Veterinary Quarterly

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/tveq20

Nutritional significance of amino acids, vitamins and

minerals as nutraceuticals in poultry production and
health – a comprehensive review

Mahmoud Alagawany, Shaaban S. Elnesr, Mayada R. Farag, Ruchi Tiwari,

Mohd. Iqbal Yatoo, Kumaragurubaran Karthik, Izabela Michalak & Kuldeep
Dhama

To cite this article: Mahmoud Alagawany, Shaaban S. Elnesr, Mayada R. Farag, Ruchi Tiwari,
Mohd. Iqbal Yatoo, Kumaragurubaran Karthik, Izabela Michalak & Kuldeep Dhama (2021)
Nutritional significance of amino acids, vitamins and minerals as nutraceuticals in poultry
production and health – a comprehensive review, Veterinary Quarterly, 41:1, 1-29, DOI:
10.1080/01652176.2020.1857887

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2020.1857887

© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Informa Published online: 13 Dec 2020.

UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
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VETERINARY QUARTERLY
2021, VOL. 41, NO. 1, 1–29
https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2020.1857887

Nutritional significance of amino acids, vitamins and minerals as

nutraceuticals in poultry production and health – a comprehensive review
Mahmoud Alagawanya , Shaaban S. Elnesrb , Mayada R. Faragc, Ruchi Tiwarid ,
Mohd. Iqbal Yatooe , Kumaragurubaran Karthikf , Izabela Michalakg and Kuldeep Dhamah
a
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Poultry, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt; bFaculty of Agriculture, Department of Poultry
Production, Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt; cFaculty of Veterinary Medicine, Forensic Medicine and Toxicology Department,
Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt; dDepartment of Veterinary Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Sciences,
Deen Dayal Upadhayay Pashu Chikitsa Vigyan Vishwavidyalay Evum Go-Anusandhan Sansthan (DUVASU), Mathura, India;
e
Sher-E-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar, India; fCentral University Laboratory,
Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai, India; gFaculty of Chemistry, Department of Advanced
Material Technologies, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland; hDivision of Pathology, ICAR-Indian
Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Nutraceuticals have gained immense importance in poultry science recently considering the Received 27 April 2020
nutritional and beneficial health effects of their constituents. Besides providing nutritional Accepted 26 November 2020
requirements to birds, nutraceuticals have beneficial pharmacological effects, for example, they
KEYWORDS
help in establishing normal physiological health status, prevent diseases and thereby improve
Poultry; chicken;
production performance. Nutraceuticals include amino acids, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, etc. nutraceuticals; amino acids;
which are important for preventing oxidative stress, regulating the immune response and minerals; vitamins; organic
maintaining normal physiological, biochemical and homeostatic mechanisms. Nutraceuticals mineral; designer food;
help in supplying nutrients in balanced amounts for supporting the optimal growth perform- nanoparticles; health
ance in modern poultry flocks, and as a dietary supplement can reduce the use of antibiotics.
The application of antibiotic growth enhancers in poultry leads to the propagation of antibiotic-
resistant microbes and drug residues; therefore, they have been restricted in many countries.
Thus, there is a demand for natural feed additives that lead to the same growth enhancement
without affecting the health. Nutraceuticals substances have an essential role in the
development of the animals’ normal physiological functions and in protecting them against
infectious diseases. In this review, the uses of amino acids, vitamins and minerals as well as their
mode of action in growth promotion and elevation of immune system are discussed.

1. Introduction nutritional and healthier properties of feed ingre-

dients and the adverse effects of chemical pharma-
Nutrition plays a pivotal role in maintaining the
health of pullets, quality egg production by laying ceuticals like antibiotic resistance and drug residues
hens and body growth of broilers (Wang et al. 2017). (Elnesr et al. 2019a, 2020). Amino acids (Ghoreyshi
Nutraceuticals are the nutrients or constituents of et al. 2019), minerals (Khatun et al. 2019), and
animal diet that have nutritional and pharmaceutical vitamins (Ahmad et al. 2019) which are common
importance by preventing various diseases, possess- ingredients of poultry ration or a combination of
ing immunomodulatory potential, providing health them (Moghaddam and Emadi 2014; Horvath and
benefits and consequently increasing productivity Babinsky 2018) can be nutraceuticals, especially
(Dhama et al. 2015; Aronson 2017; Helal et al. 2019; important in poultry feeding. Generally, poultry
Waheed Janabi et al. 2020). They include nutrients receives nutrients through the consumption of
and non-nutrients, like amino acids, minerals, natural feedstuffs, but some key essential amino
vitamins, fatty acids, enzymes, prebiotics, probiotics, acids (lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan),
synbiotics, pigments, medicinal herbs, herbal vitamins and minerals are often offered as synthetic
extracts, antioxidants, organic acids, flavouring supplements (Ravindran 2010). The refined form of
agents, etc. (Narahari 2014; Alagawany et al. 2018a; dietary nutraceutical constituents can result in better
Elgeddawy et al. 2020). Nutraceuticals have been in digestion, absorption, utilization, metabolism and
focus in poultry science quite recently due to the beneficial health effects when compared with

CONTACT Mahmoud Alagawany [email protected] Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Poultry, Zagazig University,
Zagazig 44511, Egypt; Kuldeep Dhama [email protected] Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian, Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
ß 2020 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

conventional forms. Nutraceutical value and conver- strategies to diminish the application of antibiotic
sion efficiency in poultry are influenced by various growth promoters in poultry diets. Special attention
factors including the bird’s genetic potential, envir- has been paid to the advances in delivery and for-
onmental conditions, dietary quality and gut health mulating designer and functional food out of such
which should be taken into consideration in order to nutraceuticals.
maximize bird productive efficiency (Rinttila and
Apajalahti 2013; Sugiharto 2016; Yadav and Jha
2. Amino acids as nutraceuticals
2019). For decades, the therapeutic use of antibiotics
has been commonly practiced in poultry farms to Amino acids are functional and structural units of
regulate the ecosystem balance in the gut and to protein, nutritionally classified into two groups: non-
enhance chicken growth (Yadav et al. 2016; essential (synthesized in the body) and essential
Karavolias et al. 2018). This practice has many amino acids (cannot be synthesized rapidly enough
criticisms such as the increasing prevalence of resist- to meet the metabolic requirement). Amino acids
ance to antibiotics in birds and the residues remain- play vital physiological roles in the body (Bortoluzzi
ing in the poultry products (Kabir 2009). Therefore, et al. 2018; Debnath et al. 2019). After absorption,
alternatives to antibiotics have to be found for safe amino acids are assembled and metabolized to form
poultry production and promotion of their perform- proteins that are used to build different body tissues.
ances (Dhama et al. 2014a; Yadav et al. 2016; Studies indicated that providing high protein and
Alagawany et al. 2018b; Abd El-Hack et al. 2020a). energy-rich diet to pullets in their growth and egg-
Using nutraceuticals has a beneficial effect, as it laying phase showed positive effects on egg mass
gets rid of the adverse effect of antibiotics which led and yolk weight (Babiker et al. 2011).
to the elimination of the intestinal microbiota with- There are differences in recommended essential
out differentiation between the harmful and useful amino acids levels in various guidelines, which raise
ones (Sullivan et al. 2001). For example, Rashid et al. concerns for the poultry sector. Extensive research
(2012) detected Clostridial infection after usage of was done on the use of synthetic amino acids in
antibiotics as feed additives. In addition, using antibi- poultry feed. The careful supplementation of syn-
otics has several detrimental effects which include thetic amino acids has the potential to boost the
the development of antibiotic-resistant genes by overall amino acid balance and to decrease the level
intestinal microbiota, propagation of particular intes- of crude protein in the poultry diet (Waldroup et al.
tinal bacteria and digestion changes which can occur 2005). The use of amino acids in the nutrition less-
due to immune response of internal organs. To pre- ens the nitrogen loss during metabolism of protein
clude these effects, the addition of a high specific that leads to low excretion of ammonia in the envir-
substance for a certain infection is needed (Frei et al. onment and improves growth performance of birds
2015). In this condition, nutraceuticals were found to (Kidd and Kerr 1996). Also, in the diet of poultry,
have various beneficial health applications and amino acids must be balanced to avoid loss of
potential roles in enhancing production performan- energy that can be diverted to the synthesis of fat
ces as they act as antioxidants, safeguard health, (Leeson et al. 1996). Beski et al. (2015) stated that
modulate gut microbiota, and enhance the immunity dietary synthetic amino acid supplementation to
of poultry (Rahal et al. 2014, Alagawany et al. 2019; poultry diets improved feed conversion efficiency
Dhama et al. 2014a; Soomro et al. 2019; Abd El-Hack and reduced nitrogen excretion. Kidd et al. (2004)
et al. 2020b). For better delivery, improved bioavail- indicated that healthy broilers responded positively
ability and utilization of nutraceuticals within the to the high dietary inclusion of amino acids and had
body of poultry, numerous delivery forms are being a positive effect on the performance. A study con-
investigated. Improvised delivery systems of nutra- ducted on one day old Cobb male broilers illustrated
ceuticals include chelated, micronized, encapsulated, that dietary supplementation of amino acid chelated
nano formulated, or chemically modified forms that trace mineral helped in diminishing levels of circula-
have prospects for not only better delivery but also tory and intestinal heat shock protein 70 (HSP70)
conversion efficiency (Aklakur et al. 2016; Helal et al. and pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression in
2019; Jampilek et al. 2019; Khatun et al. 2019). heat-stressed broiler chickens. This observation indi-
This review provides updates with regard to the cates that amino acid chelated trace minerals in the
potential role of amino acids, vitamins and minerals diet can improve gut health by lowering the effect
as nutraceuticals that will improve poultry produc- of heat stress (Baxter et al. 2020). There are eviden-
tion performance, protect health of birds and ces that amino acid metabolism is affected by health
enhance immunity, and aid in encountering some status of birds as shown in some recent studies on
public health issues. Also, this review will cover challenge vs. non challenge conditions (Chrystal
prominent aspects of nutraceuticals used as new et al. 2020; Hilliar et al. 2020). Diseases like necrotic
 VETERINARY QUARTERLY 3

