UNIT 4 FOUNDATIONS

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Structure
4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Site Investigations
4.2.1 Tnal Pit and Boring
4.2.2 F~eldTests
4.3 Bearing Capacity of Soil
4.4 Settlement of Foundations
4.5 Depth of Foundation
4.6 Excavation for Foundation
4.7 Selection and Types of Foundation
4.8 Shallow Fondations
4.8.1 Pad a Spread and Strip Footing
4.8.2 Grillage Foundation
4.8.3 Raft Foundation
4.9 Deep Foundations
4.9 1 Timher Piles
4.9.2 Steel Piles
4.9.3 Concrete Piles
4.9.4 Under-reamed Piles
4.10 Summary
4.11 Answers to SAQs

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Foundations form an imporpmt part of building construction. The forces and moments
acting on a structure have to be ultimately transmitted to the ground and this is achieved by
means of foundations. The loads on a building are transmitted downwards, floor by floor by
means of columns and/or walls. If these are directly set on the ground, the pressures under
them would be so much that either the soil will give way or large and uneven settlements
would take place. In order to prevent this, the load is spread over a wider area by means of
foundations such as footings, strips, rafts etc. At the same time, we have to ensure that the
stresses in the elements of foundation like concrete, steel masonry etc. are within the
specified limits.
The crust of the earth over which the foundation rests, consists of various types of soils
rocks having widely different characteristics and properties. Further, the presence of suboil
water affects some of these properties. Before foundations are designed, we should know
the details of the soil characteristics.
Generally, one is confronted with a situation where the desired land has been acquired and
the foundation for the proposed building has to be designed taking into consideration tbe
soil characteristics at the site. For important and heavily loaded structures, it may be
worthwhile to take into consideration the necessary soil properties and other features at the
site, before acquiring the land.
In earlier days, the design of foun&tions was based mote on experience and intuition, &
modem developments in Soil Mechanics have enabled us to understand in greater detail, (BC
properties of soil and the mechanism of load transfer from the building to the ground.
In this unit, you will learn about the various types of building foundations, wbere they m
used and their constructional details.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
* classify the various types of building foundations,
describe the tests used for site investigation,
Building Comtructioo . establish the criteria for selecting the type of foundations, and
describe the constructional details of the commonly used foundations.

4.2 SITE INVESTIGATIONS

The surface crust of the earth consists broadly of rocks and soils. Their engineering
properties are largely dependent on the particle size, shape, texture, the bedding, chemical
composition etc.
Rocks are classified as follows :
(a) igneous (such as granite) formed by cooling and solidificationof molten lava
material,
(b) sedimentary (like sand stone) fonned by deposition of particles in layers, and
(c) metamorphic (like slates) fonned by recrystallisation of existing igneous or
sedimentary rocks under the action of great pressure andfor high temperature.
Generally, a rocky strata is a good base for foundation unless it is disintegrated or has faults,
fissures etc.
Soil can be classified into the following categories :
Sands and Gravels
These are non-cohesive materials with good shear strength. The structural
propeaies depend on density and particle size distribution. Size of particles of
gravels range from 75 mm to 4.75 mm while that of sand from 4.75 mm to 75
microns.
Clays
These are cohesive with low shear strength and plastic in nature, prone to
shrinkage and swelling depending on water content. Particle size is below
2 microns.
Silt
These are fine grained soil of particle size between 75 microns to 2 microns
with little or no plasticity, and are compressible. In the presence of clay, it
exhibits plasticity.
Sandy and gravely strata do not normally pose foundation problems while much more care
is required in the case of clays and silts.
The first step in deciding about the foundation of a building is to have a site investigation
carried out. Site investigation would cover all the techiniques and enquiries to gather
detailed informationregarding the site, including study of maps, topographic surveys,
reconnaisance surveys, soil investigations, climatic data etc. As a result of such
investigations, following i n f o d o n should be available :
(a) topography of site, contour maps, with details of streams, ditches, ponds, wells,
trees, rock outcrops, high transmission electric lines etc.,
(b) locations of underground sewers, waterlines and cables,
(c) liability to flooding,
(d) ground water details,
(e) details of my structures existing at the site or nearby with details of their
foundations, including information regarding failures, cracks etc.,
(f) a detailed soil investigation report including bore charts, results of laboratory
tests on soil samples and recommendations regardiing depth and bearing
capacity for foundation design, and
(g) meteorological data.
The detailed soil report would form the basis for the choice Mdesign of foundation. '
While for small single storeyed buildings, it may be sufficient to have a few trial pits, for
larger structures or where there are doubts regardiing the substrata, borings at site taken to
sufficient depth would be required to collect and analyse the soil samples. The depth and the
number of borings would depand on the type of structure and the soil conditions.
4.2.1 Trial Pits and Borlngs
Trial pits consist of nuking excavation at site enabling examination of the subsoil and
collection of samples. This method can be adopted for small depths of about 3 m. The depth
of exploration required to be carried out is normally, one and a half times to twice the width
of the foundation.
For deeper exploration, brings have to be carried out. These can be auger boring,
percussion boring, rotary boring etc. From these brings, undisturbedfdisturbed soil
samples can bq,collected.
The samples collected from the pits~boringsare listed in the laboratory to assess the various
properties like grain size distribution, liquid and plastic limit, unit weight of soil, specific
gravity, natural moisture content, compressive strength etc. From these investigations, a
chart indicating the depths of various strata can also be prepared.

