Lecture 1st

Active and Passive Voice

What does Voice mean?
It means sound, but it is a form of a verb in grammar that shows whether the subject does
something or something is done to the subject. Or it shows whether it is performing the action or
receiving the action.

Kinds of voice:
There are basically two kinds of voice.
1. Active voice
When a form of a verb shows that the subject is performing the action it is called Active Voice.
In active voice the subject performs the action from the actual position and the object receives
the action from the actual position.
EX: Alieatsan apple.
Sub V obj

2. Passive voice
When a form of a verb shows that the subject is receiving the action it is called Passive Voice.
In Passive Voice the subject performs the action from the unactual position verb and the object
receives the action from the unactual position.
EX: An appleis eatenby Ali.
Sub V obj

Rules for changing Active Voice into Passive Voice

 Divide the sentence into subject, verb and object.

EX: WestudyEnglish.
Sub V obj
 Change the object of active voice into the subject of passive voice.
EX: English
Subject
 Use a form of to be verb according to the subject of active voice and the new subject.
EX: Englishis
Sub V
 Use past participle form of the verb used in active voice.
EX: Englishistaught
Sub V V3
 Change the subject of active voice into a part of (By phrase) in passive voice.
EX: Englishistaughtby us.
Sub V V3 obj

What is By Phrase?
It is the person who performs the action in both active and passive voice. Using by phrase is
important when the subject of active voice is a proper noun or when it provides extra information
about the performer.
Note: It is also called actor or agent.

Note: The following tenses are not changed into passive voice in modern English, while they are
changed in very old English.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

Ex: Ali has been washing the car. (Modern English)
The car has been being washed by Ali. (Old English)
Past Perfect Continuous Tense:
Ex: They had been playing cricket. (Modern English)
Cricket had been being played by them. . (Old English)
Future Continuous Tense:
Ex: She will be cooking a big dinner. (Modern English)
A big dinner will be being cooked by her. (Old English)
Future Perfect Continuous Tense:
Ex: They will have been writing a book. (Modern English)
A book will have been being written by them. (Old English)

Why do we use Active and Passive Voice?

We prefer active voice in the following cases:
When we are more interested in the performer of the action.
EX: Ali delivers a speech about terrorisms.
When we want to avoid confusion.

We prefer passive voice in the following cases:

 When we don‟t know or have forgotten who performed the action.
Ex: The jug was broken.
 When we are more interested in the action than its performer.
Ex: The room was decorated.
 When we want to bring a variety in our speaking and writing.
Ex: The jug was broken by Ahmad. Instead of Ahmad broke the jug.
 When it is not important or already clear is, am, are or will be the performer.
Ex: Ahmad was born in Peshawar.
Rice is grown in India.
 When we want to emphasize or give importance to the receiver.
Ex: The students are taught by a good teacher.
 When the subject of active voice is indefinite pronouns or people.
Ex: The glass was broken.
Large buildings are built.

Changing Present Tenses into Passive Voice:

Simple Present Tense:

Structures:
Subject + is/am/are + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
Ex: She washes the dishes every day.
The dishes are washed every day by her.
Subject + is/am/are + not + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
Ex: She does not wash the dishes every day.
 The dishes are not washed every day by her.
Is/am/are + subject + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
Ex: Does she wash the dishes every day?
Are the dishes washed every day by her?

Present Continuous Tense:

Structures:
Subject + is/am/are + being + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
Ex: Ali is studying math.
Math is being studied by Ali.
Subject + is/am/are + not + being + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
Ex: Ali is not studying math.
Math is not being studied by Ali.
Is/am/are + subject + being + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
Ex: Is Ali studying math?
Is math being studied by Ali?

Present Perfect Tense:

Structures:
Subject + have/has + been + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
Ex: They have bought a car.
A car has been bought by them.
Subject + have/has + not + been + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
Ex: They have not bought a car.
A car has not been bought by them.
Have/has + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
Ex: Have they bought a car?
Has a car been bought by them?

Changing Past Tenses into Passive Voice

Simple Past Tense:

Structures:
Subject + was/were + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
Ex: I visited Laila the day before yesterday.
Laila was visited the day before yesterday by me.
Subject + was/were + not + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
Ex: I visited Laila the day before yesterday.
Laila was not visited the day before yesterday by me.
Was/were + subject + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
Ex: Did I visit Laila the day before yesterday?
Was Laila visited the day before yesterday by me?

Past Continuous Tense:

Structures:
Subject + was/were + being + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
Ex: Laila was watching cricket yesterday.
Cricket was being watched yesterday by Laila.
 Subject + was/were + not + being + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
Ex: Laila was not watching cricket yesterday.
Cricket was not being watched yesterday by Laila.
Was/were + subject + being + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
Ex: Was Laila watching cricket yesterday?
Was cricket being watched yesterday by Laila?

Past Perfect Tense:

Structures:
Subject + had + been + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
Ex: Laila had broken her engagement.
Laila‟s engagement had been broken by her.
Subject + had + not + been + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
Ex: Laila had not broken her engagement.
Laila‟s engagement had not been broken by her.
Had + subject + been + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
Ex: Had Laila broken her engagement?
Had Laila‟s engagement been broken by her?

Changing Future Tenses into Passive Voice

Simple Future Tense:

Structures:
Subject + will/shall + be + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
Ex: We will paint the house tomorrow.
The house will be painted tomorrow by us.
Subject + will/shall + not + be + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
Ex: We will not paint the house tomorrow.
The house will not be painted tomorrow by us.
Will/shall +Subject + be + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
Ex: Will we paint the house tomorrow?
Will the house be painted tomorrow by us?

Future Perfect Tense:

Structures:
Subject + will/shall + have + been + verb3 + by phrase (Positive)
Ex: She will have cooked dinner, before you clean the house.
Dinner will have been cooked by her, before the house is cleaned by you.
Subject + will/shall + not + have + been + verb3 + by phrase (Negative)
Ex: She will not have cooked dinner, before you clean the house.
Dinner will not have been cooked by her, before the house cleaned by you.
Will/shall + subject + have + been + verb3 + by phrase (Interrogative)
Ex: Will she have cooked dinner, before you clean the house?
Will dinner have been cooked by her, before the house is cleaned by you?
Changing have/has to/ be going to/ought to into Passive Voice:
Structure:
Subject + have/has to/ be going to/ought to + be + verb3 + by phrase
Ex: She has to study English.
English has to be studied by her.
They ought to wash the car.
The car ought to be washed by them.
I am going to call you.
You are going to be called by me.

Changing Imperative Sentences into Passive Voice:

Structure:
Let + object + be + verb3 (Positive imperative)
Ex:Close your books.
Let your books be closed.
Bring me a glass of water.
Let a glass of water be brought to me.

Let + object + not + be + verb3

Ex:Don‟t touch the stove.
Let the stove not be touched.
Don‟t tell lie.
Let lie not be told.

