ARTWARE DESIGN

A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by

BOSE.T
(REG NO: 06BFCD210004)

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of
BACHELOR OF FINE ARTS
IN
CERAMIC DESIGN

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF FINE ARTS,

CHENNAI-600003

THE TAMIL NADU DR.J.JAYALALITHA MUSIC AND FINE ARTS

UNIVERSITY

2024-2025
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a project report on ARTWARE DESIGN is the bonafide work of BOSE.T
(06BFCD210004) who carried out the project work under my Supervision.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PRINCIPAL

Ceramic Design Government College of fine arts

Government College of fine arts Chennai-600003

Chennai-600003

Project report submitted for the evaluation and viva voce examination helt in April 2025.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNALEXAMINER

 ACNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my profound gratitude to our principal I/C MR.D. SREENIVASAN M.F.A. for
giving me an opportunity to do this project work.

I express my sincere thanks MR.R. SOLOMON SATHYANATHAN, B.F.A lecturer head

of the department I/C and MR.K. SIVARAJ, M.F.A lecturer whom I am indebted to for having
offered me valuable suggestion.guidance and encouragement in completing my project and all
though my academic years. They have inspired me greatly to work on this topic this willingness to
motivate me contributed tremendously to my project I also would like to thank them for sharing with
me some examples that related to the topic of my project.

It would be a great pleasure to thank my family and friends.

BOSE.T
 About roopom ceramic studio

Founder:

Gukanraj studied ceramics design at the Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai and since 2007
has been actively involved in developing the Ceramic Department at the Kalakshetra Foundation and
owner of roopom ceramic studio.

Studio environment:

Located in a quite pocket of Kottivakkam, our studio is an intimate workspace where artists not only
learn the complete ceramic process but also benefit from Gukan Raj's vast ceramic knowledge and
his artistic repertoire.

Work space:

They workspace is furnished with working tables, turn tables, potter's wheel and other equipment
and tools required for basic to professional level of ceramic art.

Glazing:

They prepare our own specialised high temperature glazes (1280-1300 C) which are of a wide range
of colours and finishes.
 Introduction of Studio Pottery

Studio Pottery, as the name suggests, is made in a studio by a craftsman. Unlike the pogers of the past, these
people are not joumeymen or industrial workers but weramicists; people that bridge the gap between artist and
craftsman and designer. Most of the pieces that they make are unique, some may be made as a run, and all Most
ceramicists will work on a wheel, in a process called throwing, watching a ceramic artist is mesmerizing, as the
wheel turns, a pot begins to emerge from the most delicate and sensuous touches of the artist, a slight pressure of
a finger and lines and spirals begin to undulate across the pots surface.

Ceramic art is art made from ceramic materials, including clay. It may take forms including art ware, tile,
figurines, sculpture, and tableware. Ceramic art is one of the arts, particularly the visual arts. Of these, it is one of
the plastic arts. While some ceramics are considered fine art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial or
applied art objects. Ceramics may also be considered art facts in archaeology. Ceramic art can be made by one
person or by a group of people. In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture and
decorate the art ware. Products from a pottery are sometimes referred to as "art pottery.

In a one-person pottery studio, ceramists or potters produce studio pottery. Most traditional ceramic products
were made from clay shaped and subjected to heat, and tableware and decorative ceramics are generally still
made this way. In modern ceramic engineering usage, ceramics is the art and science of making objects from
inorganic, non-metallic materials by the action of heat. It excludes glass and mosaic made from glass tesserae.
There is a long history of ceramic art in almost all developed cultures, and often ceramic

objects are all the artistic evidence left from vanished cultures. Elements of ceramic art, upon which different
degrees of emphasis have been placed at different times, are the shape of the object, its decoration by painting,
carving and other methods, and the glazing found on most ceramics.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
N CHAPTER TITTLE
o

1 Ceramic
- What is Ceramic
- Types of Ceramic
- Classification of Technical Ceramic

2 Classification of ceramic raw

materials
- Clay Material
- Stone Material
3 Clay body
- Types of Clay Body
4 Methods of shaping
5 Glaze
- Classification of Glaze
- Composition of Glaze
- Types of Glaze
- Glaze Application
- Oxides And Stain

6 Kiln and Firing

- Firing stages
- Types of Kiln
- Firing process
- Kiln Firing Chart

7 Project work
CERAMIC
?

1|Page
 CERAMICS
A ceramic is a solid material comprising an inorganic compound of metal, non metal or metalloid
atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds.

Ceramics is a technology dealing with earthen materials and minerals processed, formed and fired or
baked finally to give permanency to the wares.

The word “Ceramics” is derived from the Greek word “Keramics” which means earthen or made of
clay or earth. This is similar to a Sanskrit root according to which “Keromos” means “to turn”.
According to F. Singer, “ceramics is a term used to include all products made of inorganic material
which are first shaped and then permanently hardened by heat”. Though glass is first melted and
then shaped, after the same becomes a bit cooler, yet it is treated as a ceramic product as an
exception, because glassy phase is a common occurrence in many fired bodies under ceramics .

WHAT IS CERAMIC?
A ceramic is an inorganic, non- metallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling.
Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous (e.g.,
a glass). Because most common ceramics are crystalline, the definition of ceramic is often restricted
to inorganic crystalline materials, as opposed to the non- crystalline glasses. Ceramic product can
withstand very high temperature. The range from 1000°c to 1300°c and above. Advanced ceramics
are also used in the medicine, electrical, and electronics industries.

2|Page
Types of ceramic products
For convenience, ceramic products are usually divided into four sectors; these are shown below with
some examples:

• Structural- including bricks, pipes, floor and roof tiles

• Refractories- such as kiln linings, gas fire radiant, steel and glass making crucibles

• White wares- including tableware, cookware, wall tiles, pottery products and sanitary ware

• Technical- is also known as engineering, advanced, special, and in Japan, fine ceramics. Such
items include tiles used in the space shuttle program, gas burner nozzles, ballistic protection, nuclear
fuel uranium oxide pellets, bio medical implants, coating of jet engine turbine blades,ceramic disk
brake, missile nose cones, bearing (mechanical ). Frequently, the raw materials do not include clay.