enteritis affect digestion, absorption and metabolism of total sulfur amino acid (TSAA) with L-methionine
of amino acids. Low protein diet did not affect pre- was evaluated on HyLine W36 laying hens’ growth
disposition to necrotic enteritis but feeding a stand- performance, egg production, egg quality including
ard diet or diet with additional amino acid content egg weight, egg mass, bone volume, bone mineral
can mitigate this disease (Hilliar et al. 2020). Amino content and bone density. The experiment con-
acid supplementation favor cecal butyric acid and ducted at high temperature, for forty-five weeks
total short-chain fatty acids production and support revealed that the addition of 85-100% of TSAA in
growth, development, feed conversion efficiency and the diet helped birds to alleviate the adverse effects
improve immunity (Chrystal et al. 2020; Hilliar et al. of high temperature (Castro et al. 2019). Thus, the
2020). Digestibility of amino acids is also affected in effectiveness of methionine is primarily due to its
health and disease and by alteration of nutrient role as an antioxidant and the effect on the cellular
composition of diet (Keerqin et al. 2017; Chrystal response to the oxidative stress.
et al. 2020). Diets having 90% arginine compared to
lysine and high methionine were found to be benefi-
2.2. Threonine
cial in minimizing oxidative stress, modulating meta-
bolic parameters and influencing indicators of Threonine is very important for the synthesis and
intestinal barrier integrity in turkeys with necrotic maintenance of proteins in the body and plays a sig-
enteritis (Ognik et al. 2020). nificant role as an essential component of mucin in
Ten amino acids classified as essential (lysine, gut health (Kidd and Kerr 1996; Lien et al. 1997) and
methionine, tryptophan, threonine, arginine, isoleu- is involved in an important metabolic process such
cine, leucine, histidine, phenylalanine and valine) must as the uric acid formation (Rezaeipour et al. 2012).
be provided in the diet for maximum performance. After absorption of threonine, it is used for gut pro-
Out of these 10 essential amino acids, lysine and tein synthesis and protects the gut from anti-nutri-
methionine are the first two limiting amino acids for tional factors and pathogens (Lee et al. 2007).
broilers (Corzo et al. 2007; Rehman et al. 2019), while Threonine has a major role in intestinal development
threonine is the third limiting amino acid (Kidd and and well-functioning (Stoll 2006). This may elucidate
Kerr 1996). Glycine is considered to be essential for the better developed gut in birds fed with higher
young birds. Glycine and serine are the non-essential dietary threonine than recommended levels.
limiting amino acids in the diet of poultry (Siegert Synthesis of mucosal protein and mucin is quicker in
and Rodehutscord 2019). Cysteine and tyrosine are the presence of threonine in the lumen which indi-
recognized as semi-essential amino acids because cates its importance for proper gut functioning
they can be synthesized from methionine and phenyl- (Nichols and Bertolo 2008). Dietary total threonine
alanine, respectively (Ravindran 2010). The most levels (between 0.70 and 0.93%) led to the optimum
important amino acids for poultry are listed below. gut morphology (Zaefarian et al. 2008). Significant
improvement was detected in performance indices
[body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), dress-
2.1. Methionine
ing percentage, relative breast weight)] of birds fed
Methionine plays an important role in the optimum with a diet supplemented with threonine compared
growth performance of poultry and is involved in with those fed with a diet without threonine supple-
feather synthesis, important biochemical processes mentation (Al-Hayani 2017). Valizade et al. (2016)
(as a methylgroup donator) and muscle accretion stated that a higher level of threonine at 0.843%
(Goulart et al. 2011; Fagundes et al. 2020). This could be the required level that may result in opti-
amino acid participates in protein synthesis, methyla- mal growth performance. Dozier et al. (2001) sug-
tion reaction of DNA, elimination of reactive oxygen gested that the positive effects of threonine
species (ROS) and acts as glutathione (GSH) precur- supplementation on the performance of broilers may
sor – a tripeptide, which decreases ROS and thus be due to the participation of threonine in the
protects cells from oxidative stress (Kidd 2004; Elnesr development of intestinal mucosa and also in the
et al. 2019b). Therefore, methionine is sensitive to function of the digestive enzymes. Supplementation
oxidative modification. Dietary methionine inclusion of threonine improves carcass characteristics prob-
led to better growth performance of broiler chicken ably because threonine is the second limiting amino
at 42 days of age (Wen et al. 2017). The broiler chicks acid for breast meat yield (Estalkhzir et al. 2013). The
fed with diet containing higher methionine level applications of threonine, above NRC requirements,
than National Research Council (NRC) requirements resulted in a better growth rate, feed utilization, car-
exhibited a significant increase in relative and abso- cass quality and gut health and increased ileal
lute weight of the breast and significant reduction in digestibility of amino acids and protein, and
abdominal fat (Ahmed and Abbas 2011). The effect enhanced immunity (Ahmad et al. 2020). In broilers,
4 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

Figure 1. Effect of aminoacids – methionine and threonine on poultry health: (1) Methionine participates in synthesis of pro-
tein, (2) Methionine is a glutathione precursor, (3) Methionine is required for the polyamines (spermine and spermidine) syn-
thesis that takes part in nucleus and cell division events, and (4) Methionine is the most important methyl group donor for
methylation reactions of DNA and other molecules.

Zarrin-Kavyani et al. (2018) found an improvement in role in the antioxidant protection system of the
feed intake through the grower period and an body such as glutathione (Mari et al. 2009; Jong
improvement in BW throughout the grower and et al. 2012). Glutathione is a related metabolite of
overall period, whereas a better feed conversion cysteine directly, and of methionine indirectly. In
ratio (FCR) through the starter period in birds fed addition to methionine, cysteine can improve intes-
with 10% extra threonine in comparison with the tinal histomorphometric indices of broiler chickens
control diet. Thus, methionine has a major role in (Elwan et al. 2019), leading to the increase in the
improving the intestinal health of the birds thereby absorption of nutrients. Thus cysteine can prevent
increasing the performance of the birds. from oxidative damage.
An overview of the effects and modes of actions
of the amino acids methionine and threonine on
2.4. Arginine
poultry health is depicted in Figure 1.
Arginine must be sufficiently available in the chicken
diet to maintain the immunological and physiological
2.3. Cysteine
functions and to support protein accretion (Khajali and
Cysteine serves as a semi-essential amino acid Wideman 2010). This amino acid can be used as a
because it can be synthesized from methionine and potential immunomodulating agent to improve the
serine by trans-sulfuration (Stipanuk 2004). immune function of broiler chickens (Xu et al. 2018).
Therefore, the requirement for this amino acid is The dietary arginine level [120% according to NRC
usually considered together with methionine and (1994) recommendation] should support the proper
cysteine (Goulart et al. 2011). It plays critical roles in functions of immune system in healthy chicks (Kidd
protein structure and function and in protecting et al. 2001). Arginine increases the specific immune
against oxidative stress. This amino acid acts as a response against Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) in
precursor of some constituents that play a central chickens (Tayade et al. 2006). The addition of arginine
 VETERINARY QUARTERLY 5

in the broiler diet could improve the growth perform- 2.7. The role of amino acids in the
ance of chickens at 42 days of age (Xu et al. 2018). The immune system
supplementation of arginine in the diet reduced the
The health status of birds is directly related to their
percentage of abdominal fat by suppressing the activ-
immune system, whereas birds with an adequate
ities of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, fatty acid immune system grow better. The majority of essen-
synthase (lipogenic enzymes) and malate dehydrogen- tial amino acids are perceived as critical resources
ase in the liver of meat-type ducks (Wu et al. 2011). It for cytokine production and immune function (Kidd
can be concluded that arginine improves the immunity 2004; Li et al. 2007). Thus, the demand for essential
in poultry. amino acids is likely to increase in the presence of
immune stress or inflammation (Le Floc’h et al.
2.5. Glutamine 2004). Also, amino acids are associated with the anti-
body production in animals (Han and Lee 2000).
Glutamine is known to provide nitrogen and energy Adequate provision of dietary amino acids is
source for the proliferation of immune and intestinal required to maintain normal immunocompetence
mucosal cells and is required together with cysteine and protection of the host from some diseases in all
to synthesize antioxidants such as glutathione species (Beski et al. 2015). Therefore, the develop-
(Newsholme 2001; Obled 2003). Glutamine is also an ment of immune function in poultry will be pro-
essential nutrient for animals under stress conditions, moted if they receive sufficient amino acids in their
such as infection, injury, high temperature (Soltan diets. Research has shown that birds display better
2008). This amino acid plays an important role in the performance at higher dietary threonine and methio-
case of necrotic enteritis disease that causes signifi- nine levels with an improved immune system
cant economic loss in the broiler chicken industry. L- (Yaqoob and Ali 2018). Threonine works as a protei-
glutamine compensates for metabolic losses from nogenic amino acid and also is part of immunoglo-
this infection, improves the intestinal development bulins. Increased threonine concentration in the diet
and gut morphology, improves growth performance may promote the growth of immune organs, encour-
and serum biochemical indices (Soltan 2008; Xue age the antibody synthesis and mitigate the immune
et al. 2018). Collectively, glutamine is a non-essential stress caused by Newcastle disease (ND) virus or
amino acid, but in disease conditions, it works Escherichia coli challenge (Azzam and El-Gogary
as an essential amino acid and plays a significant 2015; Trevisi et al. 2015). Also, Mandal et al. (2006)
role in the improvement of immunity and metabolism clarified that broilers fed with a diet containing
in the body. 1.02% of threonine had 17% greater bursa weight,
7% greater thymus weight and 16% greater spleen
weight when compared to those fed with the
2.6. Lysine control diet containing 0.96% of threonine.
Lysine is one of the limiting amino acids in the Tryptophan used as a supplement, due to its require-
poultry diet. Nasr and Kheiri (2011) illustrated that ment for protein synthesis, also works as a precursor
of serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in the
additional lysine at the level of 120% of NRC in
regulation of feed intake (Kerr et al. 2005).
Arian broiler diets optimized BWG, whereas a low
The regular diet may not accommodate the
level of lysine decreased growth and live weight.
growing bird’s requirements; therefore early feeding
There are positive effects on meat yield and growth
with amino acids is necessary as their oxidation rate
performance in response to supplemental lysine and
increases during the inflammation (Jha et al. 2019).
methionine in male broiler diets from 21 to 41 days
An inadequate level of threonine in the diet may
of age (Zhai et al. 2016). To differ with this, another
affect the production of immunoglobulins in broiler
study showed that the dietary supplementation chickens because threonine is their integral part
of digestible lysine and threonine did not influence (Azzam and El-Gogary 2015). Supplemental lysine or
the performance and egg quality of laying hens methionine can stimulate the immune responses
markedly as no visible changes in egg production, of broilers (Faluyi et al. 2015; Saleh et al. 2018). The
total solids in albumen and yolk, specific gravity or levels of lysine and methionine treatments (30 and
percentage of albumen and yolk were noticed 40% more than NRC recommendation, respectively)
(Figueiredo et al. 2012). Lysine was found to improve led to a significant decrease in heterophils and
carcass quality and growth performance of broilers an increase in blood lymphocytes and heterophils:
(Belloir et al. 2019). Finally, the main role of lysine is lymphocytes ratio as a stress index (Bouyeh 2012).
to participate in protein synthesis and cell growth Bouyeh (2012) indicated that methionine plays four
and maintenance, and is considered as a reference main roles related directly or indirectly to immune
amino acid in the ideal protein diet. system responses: (1) participation in synthesis of
6 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

