is conceived as a set of immanent rules
of social integration, whose purpose is to separate what is ours in opposition to what is other. The
distinctions are neat: social groups are different because they have different cultures, and culture draws a
line disengaging human beings from both animal and natural life (Neiva, E., 2002) [22].
Climbing perch locally known as koi (Anabas testudineus) is a popular food fish in our country. Thai
climbing perch was introduced in Bangladesh from Thailand. To explore the variation in growth
performance and morphological features of local and Thai climbing perch a study was undertaken. The
highest gain in length, weight and SGR were found in Thai koi 12.23±0.38 em, 55.83±0.53 g and 7.92±0.11
%/day respectively.
Fourteen morphometric characters were studied where eleven (TL, SL, HL, HBD, LBD, DFL, PECFL, PELFL,
AFL, UJL and LJL) showed significant difference in Thai koi from the local ones. Of the meristic characters no.
of dorsal fin rays (hard), anal fin rays (hard), caudal fin rays and scale along lateral line (upper and lower) as
recorded from the Thai koi were significantly higher (Alam, M. A., et. al., 2004) [23].
However, the discovery of morphological computation,1 [C. Paul, Investigation of Morphology and
Control in Biped Locomotion, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Zurich,
Switzerland, 2004], the phenomenon that computation can be obtained through interactions of physical
form, elucidates a possible mechanism underlying this relationship. The fact that simple physical
interactions give rise to computation indicates the theoretical possibility for the dynamics of the morphology
to play a computational role in the system, and thereby to subsume part of the role of control. Thus, it may
serve to analyse the relationship between morphology and control, and guide the design of robots with
reduced control requirements.
The goal of the paper is to explore this possibility. The paper introduces the concept of morphological
computation in the context of robot morphology, discusses its potential role in the morphology and control
trade-off, and then uses it as a basis to develop a heuristic for the design of robots with reduced control
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requirements. The heuristic is then tested through experiments to validate its accuracy (Paul, C., 2006) [24].
Recent years have witnessed a re-evaluation of the cognitive capabilities of fishes, including with respect
to social learning. Indeed, some of the best experimental evidence for animal traditions can be found in fishes.
Laboratory experimental studies reveal that many fishes acquire dietary, food site and mating preferences,
predator recognition and avoidance behaviour, and learn pathways, through copying other fishes.
Concentrating on foraging behaviour, we will present the findings of laboratory experiments that reveal
social learning, behavioural innovation, the diffusion of novel behaviour through populations and traditional
use of food sites.
Further studies reveal surprisingly complex social learning strategies deployed by sticklebacks. We will
go on to place these observations of fish in a phylogenetic context, describing in which respects the learning
and traditionality of fish are similar to, and differ from, that observed in other animals. We end by drawing
on theoretical insights to suggest processes that may have played important roles in the evolution of the
human cultural capability (Laland, K. N., Atton, N., & Webster, M. M., 2011) [25].
A unisexual species is generally associated with polyploidy, and reproduced by a unisexual reproduction
mode, such as gynogenesis, hybridogenesis or parthenogenesis. Compared with other unisexual and
polyploid species, gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) has a higher ploidy level of hexaploid. It has
undergone several successive rounds of genome polyploidy, and experienced an additional, more recent
genome duplication event. More significantly, the dual reproduction modes, including gynogenesis and
sexual reproduction, have been demonstrated to coexist in the polyploid gibel carp. This article reviews the
genetic basis concerning polyploidy origin, clonal diversity and dual reproduction modes, and outlines the
progress in new variety breeding and gene identification involved in the reproduction and early
development. As a novel evolutionary developmental (Evo-Devo) biology model, this work highlights future
perspectives about the functional divergence of duplicated genes and the sexual origin of vertebrate animals
(Gui, J., & Zhou, L., 2010) [26].
In fishes the shape of the body and the swimming mode generally are correlated. Slender-bodied fishes
such as eels, lampreys, and many sharks tend to swim in the anguilliform mode, in which much of the body
undulates at high amplitude. Fishes with broad tails and a narrow caudal peduncle, in contrast, tend to swim
in the carangiform mode, in which the tail undulates at high amplitude. Such fishes also tend to have different
wake structures. Carangiform swimmers generally produce two staggered vortices per tail beat and a strong
downstream jet, while anguilliform swimmers produce a more complex wake, containing at least two pairs
of vortices per tail beat and relatively little downstream flow (Tytell, E. D., et.al., 2010) [27].
The taxonomic uncertainty surrounding cryptic species complexes has traditionally been resolved using
lengthy experimental approaches, while, since the advent of PCR based techniques the number of cryptic
species described in a variety of taxa is increasing steadily. Here we formally describe a new rotifer species
of the Brachionus plicatilis complex: Brachionus manjavacas n.sp., disentangling what was known as a
morphological stasis. Detailed morphological analyses demonstrated significant differences in body shape
and size between B. manjavacas and B. plicatilis s.s., analysed by geometric morphometrics; unfortunately
these statistical differences are not taxonomically reliable because of wide overlaps. Size and asymmetry of
masticatory apparatus, named trophi, observed by SEM, gave similar results, with taxonomic ambiguity
(Fontaneto, D., Giordani, I., Melone, G., & Serra, M.,2007) [28].
The potential use of sequencing batch reactors (SBRs) as an alternative bio-flocs technology (BFT)
approach in aquaculture was explored. One SBR was dosed with glycerol and one with acetate for the
decrease of the nitrogen concentration in simulated aquaculture water by microbial assimilation. At an
optimal C/N ratio between 10 and 15, the nitrogen removal efficiency reached up to 98% (= 110 mg N L−1
reactor day−1) for both SBRs. The estimated biomass productivity reached 0.62–0.94 g C L−1 reactor day−1
for the glycerol SBR and 0.54–0.82 g C L−1 reactor day−1 for the acetate SBR. The floc protein content,
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indicating biomass quality, reached up to 57% if grown on glycerol. With acetate, it attained a value of 61%.
The highest average poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) content was 16% on a dry weight basis for the acetate
biomass (De Schryver, P., & Verstraete, W., 2009) [29].
Flavobacterium psychrophilum is a serious pathogen in trout aquaculture, responsible for the diseases
rainbow trout fry syndrome (RTFS) and cold water disease (CWD). Bacteriophage control of F.
psychrophilum may constitute a realistic approach in the treatment of these diseases; however, a detailed
understanding of the phage-host interactions is needed to evaluate the potential of F. psychrophilum
bacteriophages for that purpose. Twenty-two F. psychrophilum phages from Danish rainbow trout farms