Changing Information Questions into Passive Voice:

1: Information questions having tenses
Structure:
W.H words + auxiliary + subject + verb3 + by phrase
Ex:When does she call you?
When are you called by her?
Why are you studying English?
Why is English being studied by you?
Who gave you flowers?

Note: There is no subject in the last example, so the word “by” should be used at the beginning
and who should be changed into whom.
By whom were the flowers given to you?
Or who were you given the flowers by?

2: Information questions having modal auxiliaries

Structure:
W.H words + modal auxiliary + subject + be + verb3 + by phrase
Ex:How is she going to teach the students?
How are the students going to be taught by her?
Where will you meet her?
Where will she be met by you?

3: Information questions having have/has to

Structure:
W.H words + to do auxiliary + subject + have to + be + verb3 + by phrase
Ex:Why did you have to call her?
Why did she have to be called by you?
Where does she have to study computer?
Where does computer have to be studied by her?

4: Information questions having be going to

Structure:
W.H words + to be auxiliary + subject + be + verb3 + by phrase
Ex:Why is she going to cancel the meeting?
Why is the meeting going to be cancelled by her?
Where are they going to take test?
Where is test going to be taken by them?
Lecture 3rd
Direct and Indirect Speech
What is Speech?
A talk or dialogue between two persons is called speech. Or a lecture given to a number of
audiences is called speech. Or speech is the way, act and power of speaking.

Kinds of speech
1. Direct speech
It refers to reproducing the exact words of a speaker. Or we represent the exact words of a
speaker in his/her own words to someone without any modifications.

Key points:
 It is made of two parts.
A) Reporting speech. It contains subject and a reporting verb.
B) Reported speech. It contains the exact words of a speaker.
EX: Ali said, “I am too tired.”
Reporting S Reported S
 Reporting speech can come before or after the reported speech.
Note: If reporting speech is used at the beginning then comma is used outside the
inverted commas.
If reporting speech is used at the end then comma is used inside the inverted
commas.
Ex:Laila said, “I hate you.”
“I hate you,” said Laila.
 The exact words of a speaker will be placed inside the quotation marks, speech marks,
inverted commas or double commas.
 The first letter inside quotation marks will always be capitalized.
 All signs of punctuations must be placed inside the quotation marks.

2. Indirect speech
It refers to reproducing the main idea of exact words of a speaker. Or we represent the essence of
a speaker‟s exact words with a few modifications to someone.

Key points:
 It is made of two parts.
A) Main clause. It contains subject and verb to support the noun clause in terms of completion of
its meaning.
B) Noun clause. It contains the essence of a speaker‟s exact words.
EX: Ali saidthat he was too tired.
M. clause Noun clause
 No comma or quotation marks will be used.
 Noun clause markers (That, if/whether, w.h words) are used.
 That can be omitted after say and tell.
 But That can not be omitted after other verbs.
 If the reporting verb is in the past tense, tenses and words indicating nearness of time and
positions will be changed.
 Tenses may not be changed even if the reporting verb is in the past tense, but it is very
informal.

Tenses Changes
Simple Present Tense to Simple Past Tense
Present Continuous Tense to Past Continuous Tense
Present Perfect Tense to Past Perfect Tense
Present Perfect Continuous Tense to Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Simple Past Tense to Past Perfect Tense
Past Continuous Tense to Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Past Perfect Tense to Past Perfect Tense
Past Perfect Continuous Tense to Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Changes in Modal Auxiliaries

Can to Could Will to Would
May to Might Have to to Had to
Has to to Had to Must to Had to
Shall to Should Could to Could
Had to to Had to Would to Would
Ought to to Ought Had better to Had better
Might to Might
Some other words changes
This to That These to Those
Now to Then Thus to So
So to Very Ago to Before
Just to Then Here to There
Hither to Thither Come to Go
Bring to Take Hence to Thence / Therefore
Today to That Day Tonight to That Night

Yesterday to The previous day/the day before/the last day

Tomorrow to the next day/the day after/the following day
The day after tomorrow to In two days/the day after the next day
The day before yesterday to Two days before/the day before the previous day

 No changes will occur if the reporting verb is in the present or future tense.
Ex: Ali says, “You are a bad boy.”
Ali says that I am a bad boy.
They will say, “The weather is too hot.”
They will say that the weather is too hot.

 Pronouns will be changed according to SON formula.

SON stands for:
S: Subject changes. I and we will change according to the subject of reporting speech.
O: Object changes. You will change according to the object of reporting speech.
N: No changes. He, she, it and they will not change.
 Yes/yeah/no/hi/ and hello are removed.
Ex: The teacher said, “Yes, I will come.”
 The said that he would go.

Structure:
Subject + reporting verb (Said/told) + that + subject + verb + ROTC
Said + noun clause
Said + to + object + noun clause
Told + object + noun clause
Ex:His father said, “He is hard working.”
His father said that he was hard working.
She told me, “I will help you.”
She told me that she would help me.

Lecture 4th

Changing Interrogative Sentences into Indirect Speech

Structures:
 Subject + reporting verb (asked/wanted to know/questioned/inquired/interrogated)
+ if/whether + subject + verb + ROTC (This structure is used for yes/no questions)

Ex:Laila said, “Will Ali will be present tomorrow?”

Laila asked if Ali would be present the next day.
My father told me, “Is it raining now?”
My father questioned me that it was raining then.

 Subject + reporting verb (asked/wanted to know/questioned/inquired/interrogated)

+ W.H words + subject + verb + ROTC (This structure is used for W.H questions)

Ex:Her mother said, “Who broke the jug?”

Her mother inquired who had broken the jug.
The students said, “When does the class end?”
The students wanted to know when the class ended.

Changing Imperative Sentences into Indirect Speech

Structures:
 Subject + reporting verb (Instructed, told, advised, requested, forced, ordered) + to
+ verb1 (This structure is used for positive imperative)

Ex:The teacher said, “Bring a glass of water.”

The teacher ordered to take a glass of water.
The man said, “Walk four blocks to the west.”
The man instructed to walk four blocks to the west.
She said, “Please, respect your elders.”
She advised to respect my elders
The commanders shouted, “Attack on the enemies.”
The commanders forced to attack on the enemies.
  Subject + reporting verb (Instructed, told, advised, requested, forced, ordered) + not + to +
verb1 (This structure is used for negative imperative)
EX: The mother said, “Don‟t touch the hot stove.”
The mother advised not to touch the hot stove.
She told me, “Don‟t smoke cigar.”
She advised me not to smoke cigar.

Changing Exclamatory Sentences into Indirect Speech

 Structure: Subject + exclaimed with + noun (Joy, surprise, happiness, sadness,
displeasure, pain ) + that + W.H words subject + verb + ROTC

Ex:The players said, “Hurrah! We won the match.”