protein, (2) as a glutathione precursor, (3) required health and physiological functions such as develop-
for the polyamines (spermine and spermidine) syn- ment, growth, maintenance and reproduction.
thesis that take part in the nucleus and cell division Vitamins exert catalytic functions that facilitate nutri-
events, and (4) is the most important methyl group ent synthesis, thus controlling metabolism and affect-
donor for methylation reactions of DNA and other ing the performance and health of poultry. Vitamins
molecules. The dietary addition of methionine, in poultry feeds have two origins; they are natural
cysteine and arginine boosted BWG and plasma IGF-I components of the ingredients used to prepare the
levels in young chicks (Kita et al. 2002). diet and they can be added as a supplement in a con-
Thus, amino acids are beneficial in improving the centrated form (Whitehead 2002). There are many
general physiological status (Bouyeh and Gevorgyan vitamins (fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E and K; and
2016), immunizing against infectious diseases (Faluyi water-soluble vitamins: B1, B2, B6, B12, folic acid, panto-
et al. 2015), and stabilizing under noninfectious or thenic acid, biotin, niacin and vitamin C) needed for
managemental conditions (Saleh et al. 2018) thereby optimal poultry health. The use of these nutrients in
enhancing the production performance of birds sufficient quantities can improve animal health. Most
(Ghoreyshi et al. 2019). Previous studies showed that vitamins cannot be synthesized by birds and must be
broilers challenged with any infection had poor per- provided by feed, however, the feed alone is not suffi-
formance because of structural and functional changes cient to cover vitamin requirements. Diets supple-
that occured in the intestinal mucosa during the mented with vitamins play an important role in
infection (Su et al. 2015; Gottardo et al. 2016). Enteric disease treatment and prevention; because vitamins
infections in broilers may have a large influence on allow an animal to use proteins and energy for health
the endogenous amino acids losses within the gastro- improvement, FCR, growth, and reproduction
intestinal tract (GIT). Gottardo et al. (2017) stated that (Whitehead 2002; McDowell and Ward 2008).
the diet supplementation with amino acids (glutamine, If vitamins are absent from the diet or improperly
arginine and threonine) above the recommended absorbed or utilized, specific diseases or deficiency
levels for growth may be necessary to improve the syndromes occur. Deficiency of vitamins might cause
immune response against Eimeria and E. coli. Tan et al. disease states in poultry. Ruffled plumage, cessation
(2014) found a significant increase in density and of growth, incoordination, weakness, ataxia, xero-
number of goblet cells in the jejunum of birds phthalmia and blindness occur due to deficiency of
challenged with a coccidiosis vaccine supplemented vitamin A. Exudative diathesis and encephalomalacia
with arginine. Dietary supplementation with free are seen due to deficiency of vitamin E. Polyneuritis,
methionine mitigates intestinal oxidative stress induced perosis, impairment of food utilization and curled
by Eimeria spp.,in broiler chickens (Khatlab et al. 2019). toe paralysis occur due to deficiency of vitamin B
Methionine plus cysteine are additionally required to complex, and anaemia due to folic acid and vitamin
support immune response to pathogenic Eimeria spp., B12 deficiency. There are some vitamins such as
and therefore additional supplementation helps confer vitamin B12, folic acid, pantothenic acid and biotin,
resistance to Eimeria-infected chickens (Maroufyan etc. which are essential for the normal development
et al. 2013). Thus, amino acid metabolism is different of the hemopoietic organs and erythropoiesis.
depending on health status in birds (challenge vs. Ferdous et al. (2018) stated that vitamins may be
non-challenge conditions) (Chrystal et al. 2020; Hilliar used with drinking water to get good results in
et al. 2020). Digestibility, absorption and metabolism of BWG, hematological indices and biochemical profiles
amino acids is affected in health and disease. Their without any harmful effects on broiler chickens.
deficiency can predispose and their supplementation Vitamins may improve the development of the intes-
can prevent or mitigate disease (Hilliar et al. 2020). tinal mucosa and protect enterocytes from proapop-
Suppplementation of amino acids has resulted in totic oxidant stress (Hassanpour et al. 2016). The proper
production of cecal butyric acid and total short-chain ratios of the fat-soluble vitamins and the combination
fatty acids production and support growth, develop- of the four vitamins – A, D, E and C, as a vitamin emul-
ment, feed conversion efficiency and improve immunity sion positively affected the performance of broiler
(Chrystal et al. 2020; Hilliar et al. 2020). Nutrient chicks (Kamalzadeh et al. 2009). In summary, vitamins
composition of feed also affects metabolism of amino improve the physiological and health status of birds.
acids (Keerqin et al. 2017; Chrystal et al. 2020).
3.1. Vitamin E
3. Vitamins as nutraceuticals
Vitamin E (a-tocopherol) is a biological antioxidant
Researchers have made important advances in and contributes to the improvement of growth
understanding the significance of vitamin adequacy performance and physiological and immunological
to sound poultry nutrition. Vitamins are essential status of broiler chickens due to its ability to reduce
nutraceuticals, required for the optimum general lipid peroxidation and neutralize free radicals in both
 VETERINARY QUARTERLY 7

skeletal muscle and plasma (Gao et al. 2010; Selim ovarian follicles from oxidative damage and also has
et al. 2013). Vitamin E, selenium and carotenoids are an important function in egg production by facilitat-
the prime antioxidant components in poultry feed ing the yolk precursor (vitellogenin) release from the
(Surai and Kochish 2019). Weber (2009) reported that liver (Weber 2009).
deficiency signs of clinical vitamin E include exuda- Vitamin E (2 g a-tocopherol acetate/kg feed) aug-
tive diathesis, muscular myopathy and encephaloma- mented carcass mass and decreased the content of
lacia in chicks (disturbance of the nervous system), the abdominal fat of broilers (Zaboli et al. 2013). This
as well as some subclinical vitamin E deficiency such form of vitamin E constitutes the second line of anti-
as slow growth performance, diminished fertility and oxidant defense in biological systems, and is the
frequent health problems. Therefore, the antioxidant main lipid-soluble antioxidant, breaks the chain of
properties of vitamin E were investigated regarding lipid peroxidation in the membrane of cells and pre-
its vital role in the prevention of diseases that occur vents the lipid hydroperoxides formation (Halliwell
due to lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation via a 1987). There is a favorable influence of vitamin E on
free radical mechanism (Colombo 2010; Rizvi et al. the sensory and technological quality of meat (Ryu
2014). Moreover, vitamin E has a significant role in the and Kim 2005). Zdanowska-Sasiadek et al. (2016)
improvement of health by boosting both humoral and illustrated that vitamin E addition in the diet had a
cell-mediated immune functions (Rizvi et al. 2014). significant influence on chicken meat quality by
Vitamin E protects the phospholipids of sub-cellular reducing juice drip and increasing the water-holding
and cellular membranes from the destruction by the capacity of meat. Improved meat quality is reflected
lipid oxidation and therefore maintains the functional- in higher sensory grades. Finally, vitamin E plays a
ity and morphological integrity of tissues and cells of role in growth, immunity and the protection of bio-
the organism (Weber 2009). Vitamin E has been found logical systems against oxidative damage as well as
to improve antioxidant defense, immune response in meat and meat products. Thus vitamin E acts as
and physiological functions of birds (Habibian et al. antioxidant, improves immunity, fertility, growth and
2014; Min et al. 2018). It may have an effect on gene development in poultry.
regulation e.g., glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) gene
(Min et al. 2018).
3.2. Vitamin D
Dietary vitamin E supplementation for commercial
broilers significantly improved the immune response Vitamin D3 is created naturally by the sunlight action
and antioxidant concentrations in the liver (Karadas on the skin of most mammals and all birds. Vitamin
et al. 2016). Also, a-tocopherol helps in the resist- D3 is an important nutrient for bone growth and has
ance and prevention of many diseases through its a critical role in biological pathways such as immune
modulatory effect on the immune system by the function, calcium (Ca) homeostasis and cellular prolif-
macrophage activation and antibody production eration and differentiation (Holick 2004). Also, vita-
(Weber 2009). The levels of dietary vitamin E (40 or min D is associated with various physiological
80 IU/kg feed) may alter the immune function, processes, including bone mobilization and mineral-
including the innate cellular oxidative immunity of ization and phosphorus (P) and calcium absorption
broiler chickens (Perez-Carbajal et al. 2010). The dir- (Garcia et al. 2013). Supplementation of vitamin D
ect impact of vitamin E on the immunological sys- induces the intestinal absorption of phosphorus and
tem is through inhibiting protein kinase C in the calcium, encouraging the production of calcium-
lymphocyte and monocyte cells, and decreasing the binding protein in the mucosa, activating the cal-
secretion of immunosuppressive factors such as cium-activated tenderisation complex by the increase
hydrogen peroxide (Erf et al. 1998). Also, the in the plasma calcium concentration (Garcia et al.
improved immune response by supplementation of 2013). Also, it increases the re-absorption of Ca and
vitamin E in broiler chickens may be due to its anti- P in the renal tubules and impacts the calcification
oxidant properties and ability to reduce concentra- process by boosting the uptake of minerals by bones
tions of plasma corticosterone (Puthpongsiriporn (Weber 2009). Higher levels of vitamin D in the diet
et al. 2001). Vitamin E-rich diet may reduce stress by increase absorption of Ca and P and improve bone
suppressing the catabolic response in the body, strength and consequently leg health (Browning
causing improvement of the production indices, et al. 2012). Additionally, vitamin D regulates the
including increased BW (Rymer and Givens 2005). parathyroid hormone secretion and stimulates many
Choct and Naylor (2004) revealed that the use of tissues with vitamin D receptors. Therefore, defi-
vitamin E in the diet decreased the mortality rate of ciency of this vitamin can lead to decrease in prod-
male broiler chickens. As an important micronutrient, uctivity and the appearance of metabolic disorders
vitamin E optimizes the reproduction and perform- (Garcia et al. 2013). The dietary addition of 25-
ance of farm animals. Moreover, it safeguards the hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D3) decreased the
8 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