were isolated and characterized (Stenholm, A. R., Dalsgaard, I., & Middelboe, M., 2008) [30].
Tuna and related scombrid fishes are high-performance swimmers that often operate at high frequencies,
especially during behaviors such as escaping from predators or catching prey. This contrasts with most fish-
like robotic systems that typically operate at low frequencies (< 2 hertz). To explore the high-frequency fish
swimming performance space, we designed and tested a new platform based on yellowfin tuna (Thunnus
albacares) and Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus). Body kinematics, speed, and power were measured
at increasing tail beat frequencies to quantify swimming performance and to study flow fields generated by
the tail. Experimental analyses of freely swimming tuna and mackerel allow comparison with the tuna-like
robotic system. The Tunabot (255 millimeters long) can achieve a maximum tail beat frequency of 15 hertz,
which corresponds to a swimming speed of 4.0 body lengths per second (Zhu, J., et. al., 2019) [31].
The fish early-life stage (FELS) test (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]
test guideline 210) is the primary test used internationally to estimate chronic fish toxicity in support of
ecological risk assessments and chemical management programs. As part of an ongoing effort to develop
efficient and cost-effective alternatives to the FELS test, there is a need to identify and describe potential
adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) relevant to FELS toxicity. Using swim bladder inflation as an example, a
weight-of-evidence–based approach was used to support linkage of key molecular initiating events to
adverse phenotypic outcomes and reduced young-of-year survival. Based on an iterative approach, the
feasibility of using key events as the foundation for expanding a network of plausible linkages and AOP
knowledge was explored and, in the process, important knowledge gaps were identified (Villeneuve, D., et.
al., 2014) [32].
In the present study, Lactobacillus plantarum P8 was used to ferment soybean meal (SBM), resulting in a
significant reduction in the indigestible oligosaccharides (sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose) and anti-
nutritional factors (tannin, trypsin inhibitors, glycinin, and β-conglycinin) in SBM. Nine isonitrogenic and
isoenergetic experimental diets were formulated in which SBM or L. plantarum P8 fermented SBM (LPFSBM)
replaced fish meal (FM) protein with 0 (control); 15% by SBM (Diet 1), 30% by SBM (Diet 2), 45% by SBM
(Diet 3), 60% by SBM (Diet 4), 15% by LPFSBM (Diet 5), 30% by LPFSBM (Diet 6), 45% by LPFSBM (Diet 7),
and 60% by LPFSBM (Diet 8).
Triplicate groups of 30 fish were fed to apparent satiation twice daily for 66 d in an indoor recycling
seawater system. No significant differences were found in survival rate among the different groups.
However, 45% SBM, 60% SBM, and 60% LPFSBM (Diets 3, 4, and 8) diets significantly reduced growth
performance and feed utilization. The LPFSBM diets did not affect moisture, crude protein, crude lipid, or
crude ash contents of whole-body measurements (Wang, L., Zhou, H., He, R., Xu, W., Mai, K., & He, G., 2016)
[33].
The measurement of species diversity represents a powerful tool for assessing the impacts of human
activities on marine ecosystems. Traditionally, the impact of fish farming on the coastal environment is
evaluated by monitoring the dynamics of macrobenthic infaunal populations. However, taxonomic sorting
and morphology-based identification of the macrobenthos demand highly trained specialists and are
extremely time-consuming and costly, making it unsuitable for large-scale biomonitoring efforts involving
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numerous samples. Here, we propose to alleviate this laborious task by developing protist metabarcoding
tools based on next-generation sequencing (NGS) of environmental DNA and RNA extracted from sediment
samples. In this study, we analysed the response of benthic foraminiferal communities to the variation of
environmental gradients associated with salmon farms in Scotland. We investigated the foraminiferal
diversity based on ribosomal minibarcode sequences generated by the Illumina NGS technology (Pawlowski,
J., et. al., 2014) [34].
Although most studies on integration and modularity have focused on variation among individuals within
populations or species, this is not the only level of variation for which integration and modularity exist.
Multiple levels of biological variation originate from distinct sources: genetic variation, phenotypic plasticity
resulting from environmental heterogeneity, fluctuating asymmetry from random developmental variation
and, at the interpopulation or interspecific levels, evolutionary change. The processes that produce variation
at all these levels can impart integration or modularity on the covariance structure among morphological
traits (Klingenberg, C. P., 2014) [35].
To determine the differences in morphological characteristics and muscle nutritional quality between
largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) cultured in an aquaculture system using land-based container
with recycling water (C-RAS) and those cultured in a traditional pond system (TP), largemouth bass with no
significant difference in body weight were selected. Results showed that the largemouth bass cultured in C-
RAS had a significantly longer body and significantly lower condition factor and viscerosomatic index than
those cultured in the TP (P < 0.01). In terms of muscle characteristics, the water loss and muscle fibre
diameter were significantly lower in the C-RAS group than those in the TP group (P < 0.05), whereas the
firmness, chewiness, springiness, and shear force in the C-RAS group were significantly higher than those in
the TP group (P < 0.01). The crude protein content was significantly higher in the muscles of largemouth
bass cultured in C-RAS than in those cultured in the TP (P < 0.05) (Jia, S. P., et. al., 2022) [36].
Fish coloration, evolved from selection and adaptation, is a prominent feature of remarkable aquaculture
merits. Fish possess more pigment cell types than any other vertebrates and are an excellent model for the
study of mechanisms underlying skin coloration and pigmentation at levels from molecular genetics to
system biology. How to effectively improve skin colour in ornamental and aquaculture fish has long been a
focus on selective breeding programmes. In this review article, we introduce different types of
chromatophore and early development of pigmentation, describe cellular mechanisms related to
morphological and physiological changes of body colour and demonstrate applications of single-sex control
and molecular marker–assisted breeding in body colour selection (Luo, M., et. al., 2021) [37].
Farmed fish are a promising source of high-quality and sustainable protein. However, the production of
farmed fish products that meet food safety standards is one of the major public health challenges worldwide.
Therefore, food safety management in fish farms has recently garnered increasing attention. However, the
detection of health parameters in fish is currently lacking. Haematology, an approach that is widely used in
humans, provides a reliable assessment of health status in a non-lethal and low-cost way. Nevertheless,
comprehensive, systemic and standard haematological parameters have not yet been established in farmed
fish. Here, we provide a summary of the recent advancements in haematology health indicators in fish.
Generally, haematological parameters are based on physiological and biochemical indices in blood (Chen, H.,
and Luo, D., 2023) [38].