4.2.2 Field Tests

Plate load test and penetration tests are very useful field tests for site investigation. The
set-up and other detail~gf~these tests are given in the following paragraphs.
Plate. Load Test
It is one of thc earliest'tests to be performed to determine the bearing capacity of soil. The
test consists of making a pit, usually at foundation level and measuring the settlements of a
circular or square mild steel plate not less than 25 mm in thichess and 300 to 750 rnrn in
size subject to gradual load increments. From the test results, load vs settlement curve is
plotted and the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil is arrived at. This test has the following
limitations :
\
(a) rile results are indicative of the character of boil within a depth of less than
twice the width of the bearing plate which is usually 300 to 750 mm. Since the
actual dimensions of foundations are larger, the settlements and shear resistbnce
will depend on a much thicker stratum of the sub-soil.
(b) It is a short duration test and does not give an idea about consolidation
settlement particularly in cohesive soils. Thus, the results of the test could be
misleading if the character of soil changes at shallow depths, which is not
uncommon.
(c) While for clayey soils, the bearing capacity (from shear consideration) for a
larger foundation is almost the same as for the sarnller test plate; while in the
case of dense sandy soils, the bearing capacity increases with the size of
.
foundation and hence, in such cases, the plate load test gives a conservative
value.
Penetration Tests
These tests involve the measurement of the resistance to penetration of a sampling spoon, a
cone or other shaped tools under dynamic or static loading. The comonly used tests are the
standard penetration test and the static and dynamic cone penetration tests. From these tests,
the soil strata at various depths alongwith their properties can be obtained. From these
penetration values, bearing capacity can be assessed.
Soil exploratiorl should be able to provide necessary data to evaluate the following
parameters :
(a) safe bearing capacity of the soil,
(b) subsoil water level, and
(c) probable settlement of the structure under the design load.
The test report generally gives recommendations regarding the depth of foundation and safe
hearing capacity.
SAQ 1
What is the information regarding the properties of soil, to be obtained from site
~nvestigations?
 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL
The purpose of the foundation being to transmit the load of the structure to the ground, it is
necessary to know the capacity of the soil (bearing capacity) to withstand this pressure. 'Ihe
definitions of various terms used in comction with bcuhg capacity are given below :
Ultimate Bearing Capacity
?he intensity of loading at tbe base of the fourdrtioa which would cause shev
failure of the soil suppod.
Safe Bearlng Capaclty
Maximum intensity of loding the foundation will safely carry without the risk
of shear failure.
Allowable Bearing Caprclty
Tbe net intensity of loadin$ that tbe f-tiap will cvry without undergoing
settlement in excess of tbe permissible vJw futhe structure under
consideration but not exceeding tbe safe h y i n g capacity.
Tbe ultimate bearing capacity can be determined
(a) by plate load test,
(b) theoretically, based on the characteristics of various types of soils, and
(c) by making use of penetration a d other test results.
The bearing capacity that can be adopted for the &sign of a foundation depends on the
characteristics of the soil, the depth and dimensions of the foundation and the degree of
settlement that can be allowed for the structure. ?here are two approaches to the
determination of the bearing capacity.
Based on the shear strength characteristicsof the soil, the ultimate bearing capacity of the
soil at a given depth for specific dimensions of the foun&tion can be calculated. A factor of
safety can be applied to the ultimate bearing capacity to arrive at the safe bearing capacity.
If calculation of settlements indicates that it is within the permissible limit then the safe
bearing capacity would be the allowable bearing capacity. However, if the calculation of tge
settlements shows that it is beyond acceptable limit then a lower value has to be adopted for
the allowable bearing capacity based on the permissible settlement. Tbe second approach is
= to determine the bearing capacity on the basis of inaitu tests.
In the case of cohesionless soils, the main problem is to obtain satisfactory undisturbed soil
samples for determination of s k u strength. However, generally in such soils the allowable
bearing pressures are governed by settlement consideration rather than ultimate bearing
capacity due to shear failure. In cohesionless soils, therefae, t k bearing capacity can be
calculated on the basis of penetration tests and empirical mfbads relating allowable bearing
pressure to permissible settlements for foundations of given dimensions.
Tbe procedure of calculaticm of ultimate bearing capacity aa th basis of shear strength -
characteristics is widely used in the crse of silts yd clays.
For a foundation on rock, allowable bearing pressures ye )overcud more by the stresses on
the foundation elements.
For a preliminary estimation, the safe be- u v a r h s types of soil have been
c ~ w i t i af
listed in National Building Code Group 2 : 1983 qnd a partid liLt is given in Table 1.1 on
page 25 of Block 1 (Planning of Buildings). . .

S
Distinguish between ultimate, safe and allowable bearing capacihes.