incidence of tibial dyschondroplasia (Fritts and dietary vitamin K levels on bone quality and growth
Waldroup 2003) and had an affirmative influence on performance. The result of this experiment advo-
the quality of bone in broiler chicks (
Swia˛tkiewicz cated the inclusion of 8 mg/kg feed and 2 mg/kg
et al. 2006). Also, Driver et al. (2006) stated that the feed of vitamin K in the diet of starter and grower
vitamin D3 addition alleviated the clinical signs of broilers, respectively. Vitamin K supplied in different
tibial dyschondroplasia disease by inducing matur- concentrations improved the carboxylation of osteo-
ation of chondrocytes. In laying hens, vitamin D calcin and increased the hydroxyapatite binding abil-
plays a role in the optimal function of the skeletal ity of serum osteocalcin and therefore improved the
system, strengthening the claws, beak and bones. It bone quality (Zhang et al. 2003).
also has a positive impact on the quality of eggshells In contrast to this, some researchers have investi-
produced by layers. Shojadoost et al. (2015) revealed gated the effect of vitamin K deficient diet supplied to
that 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) has an the laying hens for a time period of 28 weeks.
immunomodulatory property in chicken macro- Reduction in the concentration of skeletal/bone pro-
phages. Rodriguez-Lecompte et al. (2016) indicated tein gamma-carboxyglutamic acid (Gla) and altered
that vitamin D induced upregulation in the expres- blood clotting was observed. But despite of the insuf-
sion of both pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. ficient vitamin K level, no significant adverse effects
Therefore, the presence of high doses of vitamin D3 on skeletal metabolism in laying hens, their growing
or its derivative 25(OH)D3 above the recommended progeny embryos and young chickens were noticed
levels has a positive influence on the immune sys- (Lavelle et al. 1994). The effect of vitamin K supple-
tem particularly when dietary levels of calcium are mentation in hen’s diet on hatchability was also
low. Irrespective of form, the apparent total tract studied (Panda and Pradhan 1967). Thus, vitamin K
digestibility of calcium was higher in diets enriched improves bone development, growth performance,
with vitamin D. The apparent total tract digestibility blood clotting and egg development in poultry.
of phosphorus was higher in 3,000 IU/kg feed of vita-
min D2 compared to the other treatments. The util-
3.4. Vitamin A
ization of calcium and phosphorus by laying birds
can be enhanced by the addition of different sources Vitamin A is necessary for the visual development,
of vitamin D in rations (Adhikari et al. 2020). Finally, growth, reproductive physiology, and maintenance
the deficiency consequences of this vitamin are ser- of the integrity of epithelia and the skeleton (Weber
ious, including rickets, poor growth and immune 2009). Also, it supports an optimum immune
response and also reduction of the production. Thus response and thus diminishes the susceptibility to
vitamin D can support bone growth and develop- infection. Supplementation of vitamin A at a level
ment, immunity and stabilize calcium-phosphorus higher than recommended by NRC (1994) is prefer-
metabolism in poultry. able to aid normal development of the reproductive
organs and membrane integrity of laying hens under
heat stress (Kaya and Yildirim 2011). Abd El-Hack
3.3. Vitamin K
et al. (2017a) emphasized the effectiveness of vita-
Vitamin K regulates the production of some coagula- min A at the level of 16,000 IU/kg diet in improving
tion factors in the blood such as prothrombin and the productive performance parameters. Vitamin A
clotting factors (VII, IX and X) which are involved in addition to the diet can prevent inhibition of growth
stopping uncontrolled bleeding from wounds. performance in poultry that may be deficient in this
Therefore, deficiency of this vitamin increases blood- vitamin (Yuan et al. 2014). Vitamin A levels required
clotting time leading to hemorrhagic diseases in to maximize immunocompetence have been dis-
organs and tissues. Also, vitamin K is important in played to be much higher than that necessary for
relation to bone formation and re-modeling which the feed efficiency and optimum growth (Friedman
may be due to the fact that osteocalcin (one of the and Sklan 1997). Dietary vitamin A at a high level of
main bone proteins) depends on vitamin K (Weber 12,000 IU/kg feed augmented the antibody titer
2009). Vitamin K-dependent carboxylation of bone against Newcastle disease virus of hens under heat
matrix proteins is regarded as important for bone stress (Lin et al. 2002). Vitamin A is necessary for the
matrix calcification (Gundberg and Nishimoto 2006). epithelial tissue integrity that represents the main
Fleming et al. (2003) established that additional vita- defense against the entry of pathogens. Also,
min K3 (10 mg/kg feed) in the diet led to higher Vitamin A is useful in increasing antibody synthesis
proximal tarsometatarsus cancellous bone volumes against pathogens that are able to get into the body
of laying hens. (Das et al. 2011). Vitamin A encourages antibody
Zhang et al. (2003) conducted a study on male responses to T-cell–dependent antigens (Ross 2012)
broiler birds for seven weeks to assess the effect of and induces protective antitumor immunity by some
 VETERINARY QUARTERLY 9

mechanisms such as enhancement of migration to stress, improve immune response, and modulate
lymph nodes and induction of cell differentiation physiological functions (El-Senousey et al. 2018; Min
(Mullin 2011). Additionally, vitamin A under heat et al. 2018). Finally, the effectiveness of vitamin C is
stress is a vital antioxidant that minimizes lipid per- primarily due to its potent role as an antioxidant.
oxidation (Abd El-Hack et al. 2015). Its supplementa- Therefore, it is very important in poultry farms in
tion in female quail’s diet improved the high-temperature zones due to its important role in
development and growth of the reproductive system alleviating stress.
accompanied by high levels of follicle-stimulating
hormone (Fu et al. 2000). Generally, vitamin A
3.6. B Vitamins
improves the productive performance, immunity and
reproductive system of poultry. B vitamins have very important functions in metabolism
of poultry, as most of them represent coenzymes that
fuse with larger enzyme molecules to accelerate many
3.5. Vitamin C
metabolic processes. Vitamins B1, B2, B6, biotin, panto-
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) increases disease resistance thenic acid and niacin are involved in energy metabol-
in birds by strengthening the immune system. It ism, but folic acid and vitamin B12 exert their activity in
plays a significant role in the biosynthesis of cortico- the cell and growth maintenance (Weber 2009).
sterone, a hormone that enhances energy supply
during stress (Ahmadu et al. 2016). Of note, poultry 3.6.1. Thiamin
can produce vitamin C (Maurice et al. 2002). Thiamin (vitamin B1) is actively and rapidly absorbed
Ascorbic acid is synthesized in the kidney in birds, from the small intestine and then is transformed by
and in the liver in some mammals (Ahmadu et al. phosphorylation into the active coenzyme – thiamin
2016). The endogenous production of this vitamin is pyrophosphate that is involved in the oxidative
usually considered as not sufficient for the biological decarboxylation of ketoglutaric acid and pyruvic acid
demands in poultry, especially during severe envir- (Chen et al. 2018a). The reactions generate succinyl-
onmental conditions (Pardue and Thaxton 1986). CoA and acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) that are involved
Therefore, classical deficiency of this vitamin does in proteins, lipids and carbohydrates metabolism
not take place in poultry, but it has been shown that (Haas 1988; Hamano et al. 1999). Weber (2009) sum-
additional ascorbic acid has positive effects under marized some deficiency symptoms of thiamin in
stressful conditions. poultry that included weight and appetite loss,
Sahin et al. (2001) stated that vitamin C increased weakness, heart failure (sudden death syndrome),
performance and could improve carcass traits in fatty degeneration of the liver, mucosal inflamma-
birds reared under heat stress. Dietary vitamin C sup- tion, atrophied ovaries and reduced egg production.
plementation (200 mg/kg feed) provided protection
against the risk of high stocking density and 3.6.2. Vitamin B6
improved final BW, reduced mortality percentage Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) plays an important role in
and down-regulated HSP70 expression level in the the metabolism of fatty acids, carbohydrates and
liver (Shewita et al. 2019). Vitamin C (100 and amino acids and displays a critical function in the
200 mg/kg feed) exerted a positive influence on lay- production of energy by the citric acid cycle
ing, egg fertilization and hatchability indices (McDowell 1989). Pyridoxine is functionally important
(Nowaczewski and Kontecka 2005). Vitamin C as pyrodoxal phosphate (co-factor of various
improves the absorption of iron (Fe) leading to enzymes) in the transformation of amino acids and
increase in the hemoglobin level and red blood cells assists in the synthesis of proteins required for
(Moura and Pedroso 2003). The supplementation of immune responses (Hossain et al. 1998). Some stud-
200 mg/kg feed of ascorbic acid was beneficial for ies have reported the importance of vitamins during
improving immunity and performance and for embryonic development. In ovo vitamin B6 adminis-
exploiting the full genetic potential of the commer- tration (40, 60, 80 and 120 mg/egg) significantly aug-
cial broilers (Lohakare et al. 2005). Also, vitamin C mented the hatchability percentage in Japanese
plays a major role in cellular antioxidant defenses quail (Elsayed et al. 2010). Also, in ovo injection of
(Ahmadu et al. 2016). Seven (2008) stated that this vitamin B6 (100 mg/egg) significantly increased BW at
vitamin acts as an antioxidant by reacting with all 28 days of age (Bhanja et al. 2012). Vitamin B6 is
oxygen species and the formation of dehydroas- involved in the erythrocytes formation and the activ-
corbyl (a particular inert radical), as well as by trans- ities of growth hormone, insulin, thyroid, gonado-
ferring radical equivalents from lipid phases. tropic and adrenal hormones (El-Kholy et al. 2019).
Through regulation of gene expression like GSH-Px Vitamin B6 is essential for brain development and
gene, vitamin C has been found to prevent oxidative function and benefits the body to synthesize
10 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