The players exclaimed with joy that they won the match.
Ali said, “What a high mountain it is!”
Ali exclaimed with surprise what a high mountain it was.
Laila said, “Ouch! I cut my finger.”
Laila exclaimed with pain that she had cut her finger.
Ahmad said, “How difficult this test is!”
Ahmad exclaimed with displeasure how difficult this test was.
 Lecture 5th
Parts of Speech

Part of speech is traditional term that refers to the words that form speech.
Or: Words that are divided into different groups or classes according to their grammatical
function in a sentence is called parts of speech.

These are eight parts of speech in English.

1. Noun
2. Pronoun
3. Adjective
4. Adverb
5. Verb
6. Preposition
7. Conjunction
8. Interjection

Classes of Parts of Speech

Parts of speech has two classes namely:

1. Open Class Elements

They accept new member.

They are followings

Noun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb

Ex: Beauty, Beautify, Beautiful, Beautifully

2. Close Class Elements

They don‟t accept new member.
For example: he, but, from, ouch, can‟t be changed.

They are followings

Pronoun, Conjunction, Preposition, Interjection

1: Noun
It is derived from a Latin word „Nomen‟ which means „ a name‟ or „naming word‟.

Noun is a word or group of words that gives title to a person, place or thing.
Or Noun is a word that is used name followings.

1. Person  Ali, Ahmad

2. Place  Kabul,
3. Thing  Pen, Pencil,
4. Idea  Sadness, Pain, Knowledge.
5. Quality of Mind  Love, Like,
Idea: All those things that we can‟t touch but we can feel.
Roots of Noun:
1. Cases of Noun
2. Kinds of Noun
3. Gender of Noun
4. Number of Noun

Cases of Noun
Cases of a noun show where the noun is used in a sentence.
There are ten cases of a noun.
1. Subjective Case
2. Objective Case
3. Possessive Case

1. Subjective Case: It is also called nominative case.

Noun is used as the subject of the verb.

Noun + Verb
Ex: Ali comes daily.
The chair is old.
Are the boys studying?
Ahmad is a student.

2. Objective Case (Direct Object of Verb)

It is also called Accusative Case.
Noun is used as the object of the verb.

Main Verb + Noun

Ex: Ali studies English.
She cooks the dinner.
Ahmad is playing cricket.
She drinks water.
Ali eats mango.

Possessive Case
It is called Genitive Case.
Noun is used with („s) or (s‟) to show relationship and ownership.

„S (Apostrophe S):
1. With singular regular nouns.

Ex: Ali‟s car.

Teacher‟s file.
Father‟s name.

Kinds of Noun
There are nine kinds of noun.
1. Proper Noun
2. Common Noun
3. Material Noun
 4. Concrete Noun
5. Abstract Noun
6. Countable Noun
7. Non-countable Noun
8. Collective Noun
9. Compound Noun

1.Proper Noun
A noun that is the name of a particular person, place, and thing is called proper noun.
And it is capitalized any where in the sentences.

Ex: Person Ahmad, Ali, Laila, Haseena

Place London, Pakistan etc.
ThingHoly Quran
2.Common Noun
It is the name of given in common to a person, place or thing.

Ex: Person Teacher, girls, boy, man etc.

Place city, village, country etc.
Thingpen, book, pencil, computer etc.

3.Material Noun
It is the name of substance out of which other things are made.

Ex: plastic, paper, wood etc.

4.Concrete Noun
A noun that has a physical existence and can be seen and touched with is called concrete noun.

Ex: pens, pencils, desks etc.

5.Abstract Noun
It is the name of something which can‟t be seen or touched but can be felt.

Ex: honestly, pain, sorrow, happiness, modesty

6.Countable Noun (unit noun)

It is the name of something that can be counted and divided into singular and plural.

Ex: Book, Pencil, Boy, Girl, Man , Tree, Table etc.

7. Non- Countable Noun (mass noun)

It is the name of something that can‟t be counted and divided into singular and plural.

Ex: Water, Sugar, Rice, Sand, Bread, Advice, Honey, Milk etc.

7.Collective Noun
It is the name of group or collection of people, things, or animals.

Ex: class, team, flock of animal, dozen of eggs, staff etc.

8.Compound Noun
Noun + Noun is called compound noun.
First noun function as an adjective and modifies the second noun.

Ex: shopkeeper, policeman, housewife, snowman, keyboard, police station, home work etc.

Gender of Noun
Gender is derived from a Latin word “Genus” which means kind or sort.
Gender indicates whether a person or an animal is male or female.

Kinds of Gender
There are four kinds of Gender:

1. Masculine Gender
It indicates that a person or an animal is male.
Ex: Boy, man, father, lion, dog, manager.
2. Feminine Gender
Indicates that a person or an animal is female.
Ex: girl, woman, mother, lioness, bitch, manageress etc.
3. Neuter Gender (Ennuch)
Indicates neither male nor female.
Ex: pen, pencil, chair, table etc.
4. Common Gender
Indicates that a person is both male and female.
Ex: singer, principal, doctor, children, teacher, officer, engineer etc.

Number of Noun
Number of noun indicates whether a person, thing or animal is singular or plural in number.
1. Singular Noun
Denotes that a person, thing or animal is singular in number.
2. Plural Noun
Denotes that person, things or animal is plural in number.
Some nouns are the same in both singular and plural from
Fish fish
Sheep sheep
For some nouns, change other letters or just change the word completely
Person people
Child children

Lecture 6th

2. Pronoun
It is derived from a Latin word “pronomen” which means for a noun.

Def: Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun to avoid its unnecessary repetition in a
sentence is called pronoun.

Ex: Ali is my best friend. He is the only son of a father.

Notes: Pronoun can be also used as Antecedents

Ex: He is Ali.
They are Mahmood and Ali.
She is Laila.
He is Ahmad.
He is my best friend.
Sometimes pronouns are used as an Antecedent in case the pronoun comes before the noun.

Ex: He is Ali.
Def: Pronoun is a word which is used instead of a noun and as Antecedents.

Kinds of Pronoun
There are eight kinds of pronoun:
1. Subject Pronoun
2. Object Pronoun
3. Demonstrative Pronoun
4. Possessive Pronoun
5. Reflexive Pronoun
6. Emphatic / Intensive Pronoun
7. Interrogative Pronoun

1. Subject Pronoun
A pronoun that is used as subject and refers to three persons is called subject pronoun.
Subject pronouns are (I, we, you, he, she, it, they).

1st Person: The person who is speaking.

1st Singular Person: I
1st Plural Person: We

2nd Person: The person who is spoken to or the person to whom we speak.
2nd Singular Person: You
2nd Plural Person: You

3rd Person: The person who is spoken off (a person about whom we speak)
3rd Singular Person: He, She, It
3rd Plural Person: They

Ex: He goes to school.

She is a nurse.
They are playing.

2. Object Pronoun
A pronoun that is used as object and most often receives the action is called object pronoun.
Object Pronouns are (Me, you, him, them, us, her, it)
Main Verb / Preposition + Object Pronoun

Ex: Please call him.

I listen to them.
Ali took her to hospital.
Don‟t fight with me.
I will beat you.

