What is hash function?

A hash function in blockchain is a mathematical algorithm that converts data into a

unique, fixed-length string of characters, called a hash. Hash functions are used to
ensure the security and integrity of data in a blockchain.

Define PoW.
Proof of Work (PoW) is a decentralized consensus mechanism that verifies transactions
and adds blocks to a blockchain. It's also known as mining, and is used in many
cryptocurrencies, including Bitcoin, Dogecoin, Bitcoin Cash, Litecoin, and Monero.

What is consensus?
In a blockchain, consensus is the process of ensuring that all nodes on the network
agree on the authenticity of transactions and the current state of the network. It's a
crucial part of how transactions are processed and settled.

What is Nonce?
In blockchain technology, a nonce is a random or semi-random number generated by
miners when they create a new block in the blockchain.
-The word "nonce" derives from the Latin and means "number used once." This is to say
that this number should be used only once in this particular case.
-Nonces are of central importance to the proof-of-work consensus mechanism model,
which is a well-known way of operating in many blockchains such as Bitcoin and
Ethereum.
-Nonces provide the ability to prove the involvement in the mining process of a complex
mathematical problem and the requirement to add a new block to the blockchain.

What is Ether?
Ether (ETH) is the cryptocurrency of the Ethereum blockchain, a decentralized, open-
source platform for smart contracts and decentralized applications (DApps):

Give the name of crypto currencies where blockchain is used.

Blockchain was first proposed in 1991 as a research project, but in the year 2009,
Blockchain was used in bitcoin. Bitcoin is a cryptocurrency which is built on the basis of
Block technology.

What is DAO?
DAO stands for decentralized autonomous organization, which is a digital management
structure that uses blockchain technology and smart contracts to govern its operations:

What is a smart contract?-A smart contract is a computer program that automatically

executes, controls, or documents actions and events based on the terms of an
agreement or contract. Smart contracts are written into code and stored across a
decentralized blockchain network. The code controls the execution, and the
transactions are irreversible and trackable.

Immutable ledger? An immutable ledger is a record that cannot be altered or deleted

once it has been added to the blockchain, ensuring data integrity and security.
What is plain text and cipher text?
Plaintext-Plaintext is the input to a crypto system, and is the simplest form of digital
text representation. It's unformatted text, meaning it doesn't have special formatting
like bold, italics, or font colors. Plaintext is less secure because it can be read by anyone
who gets hold of it.
Ciphertext-Ciphertext is the output of a crypto system, and is the result of applying
encryption to plaintext. Ciphertext is often a jumbled-up string of random numbers and
letters that can be mistaken for symbols. Only the intended recipient with the correct
decryption key can convert ciphertext back into plaintext.

What is the formula to calculate transaction fee in Ethereum?

The formula to calculate the transaction fee in Ethereum is:
Transaction Fee = Gas Units Used * Price per Gas Unit

What is FPGA?
Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is basically an integrated circuit that can be
programmed to perform specific operations. FPGAs are usually programmed in
Hardware Description Languages (HDLs), such as Verilog and VHDL.

In AES, on which factor does the number of encryption rounds depend on?
Each round consists of four main operations: SubBytes, ShiftRows, MixColumns, and
AddRoundKey. The number of rounds varies depending on the key size: 10 rounds for
AES-128, 12 rounds for AES-192, and 14 rounds for AES-256. The number of rounds in
AES a ects the di usion and confusion properties of the algorithm.

What is the size of encryption key in DES?

The DES algorithm uses a key of 56-bit size. Using this key, the DES takes a block of 64-
bit plain text as input and generates a block of 64-bit cipher text

What is ASIC?
An application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) is an integrated circuit chip designed for
a specific purpose. An ASIC miner is a device that uses ASICs for the sole purpose of
"mining" digital currency. Generally, each ASIC miner is constructed to mine a specific
digital currency based on their hashing algorithms.

Which algorithm is used by Bitcoin to verify transactions?