SETTLEMENT OF FOUHDATl#NS
By settlement we ean the vertical downward rnovewnts of the foulation. The effect of
f"
settlement on the tructure depends on its magnitude, bdh abolute u well as relative with
uuy be caused by :
respect to the different parts of tbc foundation. Settk~~lent
 (i) the weight of the structure and the superimposed loads, Foundations

(ii) subsidence due to mining,

(iii) shrinkage due to change in moisture content, and
(iv) general earth movement.
Settlements that take place when the static load is within the range of the safe bearing
capacity of the soil, consists of the following elements :
(i) Elastic deformation which takes places immediately on application of load,
(ii) Primary consolidation of foundation soil resulting from explusion of pore water,
(iii) Secondary compression of foundation soil, and
(iv) Creep of the foundation soil.
If the structure settles uniformly, there will be no damage but if the settlement is excessive
the underground service lines may be affected. In actual practice, as the soil is not a purely
homogeneous material and superimposed loadings are not equal, settlements are non-
uniform, inducing corresponding stress in the structure. Depending upon the extent of these
stresses, the settlements have to be limited by appiopriate designs.
Based on the loading pattern and the soil chacteristics the settlements can be calculated and
if it exceeds the desirable limits, the foundation has to be redesgined.
The permissible values of sattlement for different types of structure are given in Table 1 on
page 19 of IS : 1904 - 1986.

SAQ 3
Wh 1; ;ire the csuses for settlement offoundalinns 'i

4.5 DEPTH OF FOUNDATION

The depth to which foundation should be taken depends on the following principal factors :
(a) Securing of adequate allowable bearing capacity,
(b) In the case of clayey soils, penetration into the soil has to be below the zone
where shrinkage and swelling due to seasonal weather changes and due to trees
and shrubs are likely to cause appreciable movements,
(c) In fine sands and silts penetration has to be below the zone in which trouble
may be expected from frost,
(d) The maximum depth of scour whenever relevant (say, in bridge piers) should
also be considered and the foundation should be located sufficiently below this
depth, and
(e) It should be below the top soil, miscellaneous fill, tree roots etc.
All foundations should be taken down to a minimum depth of 0.5 m below natural ground
level. In filled-up ground it may be necessary to go beyond the depth of fill or take special
precautions. In such cases, it may be necessary for economic considerations to have the
foundation at a higher level, and get the difference in level between the base of foundation
and the level of excavation filled up with either : (a) concrete of allowable compressive
strength not less than the allowable bearing pressure on the soil, or (b) incompressible fill
material, for example sand, gravel etc. in which case the width of fill should be more than
the width of foundation for dispersion of load on either side of the base of foundation.
In sloping grounds, the horizontal distance from the bottom edge of the footing to the
ground surface shall be at least 60 cm for rock, and 90 cm for soil. A line drawn at an angle
of 30" to the base from the outer edge should not intersect the sloping surface (Figure 4.1).
Foundation near Existing Building
The minimum horizontal distance between existing and new footings shall be at
least equal to the width of the wider footing. In important cases, analysis of
bearing capacity and settlement shall be carried out.
Building Co&rudion

These surface s
should nct intersect

Minimum
60cm for rock
9 0 c m f o r soil

Figure 4.1 :Footings on Sloping Ground

Foundation at Different Levels

In the case of footings on granular soil, the distance between the tootlrys should
be such that a line drawn between the lower adjacent edges of the footings shall
not have a slope steeper than one vertical to two horizontal as shown in Figure 4.2.

L ~ l o d~ joining
e ~ower
line not steeper footing
than one vertical
to tvo horizonld

Figure 4.2 :Footings on Granular Soil

In clayey soils, a line drawn between the lower adjacent edge of the upper footing
and the upper adjacent edge of the lower footing shall not have a slope steeper than
one vertical to two horizontal as shown in Figure 4.3.

L Slope of joining ~ower

ljne not s t e e p e r footing
t h a n one vertical
to t v o h o r i z o n h l

Figure 4.3 :Footings on Clayey Soil

 4.6 EXCAVATION FOR FOUNDATION Foundations

Site Clearance
Before the excavation for the preposed foundation is commenced, the site shall be
cleared of vegetation, brushwood, stumps of trees etc. Roots of the trees shall be
re~liovedto at least 30 cm below the foundation level. The pits formed due to roots
of trees, old foundations etc. shall be filled up with soil and compacted.
Setting out
A bench mark shall be established at the site by a masonry pillar and connected to
the nearest standard bench mark. Levels of the site should be taken at 5 to 10 m
intervals depending on the terrain and the importance of the building. The centre
lines of the walls are marked by stretching strings across wooden pegs driven at
the ends. The centre lines of the perpendicular walls are marked by setting out the
right ,mgle with steel tapes or preferably with a theodolite. The setting out of walls
shall be facilitated by having a permanent row of pillars (not less than 25 cm side)
parallel Lo aid at a suitable distance beyond the periphery of the build'mg so that
they do 11ot foul with the excavation. The pillars shall be located at the junctions of
the cross walls and external wall and shall be bedded suficiently deep so that they
are not disturbed during excavation for foundaiion. The centre lines of the walls
shall be extended and marked on the plastered tops of lhe pillars. The tops of the
pillars may be kept at the same level, preferably the plinth level. In rectangular or
square settings, the diagonals shall be checked to ensure accuracy of setting out.
Excavation
For small buildings, excavation is carried out manually by means of pick axes,
crow bars. spades etc. In case of large buildings and deep excavation, mechanical
earth cutting equipment can be used.
For hard soils when the depth of excavation is less than 1.5 m, the sides of the
trench do not need any external support. If tl?e soil is loose or the excavation is
deeper, some sort of shoring is required to support the sides from falling. Plankiilg
alid strutting can be intermittent or continuous depending on the nature of soil and
the depth of excavation. In the case of intermittent or "open" planking and strutting
the entire sldes of trenches are not covered. Vertical boards (known as poling
boards) of size 250 x 40 mnl of the required length can be placed wlth gaps of
about 50 cm (Figure 4.4). These shall be kept apart by horizontal waling of strong
t~mberof sectlon 100 x 100 nun at a minimum spacing of 1.2 m and strutted by a
cross piece of 100 x 100 square or 100 nun diameter. In the case of soft soils
b continuous or "close" planking is adoped and the vertical boards are kept touching
each other without any gap as shown in Figure 4.5 (a).