Usages of Object Pronoun

a. As the direct object of verb.
b. As the object of preposition

3. Demonstrative Pronoun
A pronoun that is used to point out a near or far person (s), place (s) thing (s) is called
demonstrative pronoun.

This: for near singular person, place or thing.

That: for far singular person, place or thing.
These: for near plural person, place or thing.
Those: for far plural person, place or thing.
Such: Used for all above mentioned.

Usages
a. Subject case
b. Object case
c. Oblique case

Ex: This is my car.

I will buy those.
I listen to this.
Those are my friends.
This goes too fast.
Such is boring.

4. Possessive Pronoun
A pronoun is used to show ownership and relationship is called possessive pronoun.

1. Mine
2. Ours
3. Yours
4. His
5. Hers
6. Its
7. Theirs

Usages
a. Subjective case
b. Objective case
c. Complement of to be
 d. Oblique case

Ex: That is mine.

I like yours.
Ali‟s your teacher?
Where‟s our?
This car‟s sound system is new and expensive.
No man, come and see its.
Ali‟s bike is new.
Hers is newer.
After possessive pronoun we can‟t use noun because if we use a noun then it become possessive
adjective.

5. Reflexive Pronoun
A pronoun in which the subject and the object is the same person is called reflexive pronoun.

Or in reflexive pronoun the action turns back to the very subject.

1. Myself
2. Ourselves
3. Yourself
4. Yourselves
5. Herself
6. Himself
7. Itself
8. Themselves

Usages
a. At the end of sentence.
b. After the verb.
c. After preposition

Ex: I introduce myself to students.

A computer can‟t work itself.
She killed herself.
He wrote his homework.
I killed the lion by myself.
She cooked all the dishes by herself.

6. Intensive / Emphatic Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun that is used after the subject for emphasis is called emphatic pronoun.
1. Myself
2. Herself
3. Ourselves
4. Himself
5. Yourself
6. Itself
7. Yourselves
8. Themselves

Subject + Reflexive Pronoun = Emphatic Pronoun

Ex: I myself caught the tiger.
I caught the tiger myself.
You yourself choose this suit.
They themselves learn the new lesson.

7. Interrogative Pronoun
A pronoun that is used to ask question is called interrogative pronoun.
1. Who
2. Whom
3. Which
4. What
5. Whose

Ex: Who is your father?

Whom do you want to meet?
Which is the most expensive?
Whose is that?
What did you do?
To whom is she talking?

Lecture 7th

3.Adjectives

It is derived from a Latin word “Adjectivus” which means to add.

Def: Adjective is a word that explains, modifies or gives further information about a noun or
pronoun in a sentence.

Ex: Ali is smart boy.

She is kind.
He is intelligent.
Ali is kind.
She is a good doctor
Roots of Adjective
1. Cases of Adjective
2. Kinds of Adjective
3. Degrees of Adjective
Cases of Adjective:
It shows where adjective is used in a sentence.
There are two cases of an adjective.

1. Attributive case
2. Predicative case
1. Attributive Case
Adjective is placed before a noun.
Adjective + Noun
Ex: brave man, nice pen, sunny weather, smart boy, speedy cars, cold water, large glass, good
doctor, ugly face etc.

2. Predictive Case
Adjective is used after linking verb.
Is/am/are
Seem
Look + Adjective
Taste
Sound
Feel
etc.
Ex: She is beautiful.
Ali seems sad.
Children keep you busy.
She looks nice.
I feel tired.
She looks hunger.
They are smart.
We are happy.

Adjective Shows
1. Opshacom
2. Opshacas
And they are stand for
Op: Opinion
Sh: shape
A: Age
C: Color
O: Origin
S: Size
M: Material

Or Adjective is a world that shows the follwoigns:

Opinion: Ali is a silly boy.

Size: She is a tall girl.

Color: I will buy a black car.
Age: She is a young lady.
Time: We had an early start.
Material: They live in a wooden house.
Origin: She is from America / British.
Distance: We went to for a long walk.
Temperature: The weather is hot.
Purpose: We have to buy a frying pan.
Quality: She is beautiful and kind.
Kinds of Adjective:
There are seven kinds of adjective.
1. Qualitative adjective
2. Demonstrative adjective
3. Interrogative adjective
4. Possessive adjective
5. Numeral adjective
6. Quantative adjective
7. Proper adjective

1. Qualitative Adjective
An adjective that show the quality of a person, place or thing is called adjective of quality.
Ex: Ali is a kind boy.
Peshawar is hot.
She is beautiful.
Kabul is a beautiful city.
I am a fast driver.
He is a funny boy

2. Demonstrative Adjective
An adjective that points out a near or far person (s), place (s) or thing (s) is called demonstrative
adjective.

This
That
These + Noun
Those
such

Ex: This is my car. (D.P)

This car is expensive. (D.A)
Those chairs are ne. (D.A)

3. Interrogative Adjective
An adjective that is used to ask question is called interrogative adjective.
Whose
What + Noun
Which

Ex: Whose pen is this?

What colors do you like?
Which class do you read in?

4. Possessive Adjective
An adjective that is used to show ownership or relationship is called possessive adjective.

My
Our
Your
His + Noun
Her
Its
Their

Ex: It is my marker.
It is mine. (P.P)
It is her marker.
Ali is his brother.
I like its color.
I like our class.
My name is Ahmad.

5. Numerical Adjective
An adjective that is used to show “how many” person or thing we mean is called adjective of
number.

Kinds of Adjective of Number:

1. Definite Adjective of Number
Denotes a specific number.

a. Cordinal Adjective of Number

One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine etc.
Ex: I have two markers.
I have three brothers.

b. Ordinal Adjective of Number

First, second, third, fourth etc.
Ex: Ali got the first position.
Ahmad got the second prize.

2. Indefinite Adjective of Number

Doesn‟t show any exact number and most often it is followed by plural noun.
Some
Any
Many
Few + Plural Count Noun
A lot of
Lots of
Several
A few
More
Ex: I have a few markers.
I have few markers.
We have lots of student in SELCC (informal)
We have a lot of students in SELCC (formal)
We have some question.
Do you have any brother.

6. Quantitative Adjective
An adjective that is used to show quantity or “ how much “ of something is meant is called
quantitative adjective.
Some
Any
Lots + Non –count noun
Much
Little
A little
More
Ex: Do you have any coffee?
You have some experience.
We have a lot of water.
She eats lots of money.
She spends a lot of money.
I have much knowledge.
She has little sugar.
You have more information.

7. Proper Adjective:
An adjective that is derived from a proper noun to show nationality or origin is called proper
adjective.
Ex: Ali is American.
She is a Pakistani lady.
We are Afghan.
She is an Indian singer.
I have a Swiss citizenship.

2. Degrees of Adjective
There are three degrees of an adjective:
1. Simple Degree
There is no comparison only quality of a person, place or thing is discussed.
Ex: She is beautiful.
Peshawar is hot.
My car is new.