Classification of technical ceramics

Technical ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories: • Oxides: alumina,
beryllia, ceria, zirconia

• Non-oxides: carbide, boride, nitride, silicide

• Composite materials: particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, combinations of oxides and non-
oxides.

Each one of these classes can develop unique material properties because ceramics tend to be
crystalline.

Pottery is mainly concerned with clay craft using clay and can be broadly classified as follows

3|Page
CLASSIFICATION
OF
CERAMIC
RAW MATERIALS

4|Page
 CLASSIFICATION OF CERAMIC RAW MATERIALS
The raw materials can be classified into Clay Material (soft materials) and Stone Material (hard
materials).

CLAY MATERIAL: China Clay (kaolin), Ball Clay, Fire Clay and other common clays.

STONE MATERIAL: Quartz, Feldspar, Alumina, Bauxite, Dolomite, Calcite.

Clay:
 Clay is a natural, earthy material composed of fine-grained minerals. It's formed through the
weathering and decomposition of rocks, primarily feldspar.
 Characteristics:
o Contains mineral particles that are smaller than 2 micrometers.
o Exhibits plasticity when mixed with water, making it easily moldable.
 Uses: Raw material used in various applications, including pottery, ceramics, bricks, and
other construction materials.

Types of clay

*Primary clay * secondary clay

-China clay - Ball clay

-Bentonite -Earthen ware clay

-Fire clay

Feature Primary Clay Secondary Clay

Formation In situ (residual) Transported (sedimentary)
Purity Higher, fewer impurities Lower, more impurities
Particle Size Coarser Finer
Plasticity Less plastic More plastic
Colour Lighter Darker
Examples Kaolin, Fire Clay Ball Clay, Stoneware Clay

5|Page
CHINA CLAY
Kaolin (China Clay)

Kaolin, also known as China clay, is a type of fine, white clay that is predominantly composed of the
mineral kaolinite. Here's an in-depth look at its properties, formation, and uses:

Properties
 Chemical Composition: Al2 Si2 O5 (OH)4
 Colour: Usually white, but it can also be tinted with other colours if it contains impurities.
 Texture: Fine and smooth, making it an ideal material for detailed work.
 Plasticity: Moderate, not as plastic as ball clay but more so than other primary clays.
 Firing Range: Typically high, ranging from Cone 10 (about 1300°C) to lower temperatures
when used as a component in glazes.

Formation
Kaolin forms through the weathering and hydrothermal alteration of rocks rich in feldspar, such as
granite. The process of formation involves:

 Chemical Weathering: Feldspar in the parent rock reacts with water and carbonic acid to
form kaolinite and other clay minerals.
 Accumulation: The resulting kaolin deposits accumulate in place, making them a primary
clay.
 Purification: Naturally occurring kaolin is often processed to remove impurities and enhance
its whiteness and other properties.

Uses
 Ceramics: Essential in the production of porcelain, fine China, and other high-quality
ceramics due to its whiteness and smooth texture.
 Paper: Used as a filler and coating material to improve the gloss and printability of paper.
 Cosmetics: Incorporated into skincare products for its absorbent and gentle properties.
 Paint: Acts as a filler to improve the brightness and opacity of paints.
 Refractories: Used in the manufacture of refractory bricks and other materials that withstand
high temperatures.

6|Page
BALL CLAY
Ball Clay or (Om4)
Ball clay is a type of fine-grained, highly plastic clay that is often used in combination with other
clays to improve the plasticity and workability of ceramic bodies. Here’s an in-depth look at its
properties, formation, and uses:

Properties
 Composition: Primarily composed of kaolinite, along with other minerals like mica and
quartz.
 Color: Typically gray or buff in its raw state; it turns white to off-white when fired.
 Plasticity: Extremely high, making it very workable and easy to shape.
 Firing Range: Generally fired at temperatures ranging from Cone 6 to Cone 10 (about
1,200°C to 1,300°C).
 Particle Size: Very fine particles, which contribute to its high plasticity and smooth texture.

Formation

 Ball clay is formed through the weathering and transportation of sedimentary rocks. It is
typically found in areas where these sediments have been deposited and then compacted over
millions of years.

Uses
 Pottery: Adds plasticity and workability to ceramic bodies, making it easier to shape
 Porcelain: Used to enhance the plasticity and strength of porcelain bodies.
 Tiles: Integral component in the manufacture of ceramic tiles.
 Sanitary Ware: Used in the production of sinks, toilets, and other sanitary products due to its
workability and strength.
 Refractory Products: Used in some refractory applications for its high alumina content.

Fillers and Extenders: Used as a filler in rubber, adhesives, and other industrial products.

7|Page
FIRE CLAY
Fire clay is valued for its high alumina content and ability to withstand high
temperatures, making it ideal for refractory products like firebricks and kiln linings. Whether
it's primary or secondary, its key properties allow it to perform well in high-heat applications.

Properties
 Composition: High in alumina ( Al2 O3 ) and silica( Si O2 ). Low in impurities like
iron, lime, and alkalies.
 Colour: Usually ranges from light to dark brown, grey, or tan when in its raw state.
 Plasticity: Generally less plastic than other clays due to its composition, but still
workable.
 Firing Temperature: Extremely high, typically over 1,300°C (2,372°F).

Formation
 Fire clay forms from the decomposition of rocks under high heat and pressure over
millions of years. It is often found in areas associated with coal deposits, as the heat
from ancient geological processes that formed coal also contributed to the formation
of fire clay.

Uses

 Refractory Products:
 Firebricks: Essential for lining furnaces, kilns, and fireplaces due to their ability to
withstand high temperatures without cracking or melting.
 Kiln Shelves and Supports: Used in the construction and maintenance of kilns.
 Refractory Mortars and Cements: For bonding and repairing high-temperature
structures.
 Ceramics:
 High-Temperature Vessels: Used to make items that need to withstand high heat, such
as crucibles and kiln furniture.
 Specialty Ceramics: Used in the creation of certain ceramic pieces that require high
durability.