Bitcoin uses the elliptic curve cryptography method called secp256k1, where the
formula y2 = x3 + 7 (over the real numbers) results in an elliptic curve on a graph. 4 This
method is used to generate public and private key pairs.

Which is a unique PoS cryptocurrency that is aimed at delivering interoperability

among other blockchains?
Polkadot and the Cross-Chain Message Passing (XCMP) Protocol
Polkadot is another blockchain platform focused on interoperability. It uses a unique
architecture that connects multiple blockchains, known as parachains, to a central
relay chain.
What is DAPP?
A decentralized application (dApp) is a software program that runs on a blockchain or
peer-to-peer network, rather than on centralized servers. DApps are designed to be
open-source, community-driven, and free from the control of a single authority. They
are built to provide enhanced security, transparency, and autonomy compared to
traditional applications

What are the advantages of smart contract?

Recordkeeping: All contract transactions are stored in chronological order in the
blockchain and can be accessed along with the complete audit trail.
Autonomy: There are direct dealings between parties. Smart contracts remove the need
for intermediaries and allow for transparent, direct relationships with customers.
Reduce fraud: Fraudulent activity detection and reduction. Smart contracts are stored
in the blockchain. Forcefully modifying the blockchain is very di icult as it’s
computation-intensive.
Fault-tolerance: Since no single person or entity is in control of the digital assets, one-
party domination and situation of one part backing out do not happen as the platform is
decentralized and so even if one node detaches itself from the network, the contract
remains intact.
Enhanced trust: Business agreements are automatically executed and enforced. Plus,
these agreements are immutable and therefore unbreakable and undeniable.
Cost-e iciency: The application of smart contracts eliminates the need for
intermediaries(brokers, lawyers, notaries, witnesses, etc.) leading to reduced costs.
Also eliminates paperwork leading to paper saving and money-saving.

What is hard fork and soft fork?

Hard fork-A hard fork splits a blockchain into two separate blockchains, each operating
independently. This happens when the changes to the protocol are so significant that
the new protocol operates in a fundamentally di erent way from the original. Hard forks
often result from disagreements within the community, such as over new features or
future directions.
Soft fork-A soft fork modifies the blockchain's rules without splitting the
blockchain. This means that older nodes can still function with the new rules, and the
network remains backward compatible. Soft forks are typically the result of the
community mutually agreeing that an update is needed.

What is PoS? Which blockchain uses PoS?

Proof-of-Stake (PoS) is a blockchain consensus mechanism that allows users to
validate transactions and create new blocks. It's an alternative to the Proof-of-Work
(PoW) mechanism, which is used by Bitcoin. PoS is more energy-e icient than PoW,
which makes it a popular choice for blockchains.blockchains that use PoS include:
Casper Network: An open-source PoS blockchain that's designed to be secure.
Cosmos (ATOM): Uses a version of PoS called Tendermint BFT
Avalanche (AVAX): Aimed at helping to develop decentralized applications (dApps)
Cardano (ADA): Provides smart contract capabilities
EOS (EOS): Has its own blockchain that was released in 2018 to accelerate smart
contracts
 Explain symmetric & asymmetric key cryptography.
Symmetric key cryptography-Uses a single key for both encryption and
decryption. This method is faster and more e icient than asymmetric key cryptography,
making it ideal for encrypting large amounts of data. However, it's less secure because
the same key is used by all parties, so it must be shared securely.
Asymmetric key cryptography-Uses a public-private key pair, where one key is used for
encryption and the other for decryption. This method is more secure than symmetric
key cryptography because even if one key is compromised, the data remains
safe. However, it's slower and more complex to implement than symmetric key
cryptography.

Explain the structure of blocks in Blockchain.