serotonin, melatonin and norepinephrine hormones 4. Minerals as nutraceuticals

(Pond et al. 1995).
The performance and health of birds are the main fac-
tors affecting the profits of poultry producers. The
3.6.3. Riboflavin recent state-of-the-art opinion points to a positive
Riboflavin is an essential constituent of two major impact of mineral supplements on the general health
coenzymes, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and status in poultry. Minerals are important nutraceuticals
flavin mononucleotide (riboflavin-50 -phosphate). The required for the optimum health and physiological
coenzymes play major roles in the development, functions. The effectiveness of the use of microele-
growth, cellular function and energy production and ments is an essential topic in modern poultry feeding.
metabolism of steroids, fats, and drugs (Rivlin 2010; In addition, the advanced knowledge of the import-
Said and Ross 2014). This vitamin is phosphorylated ance of microelements in the reproduction and
in the mucosa of the intestine to flavin mononucleo- immunological processes and the variable content of
tide during absorption and then converted in the minerals in feed ingredients have led to their addition
liver to FAD. Riboflavin is an essential factor of flavin to poultry diets in commercial practice in high quanti-
enzymes (flavoproteins) that are involved in the ties with a large safety margin often exceeding the
transfer and transport of hydrogen inside the respir- birds’ requirements (Saripinar-Aksu et al. 2012). Post-
hatch, nutrients can have a prolonged effect on gen-
ation chain and consequently contributes to energy
eral health, broiler performance and tissue mineraliza-
production (Weber 2009). Riboflavin supports the
tion. Therefore, the use of nutraceuticals such as
maintenance of the normal concentration of homo-
minerals is even more important where antibiotics are
cysteine in the blood (Rivlin 2010). It is required for
banned in diets completely.
the proper functioning of the cellular antioxidant
In poultry, minerals are required as a part of an
protection, metabolism, and nervous system in chick-
activator of hormones and enzymes, for the skeleton
ens (Belinda 2014). As such, riboflavin is a vitamin and eggshell formation and replacement, and for the
that is required for the growth and overall good maintenance of acid-base balance (sodium (Na),
health in poultry. potassium (K) and chloride (Cl)) and osmotic homeo-
stasis (Ravindran 2010). Recently, the use of minerals
3.6.4. Vitamin B12 in an organic form (metal ion þ amino acid ligand,
Vitamin B12 belongs to a specific group of cobalt con- chelated amino acids, proteinases) has increased.
taining coronoids with biological activity in animals The application of organic mineral sources in poultry
and humans. It is available commercially for addition to nutrition may prevent minerals from creating indi-
the feed as cyanocobalamin. It is an essential constitu- gestible complexes with some dietary components
ent of some enzyme systems that carry out a number and reciprocal mineral antagonisms in the intestine
of basic metabolic functions in the body (McDowell that could decrease their absorption rate
1989). This vitamin plays a central role in the homo- (
Swia˛tkiewicz et al. 2014). Organic minerals in small
amounts can be added to bird diets as minerals are
cysteine metabolism, energy metabolism, blood func-
better assimilated by poultry than mineral salts
tion and the immune system. Ahmad et al. (2019)
(Nollet et al. 2007; Ravindran 2010). A novel form of
stated that vitamin B12 works as a co-factor for methio-
mineral supplementation to the poultry diet is also
nine synthase and L-methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, and
biomass enriched with microelements using the bio-
improved ducks hematological parameters such as
sorption process. As it was shown in several reports,
white and red blood cells and their well-being. Vitamin
microelements such as Zn(II), Cu(II), Mn(II), Co(II) and
B12 plays a central role in the normal functioning of
Cr(III) were better bioavailable to laying hens from
the nervous system and brain as well as regulation and this feed additive than from inorganic salts (Michalak
creation of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) (Ahmad et al. et al. 2011; Witkowska et al. 2014; Saeid et al. 2016).
2019). Moreover, it participates in fatty acid metabolism Researchers studied the antioxidant property of diet-
and energy generation. Erythrocytes require this vita- ary supplementation of organic and inorganic Zn, Cu
min for their proliferation and maturation, therefore, and Mn on white strain laying hens and results
erythrocytes lacking vitamin B12 cannot be mature showed that both forms of zinc, copper and manga-
what can lead to hemolysis and hyperbilirubinemia nese helped in mitigating oxidative stress in laying
(Zittoun and Zittoun 1999; Khanduri and Sharma 2007), hens (Bulbul et al. 2008).
which may cause cardiovascular diseases and Poultry requires macro elements as well as trace
depress immunity. elements in the diet. Macro-minerals such as calcium
An overview on the modes of action with regard (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are the most abundant ele-
to the beneficial effects of different vitamins ments in the body. This group also includes chloride
on poultry health is depicted in Figure 2. (Cl), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), sodium (Na)
 VETERINARY QUARTERLY 11

Figure 2. Beneficial effects of different vitamins on poultry health.

and sulphur (S). The required content of these ele- Lack of calcium ions in bones led to the deterior-
ments in the diet is usually higher than 100 mg/kg ation of the skeletal structure and reduced bone
feed (Ravindran 2010). Trace minerals such as man- strength (Kwiatkowska et al. 2017). Coto et al. (2008)
ganese (Mn), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), iron (Fe) reported that the optimal ratio of available calcium
and zinc (Zn) are necessary for chicken development and phosphorus in broiler feed is 2:1 that is condi-
because these are active in many metabolic path- tioned by strong interactions between these ele-
ways – they are co-factors of enzymes and compo- ments. It should be underlined that phosphorus
nents of larger molecules (Ravindran 2010; Faria should be in the form of non-phytate which is bio-
et al. 2020). They are required in poultry diet in trace logically available to poultry. This element in the
amounts, usually about 0.01% (Ravindran 2010). phytate-phosphorus form, commonly present in
Trace minerals participate in physiological functions plant-derived ingredients is poorly utilized by poultry
necessary to sustain life, including growth, reproduc- due to the lack of digestive enzyme – phytase
tion, immune system function, energy metabolism (Ravindran 2010). There are studies conducted to
and bone formation (Bao et al. 2007; Dibner assess the effect of high non-phytate phosphorus
et al. 2007). (NPP) diets, low NPP diets and administration of
exogenous phytase on the growth performance,
blood metabolites, phosphorus retention in plasma,
4.1. Calcium and phosphorus
activity of plasma alkaline phosphatase, bone charac-
Calcium (Ca) is a major element in poultry nutrition. teristics and tibia P content in starter and broiler
It is an important component for mineralization of birds. Supplementation of phytase exogenously
bones and shells, blood-clot formation and muscle through the diet improved growth performance,
contraction (Talpur et al. 2012). Bintvihok and bone parameters and noticeable P retention in grow-
Kositcharoenkul (2006) pointed out that dietary Ca ing broilers even when they were supplied with
addition had a positive effect on BWG. Driver et al. phosphorus poor diets (Baradaran et al. 2017). Also,
(2006) stated that the poultry diet containing 0.80% phytase increased the availability of P for the animal
Ca enhanced quantity and quality of carcass of birds. to be used for biochemical functions in the body
12 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

(Abd El-Hack et al. 2018a). Phosphorus is a necessary 4.2.2. Zinc

mineral for poultry and plays a significant role in the Zn contributes in the maintenance of the immune
hard and soft tissues of the body (Underwood and function (Kidd et al. 1996), the growth performance
Suttle 1999). Its requirements in poultry are affected (Liu et al. 2011) and the skeletal development of
by various factors, including the dietary level of cal- broiler chickens. Abd El-Hack et al. (2017b) stated
cium. The use of phosphorus is of growing concern that Zn possesses many roles as an antioxidant
with regard to the sustainability of broiler chickens agent, and associates in the hormone function
production since high phosphorus excretion can including pancreatic (glucagon and insulin), growth
cause eutrophication (Valable et al. 2018). Rao et al. and sex hormones. Zhang et al. (2018) clarified that
(2006) pointed out that both phosphorus and cal- supplementing Zn in the starter and grower diets at
cium co-exist in many biological functions, but the levels of 40 and 32 mg/kg feed, respectively, pro-
dietary requirement of these minerals is inter- moted the growth performance of broiler chickens
dependent. Calcium possesses the main role in the and reduced excretion of Zn in the environment.
improvement of the skeletal structure, egg shell and Zinc plays a useful role in the tissues of the pancreas
blood cloth formation of poultry. Synoptically, there that prevents oxidative damage and activates the
is a symphony in action between calcium and phos- secretions of the pancreas from digestive enzymes
phorus in the body. and thus stimulates the digestion of nutrients (Sahin
et al. 2005). Zago and Oteiza (2001) indicated that
Zn as a significant element of the antioxidant
4.2. Trace minerals defense network inhibits membrane damage from
Mn, Zn and Cu are structural constituents and cata- oxidation and also it can partially stop the formation
lytic of the antioxidant enzyme - superoxide dismu- of free radicals and other reactive substances. Zinc
tase (SOD) and also act on immunity mediators such participates directly in metabolic pathways and is a
as thymus peptides, cytokines and enzymes (Silva key component of cellular defense against oxidative
et al. 2015). Zn and Mn are co-factors involved in stress as an integral part of cytosolic Cu/Zn SOD
(Zago and Oteiza 2001; McDowell 2003). Saleh et al.
the carbonates and mucopolysaccharides synthesis
(2018) exhibited that dietary organic zinc supple-
which is necessary for bone formation (
Swia˛tkiewicz
ments improved growth performance, humoral
et al. 2014).
immunity, antioxidant properties, nutrient digestion
and zinc content in raw meat, and reduced lipid per-
4.2.1. Manganese
oxidation in broiler meat. The addition of organic
Mn contributes to the metabolism of carbohydrates,
zinc had a positive influence on the immunological
lipids, and amino acids (Crowley et al. 2000; Suttle
capacity by improving immunoglobulin (IgA, IgM,
2010). It participates in many biochemical processes
and IgG) levels and may also improve cellular
by activating enzymes such as glycosyl transferase,
response of broilers (Moghaddam and Jahanian
SOD and pyruvate carboxylase (Suttle 2010). It plays
2009; Feng et al. 2010). Dietary supplementation of
an important role in bone development, growth,
zinc-methionine (Zn-Met) at 25, 50, 75 or 100 mg/kg
optimal egg shell quality and perosis prevention (Lu
diet increased Zn status and reduced blood triglycer-
et al. 2007; Olgun 2017). Also, it is a main compo-
ide, LDL-cholesterol and resulted in improving the
nent of the Mn-SOD that safeguards cells from oxi-
antioxidant capacity of laying hens (Abd El-Hack
dative stress (Li et al. 2011). In poultry, Mn is
et al. 2018b). Finally, zinc plays multiple roles in
important for the eggshell formation and can clearly metabolism, immune response and antioxidant sys-
affect the egg shell quality. Some researchers have tems of poultry.
recommended the use of organic sources of Mn that
substantially affected egg shell quality and perform- 4.2.3. Copper
ance (Yildiz et al. 2011; Sun et al. 2012). Olgun Cu is involved in both humoral (facilitates antibody
(2017) stated that the dietary addition of 90 mg Mn/ production) and cell-mediated immunity (assists in
kg feed prevented various disorders such as perosis, eliminating invading bacteria). It shows immunosti-
maintained normal development of broilers and mulating action and supports maintaining appropri-
improved egg shell quality parameters of laying ate microbiological balance in the digestive tract
hens. The supplementation of 12 mg Mn/kg feed (Makarski et al. 2014). Thus, it has been used in
from both sources (inorganic or organic) was suffi- poultry production as a nutritional supplement due
cient to provide optimum broiler performance to its microbiological activities and the ability to
(Mwangi et al. 2019). Thus, Mn in poultry nutrition is increase BW (Wang et al. 2008). Copper as a feed
crucial due to its role in egg shell and bone develop- additive has a helpful effect on the BWG, FCR and
ment and metabolism of nutrients. modification of the bacterial microflora in the gut
 VETERINARY QUARTERLY 13