8|Page
 Fire clay can be either primary or secondary, depending on its specific geological
formation.

Primary Fire Clay

 Formation: Formed in place from the weathering of parent rock.

 Characteristics: Often purer with fewer impurities and coarser particles.

Secondary Fire Clay

 Formation: Transported from its original place of formation by natural agents such as
water or wind.
 Characteristics: Contains more impurities and finer particles, and is more plastic than
primary fire clay.

9|Page
 STONE MATERIAL
QUARTZ:
Sources of Silica
Quartz: The most common form of silica, used in its natural state or
finely ground.

Flint: A form of silica that is harder and more crystalline than quartz.

Sand: Often used in ceramics for its high silica content and ease of
availability.
Silica (SiO₂), also known as silicon dioxide, is a crucial ingredient in the ceramics industry. It
plays a significant role in both clay bodies and glazes. Here’s a detailed look at its importance and
uses:

Properties of Silica
Chemical Composition: SiO₂

Physical Form: Often found in nature as quartz, flint, or sand.

Color: Typically clear or white, but can appear in various colors due to impurities.

Melting Point: High, around 1,710°C (3,110°F), making it a key component in high-temperature
ceramics.

Aspect Description
Chemical Formula SiO₂
Physical Forms Quartz, flint, sand
Melting Point 1,710°C (3,110°F)
Functions in Glazes Glass formation, clear base
Functions in Clay Strength, stability, thermal
Bodies properties
Sources Quartz, flint, sand
Glazes, clay bodies, refractory
Applications
products

10 | P a g e
FELDSPAR:
Feldspar is an essential group of minerals widely used in the ceramics industry for its fluxing
properties, which aid in melting during the firing process. Here’s a comprehensive overview of
feldspar, its types, and its role in ceramics:

Properties of Feldspar

Chemical Composition: Feldspar minerals are aluminosilicates containing varying

proportions of potassium, sodium, and calcium.

Potassium Feldspar (K-Feldspar): \( KAlSi_3O_8 \)

Sodium Feldspar (Albite): \( NaAlSi_3O_8 \)

Calcium Feldspar (Anorthite): \( CaAl_2Si_2O_8 \)

Physical Properties

Color: Typically ranges from white to pink, green, or gray.

Hardness: 6 on the Mohs scale.

Melting Point: Varies depending on composition, generally between 1,100°C and

1,300°C.

Role in Ceramics

Fluxing Agent: Feldspar lowers the melting point of other materials in the clay body or
glaze, promoting vitrification and strength.

Glass Formation: In glazes, feldspar helps form a glassy phase, contributing to a smooth,
hard surface.

Strength and Durability: Improves the overall strength and durability of ceramic
products by aiding in the formation of a dense, non-porous structure.

Color and Texture: Influences the final appearance and texture of the ceramic piece,
especially in glazes.

11 | P a g e
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) was precipitated the other way by chemical means. After a
long time the deposit of materials was subjected to various conditions. Heat and pressure
promoted recrystallization of calcium carbonate forming coarse grained lime-stones and
marbles.

Dolomite (CaCO3, MgCO3) hardness 4. It contains 45.65% MgCO3 and 54.35%

CaCO3. Magnesite and dolomite are used extensively for making basic refractory bricks
for steel and cement industries

12 | P a g e
CLAY BODY

13 | P a g e
 CLAY BODY

The term “body” in ceramics means the mixture of fine clays and
powder of stones, suitable enough to form articles in wet or semi-wet
condition before firing and fulfilling the required qualities after firing. It
may consist of a single clay mixture or a mixture of clays and other stony
mineral powders used in pottery for formation of articles.

Ceramic bodies must have the qualities suitable for modeling,

throwing, and casting and should not crack either during drying or firing.
The bodies must be such that they should give the desired colour, hardness
and if needed translucency.

TYPES OF CLAY BODY:

TERRACOTTA
Terracotta, a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or
glazed ceramic, where the fired body is porous. Terracotta is the
tern normally used for sculpture made in earthenware, and also for
various practical uses including vessels, roofing tiles and bricks. It
is also used to refer to the natural brownish orange colour of most
terracotta, which varies considerably.

Clay Body Properties Composition Uses Temperature

Earthenware Porous, low Secondary Decorative, (Cone 06 to Cone 04,
durability clays, iron flower pots, approximately 1,000°C to
oxides tiles 1,150°C).
Stoneware Durable, non- Blend of clays, Tableware, (Cone 5 to Cone 6,
porous when feldspar, grog kitchenware approximately 1,180°C to
fired 1,230°C).
Porcelain Fine-grained, Kaolin, Fine china, art (Cone 8 to Cone 10,
high approximately 1,260°C to

14 | P a g e
 durability feldspar, silica pieces 1,300°C), translucent when
thin.

STONEWARE BODY
A stoneware body is a formulated mix of clays and other materials designed for creating durable,
high-fired ceramics. Here’s a comprehensive look at its composition, properties, and uses:

Composition

Stoneware bodies typically include:

 Primary Clay Provides the basic clay structure.

 Secondary Clay: Such as ball clay, to enhance plasticity and workability.
 Feldspar: Acts as a flux, lowering the melting temperature and promoting
vitrification.
 Silica: Adds strength and helps to form the glassy phase during firing.
 Grog: Ground-up fired clay added to reduce shrinkage and increase strength.

Properties

 Firing Temperature: High, usually between Cone 5 and Cone 10 (approximately

1,180°C to 1,300°C).
 Durability: Strong, dense, and non-porous after firing.
 Color: Can vary from white to grey, brown, or dark grey, depending on the specific
formulation and firing conditions.
 Plasticity: Moderately plastic, making it suitable for both throwing and hand-building
techniques.
 Texture: Can range from smooth to gritty, depending on the amount of grog and
other additives.