A block in a blockchain is a container that holds transactions and is made up of three
main parts:
Header: Contains metadata, such as a timestamp, the hash of the previous block, a
nonce, and the Merkle root
Data section: Contains the actual information, such as transactions and smart
contracts
Hash: A unique cryptographic value that represents the entire block and is used for
verification
Block size:The block header is 80 bytes, while the average transaction is at least 250
bytes. A block typically contains more than 500 transactions, making it 1,000 times
larger than the header.
Permanence :Once written, a block is permanent and cannot be altered or removed
without changing all preceding or following blocks.
Linking:Blocks are linked together with hash pointers to form an immutable chain.
Merkle root:A 32-byte field that contains a 256-bit root hash. It's constructed by
combining hashes of the individual transactions in a block.

What is the di erence between public and private blockchains?

Public Blockchain Private Blockchain

In this type of blockchain anyone can read, In this type of blockchain read and write
write and participate in a blockchain. is done upon invitation, hence it is a
Hence, it is permissionless blockchain. permissioned blockchain.

Don’t know each other Know each other

A public blockchain is decentralized. A private blockchain is more centralized.

The order of magnitude of a public

blockchain is lesser than that of a private The order of magnitude is more as
blockchain compared to the public blockchain.

Transactions per second are lesser in a Transaction per second is more as

public blockchain. compared to public blockchain.
 Blockchains are slow as compare to database. Justify.
Blockchain and databases are both data storage systems but they operate di erently. A
database is centralized and controlled by a single authority and designed for e icient
data management. A blockchain is a decentralized distributed ledger that records the
transactions across a network of computers o ering transparency, immutability, and
security without a central authority. While the databases excel in speed and e iciency
blockchain prioritizes trust and verification among multiple parties.

Di erentiate between blockchain and database

Database Blockchain

Blockchain uses decentralized storage of

Database uses centralized storage of data.
data.

Blockchain keeps the present information as

Centralized databases keep information
well as the past information that has been
that is up-to-date at a particular moment
stored before.

Centralized databases are used as

Blockchain is ideal for transaction platform
databases for a really long time and have a
but it slows down when used as databases,
good performance record, but are slow for
specially with large collection of data.
ertain functionalities.

Data can be easily deleted or modified if Data once entered cannot be deleted and is
needed with proper authorization. permanent in nature.

Cost-e ective for most business More expensive to maintain due to high
applications as it requires less computational power requirements for
computational power. consensus mechanisms.

What is P2P crypto Exchange?-A P2P (peer-to-peer) crypto exchange is a decentralized

platform that allows users to trade cryptocurrencies directly with each other, without a
central authority or intermediary. P2P crypto exchanges use blockchain technology to
reduce the risk of fraud and manipulation.

What is BFT?
Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT) is a key concept in blockchain technology that allows a
network to continue functioning even when some nodes fail or act maliciously. BFT is
necessary because blockchains are decentralized systems without a central authority
how BFT works in blockchains:
 A client sends a request to the leader node.
 The leader node sends the request to all backup nodes.
 All nodes work on the request and send a reply to the client.
 The client waits for replies from all nodes with the same result.
What is Hybrid Blockchain?
A Hybrid blockchain is a blockchain that combines elements of both public and private
blockchains. It is designed to reduce the disadvantages of both types of blockchains
while maximizing their benefits.
 A hybrid database contains both public and private entries.
 Similar to public blockchains, where anyone is invited to join and participate in
the network, public nodes operate similarly to those in those systems. Private
nodes, on the other hand, are in charge of validating and checking transactions
and are governed by specific organizations or individuals.
 Using private nodes, a hybrid blockchain can process transactions more rapidly
and with greater privacy and security. Public nodes provide decentralization and
transparency at the same time, making it di icult for one group to maintain
control over the network.
 In a hybrid blockchain, the members can decide who can participate in the
blockchain or which transactions are made public.

Write a short note on life cycle of smart contract.