(Ruiz et al. 2000). Supplementation of copper sulfate BW and BWG and reduce serum cholesterol and total
(up to 200 mg/kg feed) to broiler diets had a benefi- lipids of chickens and can also produce more healthy
cial influence on growth performance (Hashish et al. food for human consumption (Mogahid et al. 2019).
2010). Xia et al. (2004) indicated that 150 mg copper In summary, iron helps in the transportation and
sulfate/kg feed of broiler chicks had an affirmative storage of oxygen, participate in energy supply,
impact on BWG that may be the result of the signifi- metabolization of protein, and improves the immun-
cant decline in the total pathogenic organism in the ity and antioxidant capacity.
gut. Samanta et al. (2011) described that supplemen-
tation of copper in broiler chickens’ diet improved
4.4. Selenium
growth performance, as well as reduced plasma tri-
glyceride and cholesterol, and meat cholesterol. Selenium (Se) is an important trace nutrient for the
Kumar et al. (2013) stated that the dietary addition maintenance of growth and health of humans and
of copper is useful for performance and blood animals (Kieliszek and Błaz_ ejak 2016). When
biochemical parameters of broiler chicken. Recently, supplemented to the diet, it maintains the high
Yang et al. (2018) indicated that the dietary reproductive and productive performance of poultry
supplementation of Cu at levels of 8.77 and 11.6 mg/ (Papazyan et al. 2006). The rate of hatchability and
kg feed can improve growth and carcass yield fertility in chicken were improved by organic
in growing goslings from 28 to 70 days of age. selenium supplementation (Rizk et al. 2017). Also,
Moreover, copper is a pro-oxidant in its unbound selenium boosts bursa and thymus weight and
form (Diplock et al. 1998). Also, copper is a constitu- increases immunity (Hussain et al. 2004).
ent of SOD and defends living organisms against Supplementation of organic selenium in broiler diets
reactive oxygen species. Copper salt at a pharmaco- improved FCR and reduced drip-loss, leading to
logical dose decreased cholesterol 7a-hydroxylase enhancing the economic gain and meat quality
activity (Konjufca et al. 1997; Yang et al. 2018). (Deniz et al. 2005). Organic selenium in the poultry
Copper is involved in iron transport and metabolism, diet is also associated with the increased hatchability
and the formation of red blood cells. In this regard, and fertility in breeders, lower mortality and better
Samanta et al. (2011) confirmed that supplementa- FCR in broilers (Surai 2006). Selenium has an import-
tion of copper is an effective way to improve ant role in promoting health because it is one of the
haematological parameters in broiler chicken. Thus, most active natural antioxidants. Supplementation of
copper is a micronutrient involved in many physio- dietary selenium enhanced catalase, SOD and GSH-
logical processes and immunity, and it is necessary Px activities and lessened oxidative stress and lipid
for optimal health and growth of poultry. peroxidation biomarkers in broilers (Cai et al. 2012).
The application of organic selenium may be advanta-
geous in improving certain variables of performance
4.3. Iron
and meat quality (Ravindran and Elliott 2017). In
Iron (Fe) helps in transportation and storage addition, selenium maintains tissue integrity, protects
of oxygen and enhances protein metabolism, energy the body from oxidative stress and prevents the
supply and processes of anti-oxidation and immun- occurrence of diseases that have oxidative stress as
ization inside the body (Drygalski and Adamson a triggering factor (Pappas et al. 2008). Also, selen-
2013; Abbaspour et al. 2014). Iron is used in the feed ium-dependent glutathione peroxidase (Se-GSH-Px)
industry as a feed supplement in poultry diet (Xie enzyme is an important factor in the antioxidant sys-
et al. 2019a). It is important as a co-factor for the tem of the semen especially under stress conditions
function of many enzymes (Lozoff et al. 2006) and is (Ebeid 2009). Selenium is crucial for the regulation of
an essential structural co-factor for numerous pro- gene expression e.g., GSH-Px gene that is involved in
teins (Scott et al. 2008). Bess et al. (2012) illustrated the antioxidant system, immune regulation and bio-
that supplying a suitable level of Fe (60 mg/kg feed) logical functions (Habibian et al. 2014). Selenium
in broiler breeder diet can improve the productive may not be directly involved in inhibiting ROS for-
performance. Some studies have suggested that mation, but indirectly through enzyme actions in
using organic iron supplements to poultry feed which it serves as a co-factor (Horvath and Babinsky
could improve their immunity and antioxidant 2018). Experiments showed that incorporation of the
capacity (Xie et al. 2019a, 2019b). Also, Shinde et al. organic and inorganic form of Zn and Se through
(2011) stated that organic sources of iron supple- the addition of rosemary, hydroxytyrosol, pomegran-
mentation improved the performance of broilers. ate, grape and harpagophytum extracts in broiler
Nikonov et al. (2011) described that iron supplemen- diet enhanced the nutritional quality as well as the
tation to broiler breeders hens diets improved their shelf life of chicken nuggets. Moreover, if phenolic
performance. The in ovo injection of Fe can improve compounds were added together with Zn and Se,
14 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

they helped in maintaining the sensory quality by in poultry production (Chandrasekar and
lowering the growth of microorganisms and dimin- Balakrishnan 2019). Arif et al. (2019) clarified that
ishing the protein and lipid oxidation (Mart
ınez et al. better performance and weight gain may be
2020). Thus, Se revealed strong nutritional and bio- achieved when chromium propionate is added to
logical effects on improving the productive and the broiler diet at the rate of 400 ppb. Dietary chro-
physiological performance of poultry. mium supplementation boosted immune functions
of chickens vaccinated with Avian Influenza Virus
(AIV) (Lu et al. 2019). Deficiency of this element dis-
4.5. Iodine
rupts carbohydrate and protein metabolism (Haq
Iodine (I) is a trace element with several biological et al. 2016). In conclusion, chromium is necessary for
functions. One of the most important is the proper improving productive performance in poultry due to
functioning of the thyroid gland as iodine is a con- its important functions in growth, metabolism and
stituent of its hormones (triiodothyronine and thyro- reduction of lipid and protein peroxidation.
nine) that play an essential role in regulation of A summary of the implications and beneficial effects
metabolism, cellular oxidation and intermediary cell of different amino acids, vitamins and minerals as
activity (Van Middlesworth 1996; Delange 1998; nutraceuticals in poultry is presented in Table 1.
Lewis 2004). Furthermore, there are some functions
that depend on the supply of iodine for any organ-
5. Advances in delivery of nutraceuticals
ism such as circulation and muscular systems, matur-
ity processes of cells and tissues, reproduction Various advanced delivery options are needed to be
properties, functions of the nervous system, and sec- explored for efficient utilization of amino acids, min-
ondary skin product formation (Travnicek et al. 1997; erals and vitamins in poultry feeding (Abd El-Hack
Delange 1998; Liu et al. 2001). The enrichment of et al. 2017c; Alagawany et al. 2018c; Saeed et al.
products of animal origin with iodine can be 2019). These delivery systems enable efficient supply
achieved through supplying many dietary iodine of nutraceuticals, their increased bioavailability,
sources (NaI, KI, and Ca (IO3)2) and iodine levels in reduce the incompatibility, protect against degrad-
the animal diet (Słupczyn
ska et al. 2014). In the ation of essential constituents, minimize doses and
poultry diet, iodine is supplemented mainly within side effects, besides facilitating prolonged beneficial
the mineral premix in the form of Ca (IO3)2, KI, or effects of nutraceuticals (McClements 2012; Aklakur
iodized salt. Iodine is a very essential microelement et al. 2016; Helal et al. 2019; Jampilek et al. 2019).
in laying hens’ feeding, and has a strong impact on Various delivery forms are being evaluated for better
growth performance of birds (Opalin
ski et al. 2012). results. Chelated forms of nutraceuticals, organic and
The addition of iodine (2 mg/kg feed) to the drinking inorganic types (Khatun et al. 2019), nanoformula-
water significantly boosted broiler growth (Stanley tions (Aklakur et al. 2016; Gangadoo et al. 2016),
et al. 1989). The effectiveness of iodine in improving micronized particles (Tufarelli and Laudadio 2015)
the productive performance is due to its major role and encapsulated nutraceuticals are some of the
in regulation of metabolism. delivery forms of few nutraceuticals that have shown
promising results or are under evaluation or have
bright future prospects (Aklakur et al. 2016; Helal
4.6. Chromium
et al. 2019; Jampilek et al. 2019). However, each of
Chromium (Cr) plays an important role in poultry the component or subcomponent of nutraceuticals
health and nutrition, as well as augments growth may vary in delivery forms or the effect of delivery
performance. It is a potent antioxidant and hypocho- system on the health and production performance
lesteremic agent. Chromium is known to decrease of poultry birds can be different hence each of them
cholesterol, increase high-density lipoprotein choles- requires respective evaluation.
terol and improve nutrient digestion (Haq et al. Amino acids are being used in different forms to
2016). Dietary chromium has valuable impacts on achieve better results in terms of production per-
immune response and antioxidant defense system formance. Nowadays, individual amino acids in pure
(Farag et al. 2017). Chromium also improves FCR, forms are commercially available (Ravindran 2010).
influences weight gain, increases relative organ This also minimizes the loss through excretion via
weight and muscle development (Haq et al. 2016). waste products. Due to the lower absorption of con-
There are beneficial chromium impacts on the repro- ventional forms in the gut, higher doses of amino
ductive and productive performance, as well as acids in poultry feed are required, which increases
physiological traits (Sahin et al. 2005). Chromium can the cost of farming. Methionine has been evaluated
also alleviate the effect of stressors such as environ- as methionine hydroxyl analogue, DL-methionine
mental, nutritional, physiological, physical stress, etc. and L-methionine. No significant differences were
 VETERINARY QUARTERLY 15

Table 1. Summary of the implications and beneficial effects of different amino acids, vitamins and minerals as nutraceuticals
in poultry.
Nutraceutical type and dose Poultry species Implication/Conclusion References
Amino acids
Trp, Ile, His, Val, Leu, Arg, Gly Male broilers Adding the essential amino acid mixtures to Waldroup et al. 2005
and Phe the low CP diets improved the performance
but did not completely overcome the
adverse effects of the low CP diets
Threonine (0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, Ross 308 males Gut functionality like microvilli height, Zaefarian et al. 2008
0.9, 1.0 and 1.1%) epithelia thickness and crypt depth was
improved with even higher levels of dietary
standardized ileal digestible threonine level
Arginine (2% L-arginine) Broilers Arginine increases specific immune response Tayade et al. 2006
against Infectious Bursal Disease
Threonine, valine Laying Japanese quails Reducing the CP level in a diet supplemented Alagawany et al. 2014
and tryptophan with crystalline amino acids is a valuable
strategy for decreasing feeding cost and
mitigating ammonia emission
Threonine and methionine Broilers Performance and immune system were Yaqoob and Ali 2018
improved at higher dietary threonine and
methionine levels
Threonine (0.0 (control group), Broilers Adding threonine in the diet may promote the Azzam El-Gogary 2015
0.25, 0.50, 0.75 and growth of immune organs, encourage the
1.00 g/kg diet) antibodies synthesis and mitigate the
immune stress caused by Newcastle disease
virus or E. coli challenge
Arginine (0%, 0.45%, 0.90%, Broiler The addition of arginine in the diet could Xu et al. 2018
1.35%, and 1.80% Arg) improve the growth performance of broiler
chickens at 42 days of age
Lysine and methionine Male broiler There are positive effects on meat yield and Zhai et al. 2016
growth performance in response to
supplemental amino acids in diets from 21
to 41 days of age
L-Methionine (8 g/kg diet) Rabbits Reduced detrimental impacts of aflatoxinB1 on Reda et al. 2020
growth, immune and antioxidant status
Three levels of Met þ Cys (74%, Broiler chickens DL-Met and L-Met are equally effective as a Rehman et al. 2019
77% and 80%) of source of methionine for broilers
digestible lysine
Threonine (0, 300, 600 and Broiler chickens A significant improvement was observed in Al-Hayani 2017
900 mg/ kg diet) performance indices of birds fed diet
enriched with threonine compared with
the control
Threonine, arginine, Broiler chickens May help to minimize over-activation of the Bortoluzzi et al. 2018
and glutamine innate immune system, which is the most
expensive in terms of energy and nutrients,
as well as improve the intestinal microbiota
Apparent and standardized ileal Broiler chickens Increasing dietary levels of highly digestible Adedokun et al. 2016;
amino acid digestibility amino acids may help compensate for Rochell et al. 2016
malabsorption through the stages of
intestinal challenge
Methionine (a control (0.49% Cobb500 broiler male parent A methionine deficiency affects essential Fagundes et al. 2020
methionine) or a amino acids digestibility and cysteine, but
deficient (0.28%) not the methionine digestibility. The
alterations in digestibility are reflected in
the expression of mRNA of amino acid
transporters across different tissues
Threonine (100, 110, and 120% Mixed sex broilers (Ross-308) Use of threonine, above NRC requirements, Ahmed et al. 2020
of NRC recommendation) resulted in a better growth rate, feed
utilization and carcass quality, gut health,
increased ileal digestibility of amino acids
and protein, and immunity
Threonine (i.e., 100%, 110% and Broiler chickens An improvement in feed intake through the Zarrin-Kavyani et al.2018
120% of Ross grower period and an improvement in
recommendations) body weight (BW)throughout the grower
and overall period, whereas a better feed
conversion ratio through the starter period
in birds fed 10% extra threonine in
comparison with the control diet
Threonine (100% NRC Broiler chickens (Vencobb-400) The immune organs weight was improved Debnath et al. 2019
specification, 100, 110, 120 with threonine supplementation
and 130% threonine of
Vencobb-400 strain
specification)
3.0 g threonine/kg feed male chicks The level of intestinal cytokines in Chen et al. 2018b
lipopolysaccharide-challenged chickens was
reduced by threonine addition
Vitamins
Vitamin E Broiler chickens improvement of the immune response and Karadas et al. 2016
antioxidants concentration in the liver
2 g a-tocopherol acetate/ Broilers Increase in carcass mass and decrease in the Zaboli et al. 2013
kg feed abdominal fat of broilers
(continued)
16 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