Uses

 Tableware: Commonly used to make mugs, plates, bowls, and other kitchen items due
to its durability and non-porous nature.
 Pottery: Extensively used by potters for both functional and decorative pieces.
 Tiles: Suitable for making floor and wall tiles because of its strength and aesthetic
versatility.
 Sculptures: Ideal for creating robust ceramic sculptures.

15 | P a g e
  Cookware: Suitable for oven-safe dishes and cookware as it can withstand high
temperatures.

Advantages

 Durability: Produces strong and long-lasting ceramics.

 Non-Porosity: When fired to maturity, it becomes non-porous, making it suitable for
functional ware that holds liquids.
 Aesthetic Versatility: Can be glazed or left unglazed, offering a variety of finishes and
textures.

Disadvantages

 Weight: Heavier than some other ceramic types, which might be a consideration for
large pieces.
 Workability: Less plastic than some other clays, which can make it a bit more
challenging to work with for very intricate designs.

Aspect Description
Composition Mixture of primary and secondary clays, feldspar, silica, grog
Firing Temperature Cone 5 to Cone 10 (1,180°C to 1,300°C)
Durability Strong and non-porous
Colour Varies from white to grey, brown, and dark grey
Plasticity Moderately plastic
Texture Smooth to gritty
Uses Tableware, pottery, tiles, sculptures, cookware
Advantages Durable, non-porous, aesthetically versatile
Disadvantages Heavier, less plastic than some other clays

Stoneware Body Composition:

FireClay-50% Feldspar-10%

16 | P a g e
BallClay-20% Quaetz-10%

ChinaClay-10%

EARTHANWARE BODY
An Earthenware body is a type of clay body specifically formulated for creating earthenware
ceramics. It combines different clays and other materials to achieve the desired properties for
producing durable, low-fire ceramics. Here’s an in-depth look at its composition, properties, and
uses:

Composition
An earthenware body typically includes a mixture of:
 Primary and Secondary Clays: These provide the plasticity and workability needed
for shaping.
 Grog: Crushed and ground-up fired clay that is added to reduce shrinkage and
improve drying properties.
 Feldspar: Acts as a flux to lower the melting point during firing.
 Sand or Silica: Adds strength and texture to the clay body.

Properties
 Firing Temperature: Usually fired at lower temperatures, typically between Cone 06 and
Cone 04 (about 1,000°C to 1,150°C).
 Porosity: Remains porous after firing unless it is glazed, which means it can absorb water.
 Color: Often red or brown due to the high iron content, but can vary based on the specific
formulation.
 Plasticity: Highly plastic, making it easy to shape and work with.
 Texture: Can range from smooth to coarse, depending on the amount of grog and other
additives.

Uses
Potter: Ideal for making a wide range of pottery items including bowls, plates, mugs, and decorative
pieces.
Terracotta: Used extensively for garden pots, tiles, and sculptures. Known for its rustic, earthy
appearance.
Bricks and Tiles: Commonly used in construction for making bricks, roof tiles, and floor tiles due to
its ease of shaping and firing.
Glazed Earthenware: Often glazed to create a non-porous, decorative finish, enhancing its
functionality and aesthetic appeal.

17 | P a g e
Advantages
 Easy to Work With: Its high plasticity makes it ideal for beginners and experienced potters
alike.
 Versatile: Suitable for a variety of applications from functional ware to decorative art.
 Low Firing Temperature: Requires less energy to fire compared to stoneware and
porcelain.

Disadvantages
 Porosity: Unless glazed, earthenware remains porous and can absorb water.
 Durability: Less durable and more prone to chipping compared to stoneware and porcelain.

Aspect Description
--------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------
Composition | Mixture of clays, grog, feldspar, sand/silica
Firing Temperature | Cone 06 to Cone 04 (1,000°C to 1,150°C)
Porosity | Porous unless glazed
Color | Red, brown, varies with formulation
Plasticity | High
Texture | Smooth to coarse
Uses | Pottery, terracotta, bricks, tiles, glazed ware
Advantages | Easy to work with, versatile, low firing temperature
Disadvantages | Porous, less durable than stoneware/porcelain

18 | P a g e
19 | P a g e
METHODES OF SHAPING

 COIL METHOD
 SLAB METHOD
 THROWING ON POTTER’S WHEEL
 SCULPTURE / FREEHAND SHAPING METHOD
 SLIP CASTING METHOD
 JIGGER & JOLLY
 PRESSING METHOD
 EXTRUSION METHOD

20 | P a g e
 Machine are use

1. Pottery Wheel: Also known as a throwing wheel, this machine is used for wheel-throwing
techniques to shape clay into symmetrical forms like bowls, cups, and vases. There are both electric
and kick wheels available.

2. Slab Roller: This machine is used to roll out clay into flat, even slabs. It helps in creating uniform
slabs of clay for hand-building techniques or for making tiles and other flat forms.

3. Pugmill: A pugmill is used to mix, blend, and de-air clay. It can also extrude clay in various
shapes and sizes, making it useful in both pottery and ceramic sculpture.

4. Extruder: An extruder is used to create uniform shapes by forcing clay through a shaped die. It's
commonly used for making handles, tubes, and other cylindrical or profiled forms in pottery and
sculpture.

5. Kiln: Kilns are essential machines used for firing ceramics at high temperatures to vitrify the clay
and make it durable and water-resistant. Kilns come in various sizes and types, such as electric, gas,
and wood-fired kilns.

6. Ball Mill: In ceramic production, a ball mill is used for mixing raw materials and dispersing
pigments. It operates by rotating a cylinder filled with ceramic balls that grind materials into a fine
powder, enhancing the consistency and quality of ceramic bodies and glazes.

21 | P a g e
7. Spray Booth or Spray Gun: For applying glazes evenly, a spray booth or spray gun is used. This
equipment ensures smooth and uniform application of glazes, reducing drips and unevenness on
ceramic surfaces.