Smart contracts are self-executing contracts with the terms of the agreement directly
written into code. They run on blockchain technology, which ensures transparency,
security, and immutability. Unlike traditional contracts that require intermediaries,
smart contracts automate the execution of agreements, reducing the need for
trustbetween parties.There are four phases of the smart contracts life cycle in
the blockchain ecosystem:
Create-Contract reiteration and negotiation constitute a significant part of the first
phase. First, the parties must agree on the contract’s overall content and goals.
Freeze-Validation of the transactions on a blockchain is done by a set of computers
across the network called nodes. These nodes are the blockchain miners.
Execute-Participating nodes read contracts that are stored on the distributed ledger.
The integrity of a smart contract is verified by the authenticating nodes, and the code is
executed by the smart contract’s interference engine (or by the compiler).
Finalize-After a smart contract has been executed, the new states of all involved parties
are updated. Now the updated state information and resulting transactions are put in
the distributed ledger of the blockchain and the consensus mechanism verifies that the
assets transferred by the first party have been received and unfreezes the assets for the
receiving party.

Write a short note on ICO.

An Initial Coin O ering (ICO) is a fresh way for businesses to generate funds
using cryptocurrency. It is a way to launch a new coin by selling it to investors during a
large period. For example, Coinbase is a crypto/fiat-based company that has recently
launched its IPO(Initial Public O ering) i.e.; they are sharing some shares of their
company in return for money and that money can be used to have fund some of their
projects and anything else they need capital of. Just like Coinbase a coin or a token in
the crypto world is called an ICO. A token creator can sell a bunch of digital tokens for a
set price to get the token out into the market and raise capital for the creator or project.
There are two types of ICO:
Private ICOs Public ICOs
Write a short note on challenges of blockchain.
1. Scalability: The ability to manage a large number of users at a single time is still a
challenge for the blockchain industry. Blockchain technology involves several complex
algorithms to process a single transaction.
2. Hackers and shadow dealing: The one thing that the blockchain industry lacks is a
set of regulatory oversight making it a volatile environment and an easy target for market
manipulation.
3. Complex to understand and adopt: Blockchain technology and the complexities it
involves makes it hard for a layperson to understand and comprehend its benefits.
Before diving into this revolutionary application, one needs to read it through and
understand the principles of encryption and distributed ledger.
4. Privacy: Blockchain is an open ledger which is visible for everyone to view. It is an
essential aspect in many cases, but it becomes a liability if used in a sensitive
environment.
5.Costs: Blockchain is implemented usually for eliminating the expenses related to the
third parties and intermediaries involved in the process of transferring values
6. Blockchain is still a distant dream: The market pundits are going gaga over the
blockchain technology, its benefits and how it is re-shaping the infrastructure of
emerging technologies like InsurTech and others.

Which are the di erent value data types in solidity?

Value-type variables store their own data. These are the basic data types provided by
solidity. These types of variables are always passed by value. The variables are copied
wherever they are used in function arguments or assignments. Value type data types in
solidity are listed below:
Boolean: This data type accepts only two values True or False.
Integer: This data type is used to store integer values, int, and uint are used to
declare signed and unsigned integers respectively.
Fixed Point Numbers: These data types are not fully supported in solidity yet, as per the
Solidity documentation. They can be declared as fixed and unfixed for signed and
unsigned fixed-point numbers of varying sizes respectively.
Address: Address hold a 20-byte value which represents the size of an Ethereum
address. An address can be used to get a balance or to transfer a balance
by balance and transfer method respectively.
Bytes: Although bytes are similar to strings, there are some di erences between them.
bytes used to store a fixed-sized character set while the string is used to store the
character set equal to or more than a byte.
Enums: It is used to create user-defined data types, used to assign a name to an
integral constant which makes the contract more readable, maintainable, and less
prone to errors.

Write a short note on first Generation Blockchain.-In 2008, an anonymous individual