Table 1. Continued.
Nutraceutical type and dose Poultry species Implication/Conclusion References
Vitamin E Broiler chickens A significant influence on the chicken meat Zdanowska-Sasiadek
quality by reducing juice drip and et al. 2016
increasing WHC of meat
Vitamin A (16,000 IU/kg feed) Hy-sex Improvement of productivity Abd El-Hack et al. 2017a
performance parameters
Vitamin C (200 mg/kg feed) Broiler chickens Protection against the risk of high density by Shewita et al. 2019
improved final BW, reduction of mortality
and downregulation of HSP70expression
level in the liver
Vitamin C (200 mg/kg feed) Commercial broilers Improvement of the immunity of broilers Lohakare et al. 2005
Vitamin A (0, 8,000 Bovans Brown laying hens Both vitamins play a role in alleviating the Abd El-Hack et al. 2019
and16,000 IU/kg diet) and harmful impacts of high ambient
vitamin E (0, 250 and temperature. Use of 16,000 IU vitamin A
500 mg/kg diet) with 500 mg vitamin E /kg diet is preferable
for obtaining better production of birds
exposed to heat stress
Vitamin E (0, 250 mg/kg diet) Growing Japanese quail Useful in partly alleviating the adverse impacts Abou-Kassem et al. 2016
of cadmium
VitaminE Laying hens Prevents unsaturated lipid oxidation within Mahrose et al.2012
cells, therefore protecting the cell
membrane from oxidative damage induced
by ROS
Vitamin E (200 mg/kg feed) Male chickens Enhanced semen quality traits, including the Ebeid 2012
spermatozoa count and motility, and
reduced the dead spermatozoa, under heat
stress conditions
Vitamin E (100 mg/kg feed) Poultry ganders Improved ejaculate volumes, percentages of Jerysz and Lukaszewicz 2013
viable sperm and sperm concentrations and
lowered percentages of spermatids
Control with additional 3,000 or Lohmann white laying hens Irrespective of forms, the apparent total tract Adhikari et al. 2020
9,000 IU25-hydroxyvitamin digestibility of calcium was higher in diets
D3/kg feed, 3,000 or 9,000 IU enriched with vitamin D. The apparent total
vitamin D3/kg feed, 3,000 or tract digestibility of phosphorus was higher
9,000 IU vitamin D2/kg feed in 3,000 IU/kg of vitamin D2 compared to
the other treatments. The utilization of
calcium and phosphorus by laying birds can
be enhanced by the addition of different
sources of vitamin D in rations
Ca (3.0, 3.5, 4.0, and 4.5%) and Lohmann LSL-lite layers Use high levels of calcium and 25OHD3 Kakhki et al. 2019
25OHD3 (0, 69, and 138 lg/ improved bone strength and decreased
kg feed) risks related to morbidity, leg weakness and
mortalities
Minerals
Copper sulfate (200 mg/kg feed) Broiler Useful influence on the growth rate Hashish et al. 2010
150 mg copper sulfate/kg feed Broiler chicks Improved live BW gain that may be the result Xia et al. 2004
of the significant decline in the total
pathogenic bacteria the gut
Copper(8.77 and 11.6 mg/ Goslings Improved growth and carcass yield from 28 to Yang et al. 2018
kg feed) 70 days of age
12 mg Mn (inorganic or Broiler It was sufficient to provide optimum broiler Mwangi et al. 2019
organic)/kg feed performance
Zn-Met (25, 50, 75 or 100 mg Hisex Brown laying hens Increased Zn status and reduced blood Abd El-Hack et al. 2018b
Zn-Met/kg diet) triglyceride, LDL-cholesterol and resulted in
improving antioxidant capacity
Chromium propionate with Male ROSS-308 broilers Better performance and weight gain may be Arif et al. 2019
inclusion levels of 0, 200, achieved if chromium is added in broiler
400, 800 and 1600 ppb. diets at the rate of 400 ppb
Selenium (0, 0.25, 0.50 mg/ Bovans laying hens Hemoglobin and lymphocytes were increased Abd El-Hack et al. 2017a
kg feed) with increasing dietary Se level in layer
reared under heat stress conditions
Selenium Poultry males Plays an important role in semen quality and Surai et al. 1998a
is related to the high proportion of
polyunsaturated fatty acids in avian semen
and its susceptibility to lipid peroxidation
Organic Se Cockerel Dietary supplementation of organic Se in the Surai et al. 1998a,b
cockerel’s diet increased (more than
double) Se concentration in the semen;
have a beneficial effect on the antioxidant
defense in various tissues including sperm
Selenium ( 0. 3 mg Se/kg feed) Male chickens Use of Se in the diet of male chickens Surai etal. 1998c
increased the activity of GSH-Px in the liver,
testes, spermatozoa and seminal plasma
Organic Se (0.3 mg/kg feed) Male chickens Under high ambient temperature (33-36  C in Ebeid 2009
poultry farm), use of organic Se in the
cockerel diets improved the GSH-Px activity
and semen quality (motility and sperm
count) and reduced the dead sperms count
in a dose-dependent manner
(continued)
 VETERINARY QUARTERLY 17

Table 1. Continued.
Nutraceutical type and dose Poultry species Implication/Conclusion References
Organic Se (0.3 mg/kg feed) Male chickens Enhanced semen quality traits, including the Ebeid 2012
spermatozoa count and motility, and
reduced the dead spermatozoa, under heat
stress conditions
Selenium (0.3 mg/kg feed) Poultry ganders Improved ejaculate volumes, percentages of Jerysz and Lukaszewicz 2013
viable sperm and sperm concentrations and
lowered percentages of spermatids
0, 0.5, 1.0 or 2.0 mg Se (sodium Hy-Line roosters The highest activity of GSH-Px and lowest Shi et al. 2014
selenite)/kg diet content of MDA in blood and testis was
recorded in the treatment of 0.5 mg/kg
Dietary Se deficiency (0.033 mg Hy-line cockerels Exerts harmful impacts on reproductive organs Huang et al. 2016
of Se/kg feed) in comparison and the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways
with the control and the upstream regulators, like Bcl-2 and
p53 are all involved in Se deficiency-
induced testicular apoptosis
0.15 mg Se/kg feed from Broiler breeders Apart from sodium selenite, Se-yeast or SeMet Yuan et al. 2012
sodium selenite, Se-enriched increased the activity of
yeast (Se-yeast) or SeMet thioredoxinreductase-1 in the kidney and
liver of breeders and their offspring, but
not the activity of GSH-Px1
Se 0.13 mg/kg feed with 0.4 mg Hy-Line Brown Increased Se content of the e.g., g from 5.1 mg Cobanov
a et al. 2011
Se in the form of sodium in the basal diet group to 14.4 and 22.7 mg,
selenite (SS) or Se-yeast/kg in SS or Se-yeast, respectively
feed for 9 months
Organic selenium Poultry breeders A reduction in mortality with selenium Rajashree et al. 2014
(0.5 mg/kg diet) supplementation; increase in e.g., g
production, hatchability, and percentage
of settable e.g., gs
Organic selenium (2 vitamin E Broiler breeder Promoted heavier hatchling weight until e.g., Urso et al. 2015
levels (30 and 120 mg/kg g production peak (33 weeks), but did not
feed) and two selenium influence hatchling quality
sources (sodium selenite and
zinc-L-selenomethionine).
25 or 75 mg ZnO/kg diet Laying hens (Hisex Brown) Dietary zinc addition up to 75 mg/kg used as Abd El-Hack et al. 2020b
an effective supplement to improve
antioxidant ability and zinc status in
laying hens

found in these forms on health, performance, and and organic forms of minerals affected growth per-
the quality composition of breast meat of birds. L- formance, carcass characteristics, bone quality, and
methionine caused the highest protein and the low- chemical composition of poultry birds. Chelated
est fat content in meat (Ullirich et al. 2019). Altering forms of minerals are also being used for better
levels of amino acids in the diet may affect perform- results (Zhao et al. 2016). Increased levels of minerals
ance and health status in poultry. L-carnitine and like zinc along with phytase in diets of poultry lead
excess lysine and methionine in the diet did not to better utilization of nutrients and enhance pro-
affect feed intake in starter birds but in finisher birds duction performances (Akter et al. 2017). Organic
it did. L-carnitine supplementation had no effect on forms of minerals have numerous advantages over
IgM titer but had an effect on serum antibody titers the inorganic forms, for example, proteinate and
in broilers vaccinated against Newcastle disease and propionate organic trace minerals were found to be
Gumboro’s disease (Ghoreyshi et al. 2019). more effective in improving performance, immune
Minerals in typical poultry feed formulations are response, and profitability in broiler birds than inor-
delivered mainly in the inorganic form, for example ganic trace minerals (Khatun et al. 2019). They may
calcium as limestone, shell grit; calcium and phos- affect bioavailability and hence tissue levels thereby
phorus as dicalcium phosphate, defluorinated rock determining the actual concentration at sites of
phosphate, bone meal; sodium as salt, sodium bicar- requirement or action. Biomass enriched with miner-
bonate and trace minerals in the form of premixes als by biosorption has similar properties to chelates.
(Ravindran 2010). But novel forms are also intro- The bioavailability of microelements from this form
duced. Minerals are being used in chelated and (enriched macroalgae, microalgae, soybean meal)
organic forms for better delivery, absorption, utiliza- to laying hens was higher than in the case of
tion and conversion efficiency. Methionine chelate or traditionally used inorganic salts. Moreover, this type
yeast proteinate-based supplement of copper, iron, of biological feed additives enriched eggs with
manganese and zinc have been utilized and their microelements and additionally influenced positively
effect on broiler growth performance, distribution in egg shell thickness, egg weight, as well as BW of
the tibia and excretion into the environment have hens (Michalak et al. 2011; Witkowska et al. 2014;
been evaluated (Singh et al. 2015). The inorganic Saeid et al. 2016).
18 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