8. Sanding and Polishing Machines: These machines are used for finishing ceramic surfaces after
firing. They help in smoothing rough edges, polishing glaze surfaces, and achieving desired textures
on finished ceramic pieces.

9. Screen Printing Machine: In ceramic decoration, screen printing machines are used to apply
designs or patterns onto ceramics using ceramic decals or underglazes. This allows for precise and
repeatable designs on ceramic surfaces.

22 | P a g e
GLAZE

23 | P a g e
GLAZES

Glazes are a thin glass coating permanently fixed on the ceramic body by firing
the same in a kiln. A liquid suspension of finely ground minerals is applied by
brushing, pouring, or spraying on the surface of bisque-fired ceramic ware. After
drying the ware is fired to the temperature at which the glaze ingredients will melt
together to form a glassy surface coating.

Definition of glazes:

Glazes are generally homogeneous silicate mixtures fused on the surface of clay wares.
It is a thin glass coating in its physical and chemical nature, hard, slightly or completely
insoluble, excepting in the strong acids or bases, impermeable to gases and liquids. Glazes
are more or less lustrous. The surface is highly reflecting or glossy, but the matt glaze has a
surface which has been compared to the appearance of a glaze kid.

Glazes may be coloured or colourless, transparent, translucent or opaque, glazes are

applied on clay wares to render the ware impermeable to gases and liquids and to provide
an aesthetically attractive coating which covers up buffness and provides a decorating
affect.

Classification of glazes:

There are different methods of classification of glazes. Some classify them on materials
used: (1) lead glazes (2) Earth glazes with insoluble minerals and (3) Salt glazes. Some
other classify on temperature at which glaze melts.

(a) Low temperature glazes

(b) Medium temperature glazes

(c) High temperature glazes

Apart from the above, there are other methods of classification such as:

(a) Transparent, (b) Opaque and (c) Fritted etc.

24 | P a g e
Composition of Glaze
A glaze typically contains the following components:

 Silica (SiO₂): The main glass-forming agent.

 Alumina (Al₂O₃): Adds durability and viscosity to the glaze, preventing it from running off
the piece during firing.
 Fluxes: Materials like feldspar, calcium oxide, and barium carbonate that lower the melting
point of silica, enabling it to form a glassy surface.
 Colorants: Metal oxides (e.g., cobalt, iron, copper) that provide color to the glaze.
 Modifiers: Elements like boron or zinc that can alter the texture and melting point of the
glaze.

TYPES OF GLAZE CHARACTERISTICS USES

Glossy Glazes Smooth, shiny finish Decorative and functional ware
Matte Glazes Non-reflective, velvety surface Decorative pieces
Stain Glazes Subtle sheen, between glossy Versatile applications
and matte
Crystalline Glazes Visible crystals, complex High-end decorative pieces
process
Raku Glazes Crackle effects, metallic Raku-fired pottery
finishes
Under Glazes Detailed designs, vibrant Intricate patterns under
colors clear/translucent glaze
Over Glazes Decorative details, lower Adds final touches to glazed
temperature firing pieces

25 | P a g e
GLAZE APPLICATION

Methods of application:

The application of glazes is a simple process, but obtaining the correct thickness of the
glaze is a matter of experience.

 Brushing: Applying glaze with a brush, often used for detailed work and small pieces.
 Dipping: Submerging the piece into a container of glaze, suitable for even coverage.
 Spraying: Using a spray gun to apply glaze, ideal for large pieces and achieving thin, even
layers.
 Pouring: Pouring glaze over the piece, often used for large areas or specific effects.

Functions of Glaze

 Protection: Seals the ceramic surface, making it waterproof and more durable.
 Aesthetics: Adds color, texture, and visual interest to the piece.
 Functionality: Provides a smooth, easy-to-clean surface suitable for tableware and
kitchenware.

26 | P a g e
27 | P a g e
 GLAZE EFFECTS AND DEFECTS

Glaze Effects

 Matte Finish: Creates a non-reflective surface, giving a soft, velvety appearance.

 Glossy Finish: Provides a shiny, reflective surface that highlights the glaze's color and
texture.
 Crackle Glaze: Deliberately creates a network of fine cracks, often filled with contrasting
colors for a unique look.
 Translucent Glaze: Allows light to pass through, giving a delicate, ethereal quality.
 Textured Glaze: Adds depth and tactile interest with various surface textures.

Glaze Defects

 Crazing: Fine cracks in the glaze surface, often due to a mismatch in thermal expansion
between the glaze and the clay body.
 Shivering: Glaze chips off the edges, which can be dangerous for functional ware.
 Crawling: Glaze pulls away from the clay surface during firing, leaving bare patches.
 Pinholing: Small holes in the glaze surface caused by trapped gases or particles.
 Blisters: Bubbles in the glaze that burst, leaving rough spots.
 Leaching: Glaze ingredients seep out of the glaze, often due to improper firing or glaze
composition.
 Cutlery Marking: Scratches or marks left by utensils, often due to a soft glaze.
 Clouding: A milky or hazy appearance in the glaze, usually due to impurities or improper
mixing.

28 | P a g e
 OXIDES & STAINS

OXIDES

Ceramic colorants are added to a glaze or a clay to create colour.

Carbonates and oxides of certain metals, characterize most colourants
including the commonly used cobalt carbonate, cobalt oxide, chrome oxide,
red iron oxide and copper carbonate. These colourants can create a
multitude of colours depending on other materials they interact with and to
which temperature and in which atmosphere they are fired.

RED IRON OXIDE: Ferric or red oxide of iron is widely employed in

pottery for imparting brownish red hues, both in the glazes as well as the
over-glaze decoration. Its impurities give a mellow colour. However for the
over-glaze decoration, it has to be purified and burnt before use.

MANGANESE OXIDE: This is another colouring material which has been

greatly used in Indian pottery. It gives a beautiful range of purple colours, at
low temperature. At porcelain temperature the colouring power is very
much reduced.