Figure 4 4 :Open Plmting

I
I
If the soil is very soft and loose. lhe boards shall be placed horizontally against the
sides of the excavation and supported by vertical waling boards which shall be
I strutted to similar timber pieces on the opposite side of the t r e ~[Figure
? 4.5 (b)].
Care has to he taken while withdrawing the timber members after completion of
1 tht. fniindntinn wnrk sn thxt thprp i s nn r - n l l a n w nf the t r ~ n r h
 - - -.

Buildlug Construction

'US

Figure 445 (a) :Close Planking Fig" 4 5 (b):Plmking InVery Soft and Loose Soil

Construction of foundation below the subsoil water level poses :-rcjblems of

waterlogging. It is therefore very often necessary to dewater the area oi
excavation. Several operations have to be carried out within the excavation, like
laying bed concrete, laying of RCC raft slab and construction of masonry etc.
Therefore, work can be carried out more efficiently if the excavation area is kept
dry. To keep the area of excavation dry, water table should be maintained at least
0.5 m below the bottom of the excavation. There are several methods available for
lowering the water table. Information obtained from site and soil investigation
would he useful in deciding the most suitable and economical method of
dewatering. For fairly dense soil and shallow excavations, the simplest method is
to have drains along the edges of the excavation and collect water in sumps and
remove it by bailing or pumping. This is the most economical method and is
feasible of being executed with unskilled labour and very simple equipment.
Where large excavations such as for rafts are to be dewatered, well point system
can he employed. Well point consists of a perforated pipe, 120 cm long and 4 cm
in diameter with a valve to regulate flow and a screen to prevent entry of mud etc.
These well points are installed along the periphery of the excavation at the required
depth and spaced at about 1 m. The exact spacing can be decided on the basis of
the type of soil. Well points are surrounded by sand gravel filter and have riser
pipes of 5 to 7.5 cm diameter. These pipes are connected to a header pipe which is
attached to a high capacity suction pump. The ground water is drawn out by the
pumping action and is discharged away from the site of excavation (Figure 4.6).

original
Pumps gmund Header
\ Header surface /

Figure 4 6 :Lowering Water Table by Well Point

Foundation Concrete
In the case of a masonry wall, the footing is generally of cement concrete mix of
ratio 1:4:8 or 1:5:10 (cement : sand : coarse aggregate). The s i 7 ~
of coarse
aggregate is limited to 40 mni. Lime concrete can also be used for this purpose.
 For important works. mixing of concrete should be done in a mechanical mixer. Foundations
Concrete should be laid (not thrown) in layers not exceeding 15 cm and well
compacted. The concrete should lie protected by moist gunny bags after about 1 or
2 hours of laying. Regular curing should be started after 24 hours and be continued
for 10 days. The masonry work over the bed concrete can be started after 3 days'of
laying the concrete but curing alongwith that of masonry shall be continued.
For RCC colunm footings and raft foundations, a levelling course of lean concrete
of 75 rnm is laid in order to have an even and soil free surface for placing the
reinforcement.

SAQ 5
WnaL are the methods to lower'sub-soil water level for the purpuse ot zxcavatiori
of fouildations '?

4.7 SELECTION AND TYPES OF FOUNDATION

The factors to be considered for the selection of the type of foundation for a given situation
are as follows :
(a) The characteristicsof the superstructure and the superimposed loads,
(b) Site conditions, type of soil and its allowable bearing capacity,
(c) Materials and machinerylequipment available for construction, and
(d) Relative costs.
Foundations can broadly be classified into following two categories :
(a) Shallow foundations, and
(b) Deep foundations.

4.8 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

These cover such types of foundation in which load transfer takes place primarily through
shear resistance of the bearing strata; and, such foundations are normally up to a depth of
3 m. The various types of shallow foundations used in building construction are as follows :
(a) Pad or spread and skip footing,
(b) Grillage foundation, and
(c) Raft foundation.
4.8.1 Pad or Spread and Strip Footings
The basic purpose of this foundation is to spread the load over a larger area so that the soil is
able to withstand the stress, and the safe bearing pressure is not exceeded. In such types of
foundations, if the resultant of the load deviates from the centre line by more than 116 of its
least dimension at the base of the footing, it should be suitably reinforced.
Wall Footings
In the case of brick walls, the width of section is increased by 114 brick (5 cm)
offset on either side. The base rests on a plain concrete footing which projects 10
to 15 cm beyond the last brick offset as shown in Figure 4.7. The width at the base
shall not be less. than the width of the supported wall plus 30 cm.
The depth of each course can be one brick or multiples of brick thicknesses. In the
case of stone masonry walls, the offsets could be 15 cm with the heights of the
course as 30 cm. The depth of the concrete which is generally of 1 : 4 : 8
(1 Cement : 4 Fine aggregate : 8 Coarse aggregate) or 1 : 5 : 10 ( 1 Cement : 5 Fine
aggregate : 10 Coarse aggregate) mix should not be less than 15 cm. The angular
spread of load from the wall should not be more than 1 vertical to 112 horizontal in
masonry and 1 vertical to 1 horizontal for cement concrete.
 Domp proof course