2. Comparative Degree
We compare one person, place and thing with another person, place or thing.
Ex: Ali is smarter than Ahmad.
Peshawar is hotter than Islamabad.
My car is older than your bike.

3. Superlative Degree
We compare one person, place, and thing with the group of persons, places and things.
Ex: Ali is the best boy in my class.
Peshawar is the most modern city in Pakistan.
My car is the news among all my friends.

Lecture 8th
4. Adverb
It is derived from a Latin word “adverbium” which means to add something to the meaning of a
verb.
Def: Adverb is a word, phrase or a clause which modifies or adds something to the meaning of a
verb, an adjective another adverb clause and a sentence.
Or: a word that answer the following questions is called adverb.
1. When
2. Where
3. How / How will
4. Why
5. To what degree or extent
6. How often
7. Under what conditions

 Adverbs requires the main verb.

 Adjective requires the linking verb.
 Adverbs can appear in three shapes.
1. As a word
2. As a phrase
3. As a clause

1. As a word
Ex: Our teacher comes late.
She dances beautifully.
You come late.
She walks fast.
He teaches well.
He eats fast.
He works fast.

2. As phrase
Ex: We are in the class.
Our class begins at 6:00 pm.
Accidents occur on main Road.

3. As a clause
Ex: If you struggle, you can succeed.
As soon as the bell rings, we will leave.
Because she didn‟t‟ study, she failed the exam.
Note: Noun
Pronoun + Can be object or complement.

Adjective
Adverb + Are only complements not objects

Ex: I met him.  Object

She dances beautifully.  Complement
This is Ali.
It is me.  Complement
Kinds of Adverb
There are Seven of Adverb:
1. Interrogative Adverb
2. Adverb of Place
3. Adverb of Time
4. Adverb of Manner
5. Adverb of Frequency
6. Adverb of degree
7. Conjunctive Adverb

1. Interrogative Adverb
An adverb that is used to ask question is called interrogative adverb.
Where
When
Why + Auxiliary + Verb + Subject + Main Verb + Rest of the sentence.
How

Ex: When does your class end?

Why you didn‟t come to the party?
How wide is your class?

2. Adverb of Place
An adverb that shows the place of an action and answers the question word “where” is called
adverb of place.

Ex: We are in the class.

The accidents occur on the road.
She goes to her office.
You must go there.

3. Adverb of Time
An adverb that shows the time of an action or situation and answers the question word „when‟ is
called adverb of time.
Ex: She is sleeping now.
Our class ends at 06:00.
She died last year.
We will come tomorrow.
I teach adverb today.
Before she comes, we will arrange the chairs.
As soon as the bell rings, we will leave the class.

There are Two Kinds of Adverb of Time

1. Definite Adverbs of Time: shows exact time in the present, past and future.
Ex: Today, Tomorrow, Last night, Five years ago etc.

1. Indefinite Adverbs of Time: doesn‟tshow exact time in the present, past and future.
Ex: Yet, Recently, Lately, Already, Ever, Just, Still, Anymore etc.
4. Adverb of Manner
An adverb that ends in (ly, ally, ily) and shows how someone does something is called adverb of
manner.
These adverbs answr the question word „how‟ or „how well‟?
Adverbs of manner are formed by adding (ly, ally, ily) to adjectives.

Adjective Adverb
Beautiful Beautifully
Smart Smartly

Ex: She dances beautiful. (incorrect)

She dances beautifully.

He is a careful driver.
He drives carefully.
Your answers are correct.
You answered all the questions correctly.
 Ending with (ic) add (ally)

Heroic Heroically
Automatic Automatically

 Ending with (y) change (y) to (i) and add (ly)

Happy Happily
Easy Easily

Ex: She is happy.

She lives happily.

He is busy.
He is working busily.

The tiger is hungry.

He is roaming hungrily.

5. Adverb of Frequency
An adverb that answers the question word „how often‟ and shows the repetition of events is called
adverb of frequency.

Kinds of Adverb of Frequency

There are two kinds

1. Definite adverb of frequency

Shows exact repletion of events.
Once, twice, thrice, daily, weakly, monthly, yearly

2. Indefinite Adverb of Frequency

Doesn‟t show exact repetition of events
Always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, hardly, ever, seldom, never etc.

Ex: She sometimes comes late.

He always comes on time.
I often eat fish.

6. Adverb of Degree
An adverb that is used to show to what degree or extent something exists is called adverb of
degree. (too, enough, pretty, so, fairly, rather, very, quiet etc.).

Ex: The weather is too hot.

She is so beautiful.

7. Conjunctive Adverb (connective adverb, logical connector, discourse marker, transition word,
function word, parenthetical expression, interrupter)

Def: A word or an expression that shows how two ideas are connected and how we are taken
from one idea to another idea is called conjunctive adverb.
It combines sentences in paragraph it is in three positions in the second sentence.

1. First sentence + full stop /semi colon + transition + subject + verb + complement
2. First sentence + full stop /semi colon + subject + transition + verb + complement
3. First sentence + full stop /semi colon + subject + verb + complement + transition
 For additional information

Furthermore
Moreover
Besides
In addition

 For showing contrast

However
On the other hand
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
In the contrary

 For telling reality

In fact
In deed
In reality
As a matter of fact

 For examples
For instance
For example

 For cause and effect

Thus
Consequently
Therefore
As a result
Hence

 For conclusion
Finally
Eventually
Consequently
As a result

Ex: He didn‟t study hard, therefore, he failed the test.

He didn‟t study hard. He, therefore, failed the test.
It is raining; they are playing outside.
It is raining; however, they are playing outside.
It is raining; they, however, are playing outside.
Ali studies English and compute classes.
He, moreover, looks after his hop.
Ali studies English and computer classes.
Moreover, he looks after his shop.
Ali studies English and computer classes.
He looks after his shop, moreover.

Lecture 9th

5. Verb
It is derived from a Latin word “verbum” which means a word.

Def: Verb is a word that shows an action or state.

State: It shows the following:

1. Existence / state of being.
2. Ownership.
3. Senses
4. Mental activity
5. Emotions / feelings

Categories of Verb
1. Verbs according to form
2. Verbs according to kind

1. Verbs according to form:

There are five forms of verb.
e.g
1. go
goes
2. going
 3. went
4. gone

2. Verbs according to kind

There are two kinds of verb.

1. Main, lexical verb

2. Auxiliary verb

Main, lexical verb: A verb that is used to show action or state is called main verb.

Ex: She eats a mango.

She is kind girl.
A main verb can have the following kinds.

1. Transitive verb
2. Intransitive verb
3. Causative verb
4. Stative verb

1. Transitive verb: A verb that is followed by an object is called transitive verb.

Or a verb is transitive verb when the action possess over from the subject to the object.

Subject + main verb + affected object

Ex: I met Ali.

I slapped her.
Ali wrote a letter.

Kinds of transitive verb

1. Mono transitive verb
2. Di transitive verb

1. Mono transitive verb: Mono means one. A verb which followed by one direct object (affected
object).

Ex: Ali drives a car.