Among the background of developments in automation and intelligence, machine learning technology has
been extensively applied in aquaculture in recent years, providing a new opportunity for the realization of
digital fishery farming. In the present paper, the machine learning algorithms and techniques adopted in
intelligent fish aquaculture in the past five years are expounded, and the application of machine learning in
aquaculture is explored in detail, including the information evaluation of fish biomass, the identification and
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classification of fish, behavioral analysis and prediction of water quality parameters. Further, the application
of machine learning algorithms in aquaculture is outlined, and the results are analyzed. Finally, several
current problems in aquaculture are highlighted, and the development trend is considered (Zhao, S., et. al.,
2021) [39].
We review how seaweed genetic resources are currently used in aquaculture, in relation to the
diversification and rapidly increasing use of marine resources. Using a revealing case-study, we summarise
the potential for positive societal change, underpinned by the cultivation of eucheumatoid carrageenophytes
(species of the red algal genera Eucheuma and Kappaphycus), an activity which has been successfully
initiated in many tropical countries to support their economic development. We also review the challenges
currently faced by this industry and identify potential threats to the seaweed cultivation sector. Accordingly,
we suggest new directions to support the continued development of an economically resilient and
environmentally sustainable industry based on the utilisation of genetic resources (Brakel, J., et. al., 2021)
[40].

3. Conclusion

The critical role of fish morphology in shaping the success of modern aquaculture practices. As global
demand for sustainable, protein-rich food continues to rise, understanding the relationship between fish
physical characteristics and aquaculture efficiency becomes increasingly vital. This book highlights how
traits such as body shape, fin structure, and skeletal development impact key aspects of fish farming,
including growth, disease resistance, and overall performance in diverse farming systems. By bridging
theoretical science with practical application, the review provides valuable insights into how morphological
factors can optimize breeding, improve feed efficiency, and enhance environmental adaptability.
As the aquaculture industry expands, integrating these morphological foundations will be essential for
developing sustainable farming practices, improving productivity, and ensuring the long-term success of fish
culture globally. This comprehensive review serves as an essential resource for advancing research,
innovation, and management in the field of aquaculture.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and publication
of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.

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ISSN 3048-8222 (Online) | www.ijsate.com | [email protected]

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