Off set 10 to 12cm

Plain concrete
thon 1 ver tic01 -
min.thic kntss 1

Figure 4.7 :Wall Footing

If the load on the wall is heavy or the soil is of low bearing capacity, reinforced
concrete strip footing can be provided (Figure 4.8). The thickness of the strip can
be reduced towards the edge to effect economy.

Figure 4.8 :Strip Footing

RCC Column Footings

These are generally square or rectangular. They are reinforced in both directions
and are designed to withstand the upwards soil pressure as shown in Figure 4.9.
The reinforcement of the column is taken right upto the bottom of the footing. The
RCC footings are laid over a bed of lean concrete of about 75 mm thickness.

Column
re inf orcem~nt

RCC footing

~ e of
d tian
concrete
Figure 4.9 : RCC Column Footing

As the bending moment decreases towards the edge, the thickness can also be
reduced accordingly. The minimum thickness at the edge shall, however, be not
less than 15 cm. Stepped footings should be avoided as sudden changes in stress
conditions are likely to be produced. The top of the footings can be sloped towards
the edge in the shape of a pyramid. Steep slopes exceeding 1 in 2 would require
formwork and hence, normally the slope is of the order of 1 in 4. In a foundation, it
is important to ensure that a minimum cover of 40 to 50 mm is provided to prevent
corrosion of reinforcement.
When two column footings are near to each other or the foundations overlap, a
combined footing can be provided. Such footings can be rectangular or trapezoidal
in plan and its position is so adjusted that its centre of gravity coincides with that
of the loads from the columns.
 Foundations

Figure 4.10 :~ o ~ n Footing

e d

Cantilever or Strap Footings

At times, there are restrictions in space for the external colunlns due to adjacent
buildings etc., and it would not be possible to place the footings centrally with
respect to the columns. In such cases, the column is connected with the interior
column by a beam so that the loads are shared as shown in Figure 4.11.

SECTION SECTION

PLAN PLAN

Figure 4.11 :Strap Footing

4.8.2 Grillage Foundation

When there is heavy load on steel columns and the soil is of low bearing capacity, grillage
foundations can be provided. Thcse corlsist of rolled steel joists in one or two layers that are
encased In conuete with the overall dimensions being such that the soil pressure is within
the allowable bearing capacity. Adequate gap must be provided between the flanges of the
girders to enable the concrete to flow and fill the gaps. However, it should not be more than
1.5 to 2 times the flange width in order that the concrete and steel should act together.
Concrete is not intended as a structural element but is used to keep the beams in position
and prevent its corrosion. To prcvcnt movement during concreting, the joists are connected
through the webs by bolts with spacers. This type of foundation is expensive on account of
the large amount of steel and is now rarely used.

4.8.3 Raft Foundation

Where there are heavy loads on the columns andlor the soil has low bearing capacity, the
individunl footmng or strips overlap or are too close to each other. In such cases raft
foundations are adopted. If the footings cover morc than half the area of the building, a raft
foundation is likely to be economical. For buildings having basenlents particularly where
subs011water levels are high, it is advantageous to provide rafts. These can be designed to
resist the water pressure and suitable water proofing treatment can be provided.
Basically a raft foundation consists of a thick reinforced cement concrete slab with
reinforcement provided at the top and botton~in both directions. For fairly small and
uniforn column spacing and when the supporting soil is not very compressible, a slab of
uniform tl~icknessc ~ mbe provided as shown in Figurc 4.13.
If the loads are heavy, the slab can be thickened to take carc of the shear and the negative
moments. If the spacing between the columns is large, the loads are unequal and the soil is
quite compressive, a beam and slab arrangement can be provided; raft slab in such a case
acts as an inverted slab with T beams.
Building Construction

separators
Pipe
T?r Steel column
Base late and

- - ..- . - .-
ELEVATION

Figurn 4 1 2 :Grillage Foundation

The depth of roundation for a raft shall generally be not less thm 1 m. A bed of lean
concrete of 75 to 100 cm thickness is provided to facilitate laying of reinforcement and
concreting. It is econonlical to project the raft slab by about 30 to 45 cm beyond the face of
the peripheral columns.
Where possible, the raft is so prc~portionedthat its centre of gravity coincides with that of
the column loads. If this is not possible, the eccentricity has to be taken into account in the
structural design as well as in checking for the pressure on the soil.

SECTION A -A SECTION 8-B

( a ) ~ l a plate
t ( b ) Flot plate thickened
under columns

SEC TlON C -C SECTION 0 - 0

IC1 Two-way ~KUII and slab ( d l Flat plah v i t h pedeslol

. F l p r c 4.13 :'Qpes d Raft Foudetim

 4.9 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
If the soil in the top layers near the ground does not have adequate bearing capacity it would
be necessary to transfer the load to the lower strata. For buildings, this is achieved by means
of piles.
Pile Foundation
Piles are long column-like members which transmit load of the structure through a
weak material to an underlying hard strata. If the bearing stratum is hard and
impenetrable like rock or hard dense gravel, a pile derives its strength mainly by
bearing and is known as end bearing pile as shown in Figure 4.14 (a).