or group of individuals known only by the name Satoshi Nakamoto outlined blockchain
technology in its modern form. Satoshi's idea of the Bitcoin blockchain used 1 MB
blocks of information for Bitcoin transactions.The first-generation blockchain focused
on creating immutable ledgers using cryptographic techniques utilized this technology
to establish a secure and transparent method for transferring digital assets.
 Describe EVM with the help of neat diagram.
The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) is a
decentralized computing environment that
executes smart contracts on the Ethereum Work. It
serves as the runtime environment for all Ethereum
accounts and smart contracts, allowing developers
to deploy applications that can run on the
blockchain without requiring a central authority.
Decentralization: The EVM operates on a
distributed network of nodes, ensuring that no
single entity controls the execution of contracts.
Turing Completeness: The EVM is Turing complete,
meaning it can execute any computation that can be
described algorithmically, given su icient
resources.
Smart Contract Execution: When a smart contract
is deployed, the EVM handles the contract’s execution based on the inputs it receives,
managing state changes on the blockchain.
Gas Mechanism: To prevent abuse of resources, every operation in the EVM requires a
certain amount of “gas,” a measure of computational e ort. Users pay gas fees to
incentivize miners to process their transactions.
Isolation: Each smart contract operates in isolation, which means that the execution of
one contract doesn’t directly a ect the execution of another.
State Management: The EVM maintains a global state, tracking the current state of all
accounts and contracts on the Ethereum network.

Which are the di erent types of Blockchain?

Public Blockchain-These blockchains are completely open to following the idea of
decentralization. They don’t have any restrictions, anyone having a computer and
internet can participate in the network.
-As the name is public this blockchain is open to the public, which means it is not
owned by anyone.
-Anyone having internet and a computer with good hardware can participate in this
public blockchain.
Private Blockchain-These blockchains are not as decentralized as the public
blockchain only selected nodes can participate in the process, making it more secure.
-These are not as open as a public blockchain.
-They are open to some authorized users only.
Hybrid Blockchain-It is the mixed content of the private and public blockchain, where
some part is controlled by some organization and other makes are made visible as a
public blockchain.
-It is a combination of both public and private blockchain.
-Permission-based and permissionless systems are used.
Consortium Blockchain-It is a creative approach that solves the needs of the
organization. This validates the transaction and also initiates or receives transactions.
-Also known as Federated Blockchain.
-This is an innovative method to solve the organization’s needs.
Write a short note on digital signature.
A digital signature is a mathematical scheme that is used to verify the integrity and
authenticity of digital messages and documents. It may be considered as a digital
version of the handwritten signature or stamped seal. The digital signatures use
asymmetric cryptography i.e. also known as public key cryptography.

Explain the working of mining.

Mining is a computation-intensive process that uses complicated computer code to
generate a secure cryptographic system. The bitcoin miner is the person who solves
mathematical puzzles(also called proof of work) to validate the transaction. Anyone
with mining hardware and computing power can take part in this. Numerous miners
take part simultaneously to solve the complex mathematical puzzle, the one who solves
it first, wins 6.25 bitcoin as a part of the reward.

Write a short note on Byzentine fault tolerance.

Byzantine Fault Tolerance(BFT) is the feature of a distributed network to reach
consensus(agreement on the same value) even when some of the nodes in the network
fail to respond or respond with incorrect information. The objective of a BFT mechanism
is to safeguard against the system failures by employing collective decision
making(both – correct and faulty nodes) which aims to reduce to influence of the faulty
nodes. BFT is derived from Byzantine Generals’ Problem.

What are the applications of testnets in Ethereum?

Testnets are used for:
- Testing smart contracts and decentralized apps without risking real funds.
- Debugging and auditing smart contract code before deployment.
Examples of Ethereum testnets: Ropsten, Rinkeby, Goerli, and Sepolia.

Explain Ethereum Architecture:

- Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM): Executes smart contracts.
- Blockchain: Distributed ledger that stores all transactions and contract states.
- Nodes: Computers that maintain and validate the blockchain.
- Consensus Mechanism: Initially Proof of Work (PoW), now transitioning to Proof of
Stake (PoS).
- Smart Contracts: Self-executing programs deployed on the blockchain.
Gas & Gas Limit
Gas: In Ethereum, gas is the unit of measurement for the computational e ort required
to execute a transaction or smart contract. It's essentially the fee paid to miners for
processing transactions.
Gas Limit: The gas limit is the maximum amount of gas a user is willing to spend on a
transaction. It's set by the user to control costs and prevent unexpected expenses. If a
transaction exceeds the gas limit, it fails, and the user only pays for the gas consumed
up to that point