COBALT OXIDE: In the presence of most fluxes, cobalt oxide yields blue
colours ranging from low saturation pastels to high saturation midnight blues
in both oxidation and reduction atmospheres. Cobalt is also commonly used
in black glazes and in washes as decorative medium.

CHROME OXIDE: Chrome is a rather versatile and fickle colourant. It is

commonly used for achieving greens. In the presence of zinc, chrome can
produce brown. Chrome is a refractory.

COPPER CARBONATE: It is commonly used to produce greens,

turquoise, and copper reds. If need be, copper oxide can be substituted but
has a larger particle size and glazes should be adjusted to generally half the

29 | P a g e
amount called for. In barium based glazes greenish blues often result from
copper.

STAINS

Ceramic stains can refer to ceramic colourant oxides suspended in

water or to prepared colouring oxides (commercial stains). Stains can be
used by themselves as an under glaze colour, in slips, in clay bodies, in
glazes, painted on glazes, and in over glazes. Stains are great if you have
highly decorative work to fire and they can be fired at a range of different
temperatures.

PREPARATION OF STAINS:

Preparation of ceramic colouring stains requires selection of pure

materials, mixing of colourants and grinding the materials into finer mesh in
order to get the required tinge of colour.

Calcining the colourants in preparing stains is an unavoidable process.

The temperature of the calcining of coloured materials for stains should be
equal to the temperature in which body matures. The two reactions occur
during calcination are (1) Decomposition and (2) Combination.

WASHING: After calcination, the colourant is crushed and then washed to

remove all soluble water, particularly if it is coloured. Hot water must be
used to remove dichromate and chromate which otherwise make haloes
round the colour.

RINDING: The insoluble colourants are ground in a ball mill by wet

grinding process to a very fine mesh. The whole stain should pass at least
300 mesh.

30 | P a g e
FIRING STAGES OF GLAZES
Any ceramic body must undergo at least one single firing to become hard enough to gain
strength to resist water and chemicals. Generally, few types of firing: (1) biscuit firing and
(2) glost firing. Body is a mixture of more than one materials having different reaction at
the same temperature. More over body formed has a definite shape which is to be
preserved as best as possible even after firing. The factors affecting the body and (1)grain
size, (2)shape, (3)body composition and (4)maturity temperature.

FIRING STAGES

BISCUIT GLOST FIRING ENAMEL

FIRING (up (1300°C - FIRING (up to
to 1000 °C) 1400°C) 850 °C)

BISCUIT FIRING:

Bisque refers to ware that has been fired once and has no chemically bonded water left in the clay.
Bisque is a true ceramic material, although the clay body has not yet reached maturity. Bisque ware
is the term for pots that have been bisque-fired for the first time.

Biscuit firing is usually between 9000and 10000 C. It drives off the water and carbon from the clay
and fuses the clay particles together. From this stage, one can no longer add water to the clay and
reform the object, it not has a set shape. The resulting piece is hard, but it is also porous and able to
absorb a small amount of water from the glaze solution. This allows the glaze to adhere to the piece
to be ready for firing to melt and fuse the glaze. When a bisque object is intended to be glazed, the
bisque stage is an intermediate stage.

31 | P a g e
GLOST FIRING:

Glost firing is the second firing for the purpose of fusing the glaze after the initial biscuit firing. The
firing by which the applied glaze is fused to the face of the biscuit fired piece is known as the glost
firing – the firing that is, of the glost (the glossed or glazed) ware. The purpose of glost firing is to
get well matured glazed ware having the required brilliancy and without any glaze defect.

ENAMEL FIRING:

On-glaze is also known as over-glaze or enamel colors’. On-glaze is when as already fired glaze is
decorated with ceramic colors’ and fired again. The work must be fired three times, bisque, glaze-
base (glost) and decoration. There is a large range of commercially prepared colors’ that can be fired
between 700 and 850 degrees C and they can be bought in the form of powder, liquid or small
blocks. Work can be decorated, fired, then have more colors’ added and re-fired at the same or
lower temperature; this does not affect the colors’ of the first firing.

32 | P a g e
GLAZE DECORATION

These user-friendly environmentally safe colours have been formulated for use as under glaze,
on glaze, in glaze deco system. Their fluxing characteristics render then suitable for use on a variety
of substrate types including porcelain, bone china, stoneware, earthenware.

They are also capable of being fired under both fast firing and conventional longer firing circle.

Under glaze

On glaze

In glaze

UNDER GLAZE

The ceramic agents are processed into the form of paint or ink with filters, carriers, oils and
the like and can then be applied to the ware by spraying, brushing, dusting, decals stamping, transfer
or screen printing. The glaze is the applied over the decoration and then fired to make the decoration
permanent.

ON GLAZE

The coloring agents mixed with low melting glassy flux are applied to ware that has already
received its gloss firing and are fixed to it but further firing at lower temperature. It can be applied in
all different ways followed for under glaze decoration.

IN GLAZE

The ware is glazed and when this is dry but not fired, the decoration is hand paint on it. A
characteristic soft effect is produced.

33 | P a g e
METHODS OF APPLICATION OF THE GLAZE COLOURED DESIGNS

Due to the diversity of physical and chemical properties of ceramic colorants together with
variety of surface and shapes they are used on, a very wide selection of method of applying the
coloured designs have come into use.

 DIRECT APPLICATION
Hand painting, spraying, banding, lining, crayoning, ground laying.
 SEMI-DIRECT APPLICATION
The design is made in permanent form which is used to apply the colorant to the ware by
stamping, stenciling, screen printing.
 IN DIRECT APPLICATION
The design and colorant are produced on a thin sheet of a paper form which it is transferred
to the ware-offset, paper transfers engraving, lithography, screen printing.

STAIN AND ITS APPLICATION

Sometimes a single colouring oxide, but usually a combination of oxides, plus alumina,
flint, and a fluxing compound. This mixture is calcined and then finely ground and washed. The
purpose is to form a stable colouring agent not likely to be altered by the action of the glaze or heat.
While stains are employed as glaze colorants, their chief use is as overglaze and underglaze
decorations and body colorants.