A novel approach in poultry production is the production and health, including developing
application of nanoparticles, which can serve as a designer eggs, designer meat, designer grains,
platform to incorporate nutrients into the body. designer proteins and designer food enriched with
They enable direct transportation of active com- micro- and macro-nutrients. To develop such func-
pounds to target organs, avoiding their fast degrad- tional food, biofortification and nutrification technol-
ability and encourage several health benefits. ogy is employed (Rajasekaran and Kalaivani 2013;
Nanoparticles in poultry production include elements Dhama et al. 2014b; Laudadio et al. 2015; Alagawany
such as silver, selenium, copper, and gold et al. 2018c). Poultry meat and eggs can be consid-
(Gangadoo et al. 2016). For example, nanoselenium ered as functional food because beneficial nutrients
has been found to be more effective in improving from the feed are transferred into poultry products
production performance, meat quality and minimiz- (Peri
c et al. 2011). Michalak et al. (2011), Saeid et al.
ing oxidative stress in broiler chicken when com- (2016) and Witkowska et al. (2014) showed that
pared to selenomethionine and inorganic Se. This using algae biomass (both seaweeds and macroal-
can result from the efficient retention of this novel gae) or soybean meal enriched with microelement
delivery form of selenium within body, better utiliza- ions via biosorption it was possible to obtain eggs
tion, enhanced conversion efficiency and improved biofortified with these elements.
antioxidant defense (Ibrahim et al. 2019). Similarly, Stephen DeFelice used the word nutraceuticals in
nanoparticles of gold, silver and copper have shown 1989 for nutritional substances which can be con-
potential roles in improving production performance, sumed as pharmaceuticals too. Hasler (2002) also
antioxidant defense system, and immunological stated that nutraceuticals besides being a nutritional
response against diseases. Additionally, increased component must contribute to some therapeutic or
BW, improved feed intake and conversion efficiency, disease preventive effect. Vitamin D, vitamin E,
protein synthesis, and modulation of microbiota in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) as oleic acid
poultry birds was observed (Anwar et al. 2019). present in olive oil; polyunsaturated fatty acids (as
Finally, the improvement in poultry growth and per- alpha-linolenic acid) found in walnuts; eicosapente-
formance by adding amino acids or mineral compo- noic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
nents in such novel form is attributed to their higher mainly present in oily fish; selenium, green and black
bioavailability. tea, cocoa, coffee, cinnamon, fenugreek, guava, lyco-
The dietary supplementation of cyanocobalamin pene, soybean, garlic, various flavonoids and antioxi-
showed no effect on feed intake, daily weight gain dants usually present in fruits and vegetables, are
and feed conversion efficiency, but it improved some relevant examples of nutraceuticals exerting
hematological parameters including red and white chief impact on health, especially gastro-intestinal
blood cells and platelet counts (Ahmad et al. 2019). health (Cencic and Chingwaru 2010; Serafini and
Some vitamins based formulations have a preventive Peluso 2016; Alkhatib et al. 2017).
and curative effect on infections in poultry. One It is documented that functional food containing
such similar formulation of vitamin C has shown acetylcholinesterase inhibitors along with potential
prophylactic and therapeutic effects on Salmonella antioxidants can be a treatment option against
Enteritidis and necrotic enteritis infections in broiler neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s disease and/
chickens (Hernandez-Patlan et al. 2019). or dementia. Phenolic compounds like 2-hydroxy-4-
Nanoformulations of vitamins A, D, E have shown methoxybenzaldehyde and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyben-
stability, better delivery, improved serum levels, suffi- zaldehyde present in Hemidesmus indicus and Vanilla
cient bioavailability, and enhanced in vivo and planifolia due to their acetylcholinesterase inhibitory
in vitro performance (Jampilek et al. 2019) thus hav- activity are suitable candidates for functional food
ing promising properties as nutraceutical delivery production, which can be used in the treatment of
systems for poultry as well. neurological disorders (Kundu and Mitra 2013;
Matirosyan & Singh 2015; Wilson et al. 2017).
Researchers have studied the effect of feeding bio-
6. Designer and functional foods concepts
active peptides on the antioxidant potential of
Nutraceuticals could serve as functional food by pro- broiler breast meat. The findings suggested that
viding various beneficial health impacts (Martirosyan dietary supplementation of bioactive peptides
and Singh 2015). Amino acids, minerals and vitamins obtained from fish waste helped in increasing the
as natural components in food or other ingestible antioxidant potential and shelf stability of broiler
forms provide benefits to the human body such as meat when they were stored even under frozen
preventing or curing diseases and improving physio- conditions. This study also concluded that natural
logical processes and immunity. Various concepts are bioactive peptides in the form of dietary nutraceuti-
developed to utilize these nutraceuticals in poultry cals can be a suitable substitute to the commercial
 VETERINARY QUARTERLY 19

chemical anti-oxidants used in poultry feeding to manipulation or modification of composition, and

keep the quality of meat and by-products such as application in the diet or as supplements should be
nuggets (Aslam et al. 2020). In another experiment, properly regulated to prevent any physio-bio-
researchers used diets supplemented with linseed logical adversary.
oil, echium oil, fish oil and/or algal biomass to study
their health promoting effects on various parameters
of immune response including total lipid profile, 7. Conclusion and future prospects
lymphocyte proliferative effects and NK cell activity
Nutraceuticals are proved to be beneficial in poultry
among thymocytes and splenocytes in one day old
production both for supporting nutritional require-
male broiler chickens. Being enriched source of DHA
ments and having pharmacological benefits, thus
and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, these diet com-
providing healthy and disease free physiological
ponents improved the NK cell activity in splenocytes,
state. Being natural components of poultry diet,
enhanced fatty acid production in all tissues and
nutraceuticals can overcome side effects and limita-
also augmented the lymphocyte proliferation
tions of chemical drugs. The demand for using an
(Al-Khalaifah et al. 2020).
alternative natural feed additive such as nutraceuti-
Nutraceuticals can be employed to develop
cals is essential especially after preventing using of
designer and functional food. Manipulation of
antibiotics in poultry feed as growth factors.
nutraceuticals in the poultry diet can help in altering
the composition of poultry products that can be Currently, nutraceuticals are applied for boosting
adjusted to the demands and health requirements of poultry growth rate, preventing diseases, and modu-
consumers. Fatty acid or cholesterol, mineral, vita- lating immunity. Conversely, applying nutraceuticals
min, and/or amino acid composition of eggs or meat for disease treatments has yet to be verified.
can be modified by dietary nutraceuticals that will Common nutraceuticals including amino acids, min-
serve as a basis for producing designer and func- erals and vitamins are vital for life processes of
tional products, having beneficial health applications poultry. Having a role in numerous physio-biochem-
in addition to nutritional applications (Rajasekaran ical mechanisms these nutraceuticals are involved in
and Kalaivani 2013; Alagawany et al. 2018b). Fatty various essential growth and developmental proc-
acid composition of meat or eggs can be manipu- esses. Modification of mineral, vitamin and amino
lated by the addition or deletion of omega fatty acid composition of eggs or meat can help in devel-
acids (omega-3 (n-3) and omega-6 (n-6) fatty acids) oping designer or functional foods that can have
in poultry diet. This maintains a proper balance of potential applications in disease prevention and
these fatty acids and thus can help to avoid serious treatment. Nutraceuticals can be used for covering
complications associated with the imbalance of the the gap between increasing the world’s population
low density and high density lipopolysaccharides like and production of high quality and low-cost animal
diabetes mellitus, hypertension, increased bleeding feed. However, further large-scale studies are
risk, obesity, and coronary artery diseases (Fernandez required in order to use nutraceuticals in commercial
2015; Ibrahim et al. 2018; Alagawany et al. 2019). poultry production.
In the work of Michalak et al. (2020), it was shown
that the application of an extract, obtained from
microalga Spirulina platensis by supercritical fluid Acknowledgment
extraction, generated biofortified eggs with polyun- All the authors acknowledge and thank their respective
saturated fatty acids, including n-3 and n-6. Institutes and Universities.
Low cholesterol diets are preferred nowadays for
numerous beneficial health effects. They may also
modulate immune and inflammatory responses that Disclosure statement
can be helpful in various diseases (Ibrahim et al. No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
2018; DiNicolantonio & O’Keefe 2018). Similarly, mod-
ulating sodium and potassium levels can help in the
prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases Animal welfare statement
like hypertension (Jahandideh et al. 2014; Fernandez
No ethical approval was required as this is a review article
2015). This designer food can overcome the limita- with no original research data.
tions and adverse effects associated with pharma-
ceuticals or chemical drugs along with being natural
components of diets having nutritive qualities Funding
(Rajasekaran and Kalaivani 2013; Alagawany et al. This compilation is a review article written by its authors
2018c). However, developing such a food, and required no substantial funding to be stated.
20 M. ALAGAWANY ET AL.

ORCID diets polluted by cadmium at various levels. Animal.

10(3):508–519.
Mahmoud Alagawany http://orcid.org/0000-0002- Adedokun SA, Helmbrecht A, Applegate TJ. 2016.
8020-0971 Investigation of the effect of coccidial vaccine challenge
Shaaban S. Elnesr http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4430-1492 on apparent and standardized ileal amino acid digest-
Ruchi Tiwari http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6897-3472
ibility in grower and finisher broilers and its evaluation
Mohd. Iqbal Yatoo http://orcid.org/0000-0002-
in 21-day-old broilers. Poult Sci. 95(8):1825–1835.
4501-7354
Adhikari R, White D, House JD, Kim WK. 2020. Effects of
Kumaragurubaran Karthik http://orcid.org/0000-0002-
additional dosage of vitamin D3, vitamin D2, and 25-
9215-6306
hydroxyvitamin D3 on calcium and phosphorus utiliza-
Izabela Michalak http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0223-4279
tion, egg quality and bone mineralization in laying
Kuldeep Dhama http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7469-4752
hens. Poult Sci. 99(1):364–373.
Ahmad Z, Xie M, Wu Y, Hou S. 2019. Effect of supplemen-
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