I beat him.

2. Di-transitive verb
Di means two.
It is followed by two object one is direct object and the other is indirect object.

Ex: I sent a gift to Ali.

I sent Ali a gift.

2. Intransitive Verb
A verb that can‟t be followed by any object but, can be followed by complement is called
intransitive verb.
Ex: I go to school.
She dances beautifully.
We will come at 6:30 pm.
She seems sad.
I agree with you.

4. Stative Verb
It is also called non-progressive word.
It isn‟t used in progressive tense (action)
It shows only existing conditions or states.
It is most often used in simple tenses.
It is unlike dynamic verb which shows action.

Stative verb have five categories.

1. Existence / state of being
2. Possession /ownership
3. Senses
4. Mental activity
5. Emotion / altitude

Ex: She is a teacher.

They are farmers..
We have lots of problems.

2. Auxiliary Verbs
They are called helping verb.
They help some other verbs to form negation, question and different tenses.

Kinds of Auxiliary Verb

There are three kind of auxiliary verb.

1. Primary / Principle Verb

2. Modal Auxiliary Verb

1. Primary Auxiliary Verb

They are used to form negation, question and different tenses and without there presence the
sentence would be grammatically wrong.

Kinds of Primary Auxiliary Verb

There are three kinds of primary auxiliary verb.

To be To do To have
Be Do Has
Is, Am, Are Does Have
Was / Were Did Had
etc. etc.
Ex: She is going to school. (correct)
She going to school (incorrect)
.

2. Modal Auxiliary Verb

They are called defective verbs.
They are used to show different feelings or attitude of a speaker.
Can
Could
May
Might + Verb 1
Will
Would
Shall
Should
Must
Ought to

Lecture 10th

6. Conjunction
It is derived from a Latin word “conjunct” which means to combine.

Def: A word or group of word that combines words, phrases and clauses and sentences is called
conjunction.

Kinds of Conjunctions
There are three kinds of conjunctions

1. Coordinate Conjunctions
2. Correlative / Paired Conjunctions
3. Subordinate Conjunctions.

1. Co-ordinate Conjunctions
It is also called coordinative or coordinating conjunctions.
Conjunctions that combine words, phrases and sentences that are equal in grammar and meaning
are called coordinate conjunction.

They are also called FANBOYS.

F: for
A: And
N: Nor
B: But
O: Or
Y: Yet
S: So

Kinds of Coordinate Conjunctions

There are four kinds.
1. For  Illative Conjunction
2. And/so  Cumulative Conjunction
3. Nor/or  Alternative Conjunction
4. But/yet  Disjunction Conjunction

Clause + for / yet / so + clause

Words, phrase, clauses + and / nor / or / but + words, phrases clauses

Ex: He didn‟t come to class, for he was too sick.

We didn‟t study hard, yet we passed the test.
The weather is hot, so we plan to go to swimming.

2. Correlative / Paired Conjunction

They are also called paired conjunction.
They are used to combine word, phrases, sentences that are equal in grammar and meaning.
Both  and
Neither  nor
Either  or
Not only  but also
Ex: Both Ali and Mahmood are good boys.
Neither Ali nor Mahmood is good boys.
Neither the student nor the teacher‟s come on time.
Neither the boys nor girls are allowed.

Both noun and noun

Neither adjective nor adjective
Either + adverb + or + adverb
Not only verb but verb

Ex: Math is not only difficult but also boring.

He can either play cricket or stay at home.

3. Subordinate Conjunction
A conjunction that is used to combine an incomplete clause with a complete clause is called
Subordinate.

E.x
Before, after, while, as, when, while, since, till, until, once

Preposition

It is derived from a Latin word “preaposition” which mean placing before.

Def: A word or group of words that placed before noun or pronoun to show its relationship to
some other word in sentence is called preposition.

Ex: I talk to Ali.

Laila fights him. (incorrect)
 Laila fights with him.

Preposition are most often come before its object. (object of preposition)
Preposition + Noun, pronoun, gerund, infinitive, noun clause
Ex: I talk to Ali.
She is playing with her.
We are interesting in learning.
We have no choice but to study.
I am fired of what you are saying.
Ex: Which class do you read in?
In which class you read?

Kinds of Preposition
There are six kinds of preposition.
1. Simple Preposition
2. Double Preposition
3. Phrase Preposition

1. Simple Preposition
Preposition that are one word and can be either mono or Di syllable are called simple preposition.
(to, about, from, in, on, at, with, for, under, above, among, between, over, behind, despite)

2. Double Preposition
They are also called two word prepositions.
Prepositions that are used in pairs are called double prepositions.
(due to, because of, owing to, such as, from…to, in front of, across from, next to, near to, in
addition to, instead of, along with, in spite of, rather than)

3. Phrase Preposition
A group of words that is used as preposition is called phrase preposition.
(on behalf of, in the name of, by the help of, at the end of, by the grace of, in the middle of, in the
presence of, on the surface of, at the corner of, in the memory of, in the light of, in search of)

8. Interjection
It means exclamation.
It is a word or phrase that is used to show emotions or different feelings of mind. (happiness,
sadness, surprise etc.)
Ex: Wow, it is so beautiful.
Hurrah, we won the match.
Ouch, you hurt my finger.
Lecture 11th
Clause
It is derived from a Latin word “clausa” or “claudere” which means to close.
Definition: A group of words containing a subject and a verb is called clause. OR when
smaller sentences are combined to make a larger sentence is called clause.

Kinds of Clause
There are two kinds of clause.
 Independent or Complete clause
 Dependent, Subordinate or Incomplete clause

Independent or Complete Clause

It is a complete sentence containing subject and a verb. It gives a complete meaning
independently and does not need to be combined to any other clause for a complete meaning.

Dependent, Subordinate and Incomplete Clause

It is not a complete sentence although it has subject and verb. It does not give a complete
meaning independently and has to be combined to a main clause for a complete meaning.
Structure: Marker + subject + verb + ROTC.

Ex: If she studies hard.

While I was teaching.

Kinds of Dependent Clause

 Adjective clause
 Adverb clause
 Noun clause

Adjective clause
A subject + verb structure functioning the same as an adjective in a sentence is called adjective
clause. Or a group of words containing a subject and a verb and serving the same function as an
adjective in a sentence is called adjective clause.

Key points:
 It is also called relative clause.
 It is not used in interrogative structures.
 It should be made from the second sentence.
 It should always be placed as close as possible to antecedent/head noun/modified noun and
referent.
 It modifies noun and pronoun in the main clause and sometimes the whole main clause.

Ex: The teacher who teaches at uop is my best friend.

Adverb Clause
A subject + verb structure functioning the same as an adverb in a sentence is called
adverb clause. Or a group of words containing a subject and a verb and serving the same
function as an adverb in a sentence is called adverb clause.