--- ----
SOFT SOIL

SOF T - -- -- - -STRENGTH
WEAKL0I-L - - - INCREASE WITH
---

-
(a) End Bearing Pile (b) Friction Pile
Figure 4.14 :Different Types &Piles (Based on Mode of Load n m f e r )

Piles driven in soil which increasingly becomes stiff with depth derive their
bearing capacity from the friction along the surface of the pile and are known as
.friction piles as shown in Figure 4.14 (b). Normally, in a pile, part of the load is
carried by friction and part by end bearing. Piles can also be used to resist uplift
pressures on structures as also to withstand lateral forces. Such piles are called
I
anchor piles. A pile which is installed at an angle to the vertical is known as a
batter or raker pile.
1
Piles, particularly of timber have been use from ancient times and can be
'jb
considered as one of the earliest innova ons in foundation engineering. However,
it is only in the past few decades that appropriate methods have been evolved to
analyse and design piles.
I
Construction of pile foundation requires a careful choice of the type of pile and
methodology of execution taking into consideration the soil strata, the level of
subsoil water, the load characteristics of the structure, limitation of settlements and
any other special requirements. The availability of materials and equipment and
econoinic factors have also to be considered.
Building Constructio~~ Materials for Piles
Piles can be of timber, steel or concrete. The earliest types of piles used were of
tlmber while presently concrete piles are used to the maximum extent. Steel piles
are expensive and rarely used.
4.9.1 Timber Piles
These can be used for relaiively lightly loaded structures located in compressive types of
soils with high ground water level. has a high weight to strength ratio and can be
cut, shaped and handled easily. If timber piles are wholly in a submerged condition they
have a long life. If the subsoil water level is high, the piles can be cut off, at the top. below
this level and a concrete pile cap be provided as shown in Figure 4.15 (a).

MS Hoop

k+i Figure 415 (a) :Tirnber Pile with Concrete Cap

13mber used for the piles has to be of good quality like teak, sal, deodar etc. It should be
straight grained and free from defects. The piles shall be treated with timber preservative.
Shoe Tmber piles can be of square or round section. Round section is preferable as cutting to
square shape removes part of the outer sapwood which is absorptive to preservatives.
Figuw 4.15 (b) P~lesare driven into the soil by the drop hammer of a pile driving machine. For facilitating
Timber ,dtl, ;\.IS driving, the lower end is provided with a cast iron conical shoe and the head is prevented
HOOP and c1Shoe froln splitting by mems of a mild steel hoop [Figure 4.15 (b)].
Timber piles are relatively cheaper and easy to drive but get deteriorated and decayed
particularly when subject to alternative drying and wetting. They cannot be used for heavily
loaded structures.

4.9.2 Steel Piles

High strength of steel makes it a good material for piles. Steel piles can be in the fonn of
rolled steel H-sections or seamless/welded steel pipes. They can be directly driven into the
ground for use as piles. The tubes can be open ended or close ended. In the case of open
ended pipes, after the piles are driven, the earth inside is cleared out by water jetting and
filled with concrete. The closed ended pipes are provided with a shoe to facilitate driving
and these are also normally filled with concrete.
Because of its inherent strength, a steel pile can withstand the large impact of the pile
driving l~armnersand can penetrate through relatively hard strata and boulders. The total
length of pile can easily be extended by welding additional piece(s) or shortened by cutting.
Steel piles cause little ground displacement and hence, can be driven at close intervals, or
near existing buildings. They require less storage space and can be handled easily as
compared to precast RCC piles.
m e disadvantages are the possibility of corrosion and lesser frictional resistance with
reference to transfer of load. These piles are more expensive than other types of piles and
hence, they are not used very widely. They can be used for very heavy loads and for
foundations of bridges, trestles etc.
. ,4.9.3 Concrete Piles
Concrete piles can be divided into following two categories :
(a) precast concrete piles, and
(b) cast in-situ concrete piles.
Precast Concrete Piles
These piles are usually cast near. the site of work in specially prepared casting yard
with adequate supervision and control to produce good quality concrete. The
casting yard should be a levelled firm area with proper drainage and located as
close to the site as possible so that expenses on transporting are limited. The
formwork of steel or timber should be of the required specifications and should be
properly cleaned and oiled before placing the reinforcement cage. As far as
possible, longitudinal reinforcement shall be in one length. In case this is not
possible, overlaps shall be staggered and preferably joints butt welded. Necessary
stirrups shall be provided and they shall be closely spaced near the top and bottom
of the pile to avoid damage due to high impact stresses. The concreting of each pile
has to be in one continuous operation and thoroughly compacted with vibrator. The
exposed face must be trowel finished to provide a dense even surface. Side
shuttering can be removed after a day and piles cured by wet gunny bags for a
period of ten days. The piles should be carefully examined to see whether there are
any defects, before they are taken to site for driving.
These piles are reinforced not only to carry the load on the foundation but also to
withstand the stresses produced in lifting the piles and carrying them to the place
of installation. In precast concrete piles, generally the reinforcement required to
withstand the stresses during handling and driving are more than that required to
take the load on the foundation. Piles can be lifted by hooks or clamps at a single
point or at two points (Figure 4.16). Hooks can be embedded at the time of casting
or proper markings made so that slinging is done correctly. The reinforcement has
to be suitably designed according to the proposed mode of lifting. The high
stresses produced while lifting and driving, necessitates proper structural design of
the pile to take the bending and shear stresses. Once the pile is driven into the
ground, much of the steel becomes redundant as the stresses are mainly
compressive. Piles can also be manufactured in a factory but transportation of long
piles to the site could pose problems.