USES OF STAIN:

 In-Bodies:
Coloured bodies are used for such diverse purpose as floor tile, tableware, where a uniform
colour such as ivory is desired and art ware for a relief ornament in a colour different from
the background. Intensity of colour can be varied of course by varying the amount of stain
used 1% is an average amount of stain although amounts may vary from 0.1% to 0.2%.
colour often varies with the composition of the body, and it is therefore necessary to test the
stain in the particular body to be used. Colour also varies with firing temperature and degree
of vitrification.
 In-Glaze:
When the glaze stain is dissolved in the glaze, the solution colour produced by the transition
element results. Stain composition has no effect on the hue.

34 | P a g e
KILNS AND FURNACES

 Kilns or furnaces are those equipment in which firing is done, with maximum possible
efficiency and conveniences, viz. maximum temperature attainment, minimum fuel
consumption, no disturbance of weather and easy to conduct firing.
 The main point of improvement of these over the traditional types of ovens and clamps are:
(1) The crown or the dome, (2) The chimney or the stack, (3) Heat controlling device, (4)
Grate bars.
 Kilns are basically containers for heat. In the most primitive forms, this could be nothing
more than a trench or pit dug into the earth. Today, there are many different types of kilns.
There are two basic types of kilns: continuous (tunnel) kilns and periodic (intermittent) kilns.
Continuous kilns are always firing, so they never cool. The ware to be fired is loaded into
cars and slowly goes through the kiln on a track or rail. After cooling, the still-moving cars
are unloaded and reloaded to begin the circuit again. These kilns are used for industrial
manufacturing.
 Periodic kilns are the ones most familiar to potters. They are fired on an intermittent
schedule and is not firing all the time. The kilns are loaded, brought to temperature, cooled,
then unloaded.
 Here is an introduction to some of the most common types used for pottery and the ceramic
arts.

35 | P a g e
TYPES OF KILNS

Electric Kilns

 Characteristics: Use electricity as the heat source, easy to control temperature, clean
operation.
 Uses: Widely used in both professional and hobbyist ceramic studios for bisque and glaze
firing.
 Advantages: Precise temperature control, convenient, and safer to use indoors.

Gas Kilns

 Characteristics: Use natural gas or propane as the heat source, often larger than electric
kilns, more complex to operate.
 Uses: Commonly used in professional studios for both reduction and oxidation firings.
 Advantages: Can achieve a wide range of firing atmospheres, more energy-efficient for high
temperatures.

Wood-Fired Kilns

 Characteristics: Use wood as the heat source, produce unique effects due to ash and flame
interaction with the clay.
 Uses: Traditional method for pottery, especially in cultures with a long history of ceramics.
 Advantages: Creates unique surface effects, connects potters with traditional firing methods.

Raku Kilns

 Characteristics: Specialized for raku firing, typically smaller and designed for rapid heating
and cooling.
 Uses: Used specifically for the raku firing process, which involves removing pieces from the
kiln while they are still red-hot.
 Advantages: Allows for dramatic and unique glaze effects, hands-on and engaging firing
process.

36 | P a g e
Salt and Soda Kilns

 Characteristics: Use salt or soda as part of the firing process to create a glazed surface.
 Uses: Produces unique glaze effects due to the reaction of salt or soda with the silica in the
clay.
 Advantages: Creates unique, variegated surfaces and textures.

FIRING PROCESS

Oxidation firing:

 It is the firing process during which the kiln chamber retains an ample supply of oxygen.
This means that the combustion in the firebox must be perfectly adjusted. An electric kiln
always gives an oxidizing fire.

Fuel used for oxidation firing:

 Wood, Coal

Reduction firing:

 A firing using insufficient oxygen; carbon monoxide thus formed unities with oxygen from
the body and glaze to form carbon dioxide , producing colour changes in coloring oxides.
Fuel:
 Wood, Coal, Saw dust

37 | P a g e
FIRING TEMPERATURE

Buller ring: Ceramic green rings are kept in kilns and they are removed one after another after
attaining the temperature in the kiln. The firing shrinkage of the rings taken out from the kilns are
measured to find out the attainment of temperature in the kiln. This ring system is out of use now as
better and more convenient methods have been evolved.

PYROMETRIC CONE: Heat indicators in the form of sticks or elongated pyramids of ceramic
materials which deform at a given temperature.

PYROMETER:

It is a device for measuring high temperature, from low temperature mercury thermometers. The
commonest type consists of two parts. A fused, silica or sillimanite tube containing wires of
dissimilar metals, thermocouple. For high temperature the wires must be made of platinum alloys
and are therefore expensive; for soft glaze they may be of base metals, chromium, nickel,etc.

When the tube is inserted into the kiln a minute current of electricity is set up, proportional to the
temperature. This is measured on the second part of the instrument, a galvanometer, and transmitted
to a dial calibrated in degree of temperature, which may be analogue (with a pointer) or digital
(giving the actual temperature).

saggar: Saggars are fire clay bodies either round or square ones used in glost firing for keeping
glazed articles. They are used to keep the glazed articles one upon the other without sticking to each
other in fire and protected from dust and gases. Saggars help in giving an indirect heat to wares
inside them. They are generally used in intermittent kilns where coal and oils are used as fuel.

saggar (before firing)

Saggar bodies are usually composed of two parts grog to one part of plastic material. The raw
materials must be chosen with care. The plastic materials must be fire-clay having less of alkalis and
fluxes. The grog used may be simply fired

batches of clay used as binder or when production is under way it will consist largely of ground,

broken saggar pieces.

38 | P a g e
FUELS
A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as
heat energy or to be used for work.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS:

• Solid fuels
• Liquid fuels
• Gaseous fuels

SOLID FUELS: Solid fuels, ranging from peat to anthracite, were formed from plants that grew
centuries ago.

WOOD: Since the early days of pottery industry, wood has been used as a convenient fuel. Huge
and dense forests were then in abundance and demand for fuel was not so-much in industry as it is
today. Soft wood and hard wood are two types of wood.