Key points:
 It is also called adverbial clause.
 It is a dependent clause and it should be used with a main clause.
 It modifies an adjective, a verb and another adverb in the main clause.
 It is not used in interrogative structures.
 It disallows the usage of future tense.
 It is introduced by subordinate conjunctions.
 It can be used before or after the main clause.

Ex: When I go to college, I will meet her.

When Ali came, I was watching a movie.
Noun clause
A subject + verb structure that functions the same as a noun in a sentence is called noun clause.
Or a group of words containing a subject and a verb functioning the same as a noun is called noun
clause.

Key points:
 It is also called nominal clause.
 It is introduced by subordinate conjunctions and there three classes.
 That: It is used for positive and negative statements.
 If/whether: They are used for yes/no questions.
 W.H words: They are used for W.H questions.
 It is not used in interrogative structures.
 Inversion is not allowed in noun clause.
 Positive to do auxiliary verbs (do/does/did) are not used in noun clause.
Note: Noun clause is used when we want to give more details or to make a more exclamatory
sentence.
Structures: Marker + subject + verb + ROTC
Marker + verb + ROTC
Cases of Noun Clause

1. As a subject of a verb:
Ex:His story was boring.
Subject
What he has writtenwas boring.
Noun clause host clause

2. As the object of a verb:

Ex: I don‟t like your story.
Object
 I don‟t likewhat you have written.
Host clause Noun clause

Lecture 12th
Sentences

It is derived from a Latin word “sentential” which means a though or an opinion.

Def: Sentence is a complete unit of a language which has a subject and a predicate and which
gives a complete sense or meaning.

Main Part of Sentences

Sentence has two main parts.

Subject: The person or thing we are talking about is called subject.

Or what the predicate talks about is called subject.

Ex: Ali plays cricket.

Ali is a teacher.

Predicate: A part of sentence talking about the subject is called predicate.

Ex: He studies at SELCC.

Predicate is a verb, but sometimes more than verb.

Predicate = verb + object/Complement

Ex: She eats a mango.

She is beautiful.
We study.

The main requirement of predicate is verb and verb and what comes after it, totally we said it is
predicate and complete can comes without verb to complete the meaning of the subject.

Ex: She is beautiful. =Predicate

She is beautiful. = Complement
We study hard.
 She is fast.
She is a teacher.

Kinds of Subject and Predicate

There are two kinds of subject.
1. Simple Subject
2. Complete Subject

Simple Subject
It is the main subject to which the main verb agrees. It means it control the main verb.

Complete Subject
Is the simple subject alone with some other words that come before and after it.

Ex: The boys come from different places at SELCC.

Most of the boys from different parts of Afghanistan stay in hostel.
Boys and girls need education.
Kinds of Predicate
1. Simple Predicate
2. Complete Predicate

Simple Predicate
Is the only verb that is governed by main subject.
Complete Predicate
Is the simple predicate along with all the other words that come after.
Major Kinds of Sentences
They are sentences according to meaning.
There are five kinds of sentences according to meaning.

1. Assertive / Declarative Sentence

2. Interrogative Sentences
3. Imperative Sentences
4. Exclamatory Sentences
5. Optative Sentences

Assertive / Declarative Sentences: these kinds of sentences are used to state a fact. It ends with a
period.
Ex: Allah (S.W.T) is most merciful (declarative)
We study English grammar at SELCC.

Interrogative Sentence: This kind of sentence is used to ask question.

It ends with a question mark.
Ex: Where did they find the gold?
Have you eaten lunch?

Imperative Sentence: This kind of sentence is used to give advice, warning, direction and
instructions etc.
It ends with a period and the subject is understand to be (you).
Ex: Don‟t waste your time with street boys.
Tell Ali to polish my shoes.
Exclamatory Sentences: This kind of sentences is used to show some emotion or sudden
feelings of mind it ends with a exclamation point or exclamation mark.
Ex: Ali is going to America!
All that glitters isn‟t gold.

Optative Sentence
This kind of sentence is used to offer a wish or a prayer. It ends with a period.
Ex: May you live long.
I wish you a very happy married.
Rules for English Sentences
1. It should have at least one subject and verb or sometimes only a verb can also be a
sentence.
2. It should be properly capitalized and punctual.
3. There should be equal spaces between the words of sentences.
4. One sentence should have logical parts.
5. A sentence should be proofread, revised and edited.
6. A sentence must have at least one independent clause.
Ex: You will pass the test.
If you study hard, you will be passed.

Lecture 13th
Punctuation

Punctuation is the system of adding appropriate punctuation mark or sing to your writing
segment in order to make the meaning clear. Moreover, these written signs represent a
speaker’s way of conveying his or her meaning, and they also guide readers as to the way that
written material should be read so that they can be read fluently in order to understand the
meaning as they go along.
.Some facts about Punctuation marks or signs:
1: Punctuation marks represent in writing segment the pauses and change of tone and
expression that a speaker makes.
2: The speaker uses these pauses and changes of tone, usually unconsciously, to indicate the
sentence structure to the hearer.
3: Punctuation marks are also the means of showing the sentence structure to the reader.
Comma (,):It is used to show the grammatical structure of a sentence. Moreover, it is make
the bigger pauses, to show emphasis, and to clarify. It is weaker than both Semicolon and Full
Stop. Moreover, using a comma is not a matter of guesswork. If you follow some very simple
rules and use commas only when you know the rules, you will be able to use comma correctly.

Usages of Comma
1: Comma is often used in Compound Sentences before Co-ordinating Conjunctions such as
And, So, But, yet, Or, Nor, For.Moreover,this particularly happens in two cases:

A: If the subject is repeated, or there is a new subject in the second clause.

Nazia missed the last bus, for Shazia got late to bus stop.
B: If the second clause isa longer sentence containing more than three words.
e.g. She wasalready running late, and she didn’t want to miss the last train.
I went to have lunch by myself, for Sarwar wasn’t in his office during lunch time.

Note: Sometimes when the thought runs continuously from one clause to the next or if the
second clause is a shorter sentence containing two to three words, using a comma before a C-
ordinate Conjunction is not needed, but the comma is customarily used.
e.g. I didn’t study hard so I failed.
She didn’t study nor did she pass.
Note: 1: In longer sentences, comma should be used if not used, it is still right.
e.g. She wasalready running late, and she didn’t want to miss the last train. Best way
She wasalready running late and she didn’t want to miss the last train. Still Right
2: In short sentence, comma shouldn’t be used if used, it is still right.
e.g. Sarwar wasn’t felling well today so he went home. Best Way
Sarwar wasn’t felling well today, so he went home. Still Right

Rule 2: Commais most often used and is very common in Complex Sentences when the Adverb
Clause precedes the main clause as it is called a Periodic Way of using the adverb clause.
Structure: Adverb Clause + Comma + Main Clause
e.g. When you fall in love, the lose of wisdom occurs first.
If you want to reach the highest, you have to get started at the lowest.

Rule 4: Comma is used to set the Non-restrictive Adjective Clause or Phrase off from the rest of
the main clause.