Length 1 Length 1

Figure 4.16 :Lifting of Precast Kles

If it has been decided to adopt precast piles for the foundation, the length of piles
has to be assessed fairly correctly, as cutting the piles or extending them cannot be
done easily. They also require large casting yards and heavy equipment for
handling and driving. However, in situations where soil is such that driving is easy
or large number of piles of predetermined length are to be provided or where
reinforcement is required from considerations of lateral pressure or tensile steel is
required to resist uplift, precast piles are advantageous. The quality of concrete in
precast piles is better as they are cast above ground under controlled conditions
and hence, such piles are sometimes preferred in aggressive soil (e.g. sulphates)
conditions.
Precast concrete piles for small loads and short lengths can be square in
cross-section with chamfered comers, while for longer length and heavier loads
they are generally of octagonal or circular section. Sometimes hollow sections are
also used which are filled with concrete after driving. The tips are pointed to
facilitate driving. As the reinforcement in the pile is mainly to resist the handling
stresses, this objective can also be achieved by prestressing. It can be either
pretensioned or post tensioned. Prestressed concrete piles are not widely used as,
.L - - - -..-
!.-.
BoildingConstrudion Pile Driving 1
Piles are commonly driven by means of a pile driver, basic elements of which are a I

frame and a hammer. The frame or trestle is generally of steel and has a pair of
vertical guides, known as leaders within which the hammer is held. Mobile units 1
are also available and are convenient when a large number of piles are to be driven. 1
The hammer could be a simple drop hammer or more efficient steam, air, diesel or
hydraulic hammers. If the fall of hammer is due to gravity alone, it is known as
single acting. If pressure is applied by steam etc., it is known as double acting.
Drop hammers weigh from 1000 to 5000 kg and fall through a distance of about 1
metre. As a rough rule, the weight of a drop or single acting hammer could be the
same as the weight of the pile. For heavy piles, this would not be possible but for
proper dtiving the hammer should weigh not less than a third of the weight of the
pile. A cast steel helmet is placed over the top of the concrete pile with a resilient
dolly on top to prevent the pile head from shattering under the impact of the
hammer blow.
The resistance to pile driving is expressed in terms of number of blows per inch of
penetration. Resistance of 6 to 8 blows per inch are specified for concrete piles.
If piles have to be driven through dense layers, jetting around the pile is resorted to
in order to loosen the soil and ease penetration. If piling is planned to be done by.
jetting, it is preferable to insert an M.S. pipe of 50 to 75 mm in diameter at the
centre of the pile while casting.
In saturated plastic clays, displacement of soil on account of driving of pile may
cause heaving of adjacent area, and in such cases piles can be placed in holes made
by augering.
Cast in-situ Concrete Piles
-
There are two types of concrete cast in-situ piles driven or bored.
Driven Cast in-situ Piles
In this type of piles, a heavy sectioned metal tube, with a detachable metal shoe
at the bottom, is driven into the ground by a drop hammer or any other type of
hammer upto the required depth. Thereafter reinforcement is placed, if required,
and ccncrete is filled into the tube and the tube simultaneously withdrawn
leaving the shoe at the bottom. In another version, a thin steel shell is driven
with the help of a mandrel, which is then withdrawn, remforcement placed, if
required, and concreting done, the shell being left permanently in the ground.
Raymond concrete pile company have developed a thin steel shell pile, known
as Raymond Pile. The casing pipes consist of either uniformly tapered or step
tapered light corrugated steel tubes. An internal mandrel is used to drive the
casing, the mandrel is then withdrawn and the shell filled with concrete.
In Franki piles, a concrete plug is formed at the bottom of the steel casing and
by repeated hammering the pipe is thrust downwards into the ground. When the
bearing stratum is reached, additional concrete is poured and the plug
hammered out of the tube to form a bulb end. Then the reinforcement cage is
lowered into fie tube, concreted and the casing withdrawn.
Vibro pile uses a detachable steel or cast iron shoe with a steel tubecasing.
With the help of a hammer, the tube with the shoe on is driven to the required
depth, reinforcement cage lowered. concreting done and the tube withdrawn
leaving the shoe at the bottom of the pile. Simplex piles are also similar to this
sort of arrangement.
Bored Cart in-situ Piles
In this system, a hole is bored into the ground, reinforcement (if required)
lowered and concreting done. Boring is generally carried out by rotary or
percussion type drilling rigs. Kelly mounted hydraulically operated grabs are
also used.
If the soil is such that the walls of the bore would cave in. casing tubes have to
be used which is subsequently extracted while concreting. Sometimes the
casing is left in the ground and the concreting done within the casing. Such
piles are known as cased piles. Another method to keep the sides of the hole in
 position is by pumping bentonite slurry into the borehole as the soil is removed.
Bentonite is a clay of the monunorillonite group. Its slurry forms a membrane
along the walls of the bore hole and also a m hydrostatically to retain the
stability of the sides of the hole. After the required depth of the bore is reached
a high slump concrete is placed by means of a tremie.
For piles of small diameter and depths upto 10 m, the minimum cement content
of the concrete should be 350 kg/m3 while for larger diameter and deeper piles
it should be 400 kg/m3. Slump of concrete shall range between 100 to 180 m m
depending on the manner of concreting.
Where drilling mud is used before concreting, the bottom of the hole shall be
flushed with fresh bentonite slurry. Throughout the boring operation it has to be
ensured that the drilling mud suspension is of the required consistency.
4.9.4 Underreamed Piles
These are bored cast in situ concrete piles having one or more bulbs formed towards the
bottom by enlarging the bore hole of the pile stem. The enlargements help in providing
substantial bearing or aichaage. Such piles have been found to be useful in expansive soils
like black cotton soil as tQe bulbs provide anchorage against uplift due to swelling pressures.
The diameter of the underreamed bulbs may be of the order of 2 to 3 hmes the stem
diameter. The spacing of the bulbs is 1.25 to 1.5 times the stem diameter. The top most bulb
should be at a minimum depth of 2 times the bulb diameter.
Borings for the piles are carried out in the usual way. Thereafter the bulbs are formed by
means of an underreamer rotated by the drill rod. The excavated soil is removed by means
of buckets. The reinforcement cage is then lowered and the pile concreted. ?he cement
content and slumps shall be as indicated for bored cast in situ piles.
Bored compaction pile is a modified form of underreamed pile where, after the concrete is
poured, the reinforcement assembly, with a cone welded at the bottom is driven through the
fresh concretc with the help of a driving pipe, thereby compacting the concrete.