COAL: Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata
called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements; chiefly hydrogen,
sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen. Peat is the first coal formation in which complete carbon formation
has not occurred. The formation of peat is the first step in the creation or evolution of coal from
vegetation. Lignite coal is an intermediate between peat and coal.

Bituminous coal are coals varying on ash-free dry material, from about 75% to 90% carbon. Coals
of more than 93% carbon and 10% or below of volatile matter are termed as anthracites.

LIQUID FUELS:

Liquid fuels are combustible or energy-generating molecules that can be harnessed to create
mechanical energy, usually producing kinetic energy; they also must take the shape of their
container. It is the fumes of liquid duels that are flammable instead of the fluid.

PETROLEUM: Liquid petroleum or crude oil is generally associated with natural gas. Natural gas
is soluble in liquid petroleum increasingly so that the imposed pressure increases.

39 | P a g e
FURNACE OIL: Fuel-oil or furnace-oil is somewhat similar to diesel oil. The finer refined product
of crude oil is taken as gasoline or petrol for automobiles. Furnace oil has better calorific value and
many advantages compared to coal.

GASEOUS FUELS:

Gas fuels are widely used in industries if abundant supply of gas is available in the vicinity. The
advantages of gas fuels are convenience, especially in adapting to automatic operations, accuracy of
regulation. Gas fuels may be divided into two groups: (1) those primarily consisting of
hydrocarbons, methane, ethane, etc. and (2) those composed of the products of incomplete

combustion and high temperature decomposition of other fuels.

40 | P a g e
FIRING EFFECT ON BODIES
WATER SMOKING PERIOD:

The term “smoking” or “steaming” is derived from the fact that during this period the firing is never
bright and it is full of steam derived from the goods. The water smoking period is divided into two
stages in which water is removed: (1) Mechanical water and (2) Chemically combined water.

Mechanical water: The amount of water present depends on the minerals and on the efficiency of the
drying of ware. Mostly initial stages of firing are used for thorough drying purposes without a
separate dryer. A large amount of low temperature heat is required to produce even temperatures
throughout the kiln and within the ware itself. The mechanically mixed water gets evaporated at a
temperature of 150 degrees C.

Chemically combined water: The chemically combined water which remain in the ware is removed
by heating the ware up to 400 degrees C. The complete

removal of water at this stage at as low a temperature as possible is of major importance as the water
vapor formed blocks the oxidation reactions that must take place to remove certain impurities. These
reactions could begin around 400 degrees C. This stage is further divided into two parts: (1)
Decomposition stage and (2) Dehydration stage.

DECOMPOSITION STAGE:

As the temperature rises above 2000 C, the volatile organic matters begin to decompose and any
hydrated oxide of iron present in the clay begins to dehydrate and the sulphide decomposes. The rate
of firing of the oven at this stage may be sufficiently increased. When the temperature inside the
oven is about 5000 C or so the oven just begins to become red, the firing should again be allowed
down.

DEHYDRATION STAGE:

At this stage, water vapor is given off in plenty and therefore, to drive it out plenty of air is required;
otherwise, the oxidation of the carbonaceous matters present in the clay will suffer greatly as carbon
cannot fully burn off except by direct contact of the air with its articles.

41 | P a g e
OXIDATION STAGE:

This period actually begins with the oxidation of the easily ignited organic matters or Sulphur
compounds which begins near about 3500 C and continues until the last trace of carbon is burnt out
at the high temperature of over 9000 C.

The decomposition of the products of the clay substance at this stage may be roughly said to be free
silica, free alumina and oxides of lime, magnesia, iron and alkalis. As the temperature rises, the iron
unites with alumina and silica forming a colorless body; if carbon be present in the clay, the iron
cannot unite with the alumina until the whole carbon is got rid of. It is the presence of free iron in
the oxidized form that gives the characteristic colour to burnt clay wares. Lime changes the red clay
color into buff or yellow. If the iron is not properly oxidized, the colour will turn to a dark greenish
shade.

Near the end of this period the body becomes porous due to the expulsion of the organic matter and
the decomposition of the carbonates and sulphides.

VITRIFICATION PERIOD:

As the heating progresses further, some of the materials present in the body combine together and
form easily fusible masses known as eutectic mixtures. The materials in the eutectic mixture, easily
fusible substances, melt and flow about the pores of the particles and gradually fill some of them
with a cementing

glass. If the ware is removed at this stage, it will be found to possess good harness and low porosity.
This stage is called the stage of incipient vitrification.

On further heating the glassy material attacks and dissolves more unmolten materials so that the
wares gradually lose their porosity and become vitrified wares.

CRYSTALLINE STAGE:

When the temperature rises above 1300 degrees C, a new compound is formed which is known as
mullite. It has crystalline structure similar to sillimanite. The nature and amount of these crystals
determine the true porcelain from the artificial or soft porcelain. The duration of heating at the
finishing point has a great effect on the wares fired. The prolonged heating at a constant temperature
is known as soaking, and is very essential in order that the contents of the kiln may be heated
uniformly on all sides, as heat penetrates through heavy clay wares, but very slowly. Slow heating
also helps in the formation of crystals which is so essential in hard porcelain.

42 | P a g e
 KILN FIRING CHART

Temperature color:

C -COLOR

 600 -Dull red.

 800 -Red [over glaze, pottery oven temperature
 1000-Cherry red, between red and orange.
 1100-Orange.
 1180Light orange.
 1230 Pale yellow.
 1300 yellow - white.
 1350 White tending to blue.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 1000 C [Biscuit temperature) bright red.
 1200 C [Stoneware temperature] bright orange.
 1300 C [Porcelain temperature] Silver white.

43 | P a g e
PROJECT WORK
PHOTOGRAPHS

44 | P a g e
45 | P a g e
46 | P a g e
47 | P a g e
48 | P a g e
49 | P a g e
50 | P a g e
51 | P a g e
52 | P a g e
53 | P a g e
54 | P a g e