All the students love SELCC, the best English Language Center Peshawar.

Rule 7: One comma and sometimes two commas are used with Transitions to set it off from the
rest of the sentence.
e.g. Some studentsdon’t have time to study. However, they still pass with good marks.
Some students don’t have time to study. They, however, still pass with good marks.
Some students don’t have time to study. They still pass with good marks, however.
Rule 8: Commas are used to separate three or more items in a series when used in a parallel
structure. A series can be made up of Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, Verbs, Phrases,
Gerunds, Infinitive, Dependent Clauses and Independent Clauses.
e.g. Most Americans have hamburger, French fries, and a milk shake for lunch.
What that girl does, where she goes, and whom she meets is none of our business.
Note: Two parts to a parallel do not need any comma. Moreover, the comma before
conjunction is optional but is primarily used.

Rule 9: comma is used after or before Repoting Speech in Direct or Quoted Speech.
e.g. Sarwarsaid, “Love for all is love for none.”
“Love for all is love for none,” Sarwar said.
“Love for all is love for none,” said Sarwar.
Note: If the Reporting Speech is used before, comma is used outside Quotation Marks, and if the
Reporting Speech is used after, comma is used inside Quotation Marks.

Rule 10: Usea comma before Direct Nominative of Address and after Indirect Nominative of
Address.
e.g. Sarwar, concentrate on your studies. e.g. Concentrate on your studies, Sarwar

Rule 11: Use a comma to indicate a missing word in a sentence.

e.g. To promise is so easy and to keep, so difficult.
To say is always easy and to do, always difficult.
Note: In both sentences, the Comma stands for Is.

Lecture 14th

Semicolon (;): It is used between two Main Clauses that can really stand as sentences on
their own. Use a Semicolon to link them more closely or to show close relationship between two
ideas. Moreover, it is stronger than a Comma, but weaker than a Full stop.

Usages of Semicolon
Rule 1: Use a Semicolon between two Main Clauses to show their close relationship to each
other. Moreover, it does the same job as Co-ordinate Conjunctions.
e.g. I have lost my luggage; I don’t know what to do.
I have lost my luggage, and I don’t know what to do.
She felt really ill yesterday; she feels better today.
She felt really ill yesterday, but she feels better today.

Rule 2: Usea Semicolon instead of a Comma before a Co-ordinate Conjunction to show further
proximity of two ideas in case the subjects of two clauses are different.
e.g. She failed to get better grades, yet her father isn’t sad about it.
She worked hard; so the teacher decided to award her the first prize.
She was seriously ill, so she went to doctor.
She was seriously ill; so she went to doctor.
Rule 3: Use Semicolon with clauses or after the first clause that contains Transitions.
e.g. Ididn’t study hard; nevertheless, I got the highest marks on the test.
Ididn’t study hard; I, nevertheless, got the highest marks on the test.
Ididn’t study hard; I got the highest marks on the test, nevertheless.

Colon (:):

Usages of Colon
Rule 1: Use a colon to introduce a list of items that ends a sentence.
e.g. You will have to order several accessory components: chargers, cases, cords, cables, and
speakers.

Rule 2: To introduce an extract or quotation that follows an introductory sentence.

e.g. As Author, Erica Jong, stated: “If you don’t risk anything, you risk even more.”

Rule 3: In the salutation of a formal business letter.

e.g. Dear Sir: Dear Madam: To Whom It May Concern:

Rule 4: Between figures denoting hours and minutes, with exception to the 24-hour clock
system.
e.g. 4:30 a.m. 6:20 p.m.

Rule 5: To precede an extended explanation.

e.g.
There are two conditions that must exist before we can experience true freedom: first, each
person must be entitled to act independently of the other; second, each must agree not cross
those parameters that have been set in place as protection from harm.

Rule 6: To precede a restatement of an idea.

e.g. The play was poorly performed: it lacked both experience and characterization from the
actors.

Apostrophe (‘S, S’):

The proper use of apostrophes in writing is important to maintain the writer’s precise
meaning.

Usages of Apostrophe (‘S, S’)

Rule 1: In this rule a noun is used with apostrophe (‘S) or (S’) apostrophe to show ownership
or possession.

 Usage of (‘S)
1: With singular noun.
EX: Ali’s car, Teacher’s mobile, Laila’s purse , The girl’s dress was purple. (singular -
referring to only one girl)
 2: With singular and plural irregular nouns.
EX: Child’s diaper, Children’s diaper, Man’s duty, Men’s duty etc…
3: With words having no plural forms to form their plural form.
EX: But’s, and’s, for’s , marketing Seven P’s, Business Communication 7 C’s
4: Nouns ending with S or SS can either take apostrophe (‘S) or (S’) apostrophe.
EX: Hari’s, Haris’s, bos’s duty, boss’s duty etc…
 Usage of (S’)
1: With regular plural nouns.
EX: Teachers’ room, Boys’ college, Girls’ hostel, All the girls’ dresses were purple (plural
- referring to more n than one girl)
2: With names of family.
EX: Afridis’ house, Ahmadzais’ property, Logans’ etc…

Kinds of possessive. It has two kinds.

 Joint possessive.
In joint possessive ‘S is used with last noun combined by and.
EX: Ali and Ahmad’s car.
 Separate possessive.
In separate possessive ‘S is used with both nouns combined by and.
EX: Ali’s and Ahmad’s car.
Rule 2: We use Apostrophe to indicate contractions:
Example:it’s(it is) don’t (do not) o’clock (on the clock)
Lecture 15th
Use of articles

English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular
nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call
thethedefinite article and a/an the indefinite article.
the = definite article
a/an = indefinite article
• a + singular noun beginning with a consonant: a boy; a car; a bike; a zoo; a dog
• an + singular noun beginning with a vowel: an
• elephant; an egg; an apple; an idiot; an orphan
•
• "A/an" can be used only with count nouns.
• "I need a bottle of water."
• "I need a new glass of milk."
•
"A" and "an" modify a noun which is indefinite, referring to any member
of a group. For example:
• "My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog. We don't
know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.
• "Somebody call a policeman!" This refers to any policeman. We don't need a
specific policeman; we need any policeman who is available.
• "When I was at the zoo, I saw an elephant!" Here, we're talking about a single,
non-specific thing, in this case an elephant. There are probably several elephants
at the zoo, but there' only one we're talking about here.
• If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on
the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
• a broken egg
• an unusual problem
• a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant /j/
sound)
•

The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group. For example, "I
just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many movies, but only one
particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.

• For example, if I say, "Let's read the book," I mean a specific book. If I say, "Let's
read a book," I mean any book rather than a specific book.
• The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is
specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a
particular member of a group. For example:
• "The dog that bit me ran away." Here, we're talking about a specific dog, the dog
that bit me..
• The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.
• "He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you
bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).

• Use the before:

• names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
• points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
• geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
• deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black
Forest, the Iberian Peninsula