*t 4+-
Cover 7 5 to 100
But ket
Ieng t h

=k~hppmr , &=30 - k j a p p r o r ,0. = Normally 2.50

1 A Section of singh 1B Section of multi-
under- reamed piles under- reamed piles
All dimensions in mm
Building Comtmction Spacing of Piles
Spacing of piles has to be decided taking into consideration the practical aspects of
installing the pile and the type of load transfer from the pile to the soil. For end
bearing piles the minimum spacing is kept as 2.5 times the diameter of the shaft
and if it is resting on rock it can be 2 times the diameter. The spacing between
friction piles has to be such that the zones of soil from which the piles derive their
support do not overlap and thereby reduce their bearing values. Generally, in such
cases the minimum spacing is three times the diameter of the shaft.
Alignment of Piles
Piles shall be installed as accurately as possible. Generally, for vertical piles the
permissible deviation is 1.5% and for raker piles 4%. The deviation from the
designed position for a single pile should not be more than 50 mm (100 mm if
diameter is more than 600 mm) and for each pile in a group not more than 75 mm
or one tenth the diameter of the pile, whichever is more.
Load Testing of Piles
Load testing of piles consists of two types. Initial load test is done to determine the
ultimate load carrying capacity and to arrive at the safe design load on the pile. It
also helps to fix guide lines for routine tests, assess the suitability of the piling
system, and to study the effect on existing adjacent structures etc. The second type
of test is the routine test to check whether the pile is capable of carrying the
designed load. Such tests are usually carried out on 112 to 2% of the total number
of piles at the site, for a test load of one and a half times the working load,
maximum settlement shall not exceeding 12 mm.
Piles are loaded by jacking against a kentledge placed on a platform supported
clear of the test pile or against a beam restrained by anchor piles. Settlements of
the pile are recorded by dial gauges carried by supports clear of the pile and resting
on arms fixed rigidly to the pile head.
There are two methods of applying test loads. In the Constant Rate of Penetration
(CRP) test, the load is adjusted to give a constant rate of downward movement. In
the maintained load (ML) method the load is applied in increments and deflections
recorded. The CRP test is suitable for determining the ultimate load, while the ML
method,can be used for both initial test and routine tests.
Pile Caps
The depth of the pile cap should be sufficient for anchoring the column
reinforcement as well as that of the pile. The pile should project 50 mm into the
concrete of the cap. The cap should be rigid enough to distribute the load to the
pile and to take care of differential settlements, if any. The overhang of the pile cap
beyond the outer pile is of the order of 100 to 150 mm. The cap is generally cast
over a 75 mm thick bed of levelling concrete. A clear cover of 60 mm is provided
for the main reinforcement.

4.10 SUMMARY
The first step in deciding on the type of foundation is to carry out a detailed soil
investigation to ascertain the characteristics of the subsoil. Field tests of soil can also be
carried out for quicker results. On the basis of these tests and investigations, the depth of
foundation can be arrived at and the safe bearing capacity of the soil can be estimated.
Taking into consideration the properties of soil substrata and the load due to the proposed
building, it should be possible to decide on the type of foundation that would be suitable.
The details of shallow foundations such as pad, strip, grillage and raft have been described
in the unit. If the soil in the top layer, near the ground, does not have adequate bearing
capacity to support the superimposed load, it would be necessary to adopt pile foundations.
The details of various types of pile foundation have also been explained in this unit.

4.11 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic listed in the
I
section "Further Reading" at the end of the block to get the answers of the SAQs.