Layers of Blockchain
Application Layer: This layer interacts with users and provides the interface for users to
interact with the blockchain. It includes dApps (decentralized applications) and other
user-facing applications.
Network Layer: This layer handles the communication and consensus mechanisms
between nodes in the network. It ensures that all nodes agree on the state of the
blockchain.
Consensus Layer: This layer is responsible for validating and adding new blocks to the
blockchain. It employs algorithms like Proof-of-Work (PoW) or Proof-of-Stake (PoS) to
achieve consensus.
Data Layer: This layer stores the actual data, including transactions and smart contract
code. It ensures the integrity and security of the data.
Execution Layer: This layer executes smart contracts and processes transactions. It
provides the computational power necessary for running smart contracts.

Short Note on Crypto Wallet

A crypto wallet is a digital tool used to store, send, and receive cryptocurrencies. It
doesn't store the cryptocurrency itself but rather the private keys needed to access and
control the funds. These private keys are crucial for security and should be kept
confidential.Crypto wallets come in various forms, including software wallets, hardware
wallets, and paper wallets, each o ering di erent levels of security and convenience.

Uses of SHA Algorithm in Blockchain

SHA (Secure Hash Algorithm) is a cryptographic hash function widely used in
blockchain technology for several purposes:
Creating Unique Identifiers: SHA algorithms generate unique hash values for each
block in the blockchain. This ensures the integrity of the data and prevents tampering.
Verifying Data Integrity: By comparing the hash of a block with the hash stored in the
previous block, the system can verify that the data has not been altered.
Securing Transactions: SHA algorithms are used to create digital signatures, which are
used to authenticate transactions and prevent unauthorized access.
Consensus Mechanisms: Some consensus mechanisms, like Proof-of-Work, rely on
SHA algorithms to solve complex mathematical problems, which is a crucial part of the
mining process

FPGA-(Field-Programmable Gate Array) is a type of integrated circuit that can be

reconfigured after manufacturing. It's often used for specific tasks like cryptography,
digital signal processing, and artificial intelligence.
 Compare client server & peer to peer architecture
Client-Server Network Peer-to-Peer Network

In Client-Server Network, Clients and server are

In Peer-to-Peer Network, Clients and server are not
di erentiated, Specific server and clients are
di erentiated.
present.

Client-Server Network focuses on information While Peer-to-Peer Network focuses on

sharing. connectivity.

In Client-Server Network, Centralized server is While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each peer has its
used to store the data. own data.

While in Peer-to-Peer Network, Each and every

In Client-Server Network, Server respond the
node can do both request and respond for the
services which is request by Client.
services.

Client-Server Network are costlier than Peer-to- While Peer-to-Peer Network are less costlier than
Peer Network. Client-Server Network.

Client-Server Network are more stable than While Peer-to-Peer Network are less stable if
Peer-to-Peer Network. number of peer is increase.

Client-Server Network is used for both small While Peer-to-Peer Network is generally suited for
and large networks. small networks with fewer than 10 computers.

What is purpose of Test Network

 The purpose of a testnet in blockchain is to test and develop decentralized
applications (DApps), smart contracts, or new cryptocurrencies without risking
real money or impacting the mainnet: Safe environment ,Mimics the mainnet
,Uses testnet coins ,Runs independently ,Ensures security ,Cost-e icient

List the application of Hash function

-Message Digest -Rabin-Karp Algorithm
-Password Verification -Linking File name and path together
-Data Structures(Programming Languages) -Game Boards
-Compiler Operation -Graphics

Define Genesis block-A Genesis Block is the first block in a cryptocurrency

blockchain. A blockchain consists of a series of blocks that store information related to
transactions that occur on a blockchain network. Each block contains a unique header
and is individually identified by its block header hash.
Explain forking with types
Forking is a phenomenon in the blockchain world that signifies the split of a network. As
we know, the Blockchain network is open-source software, freely available for changes
and development. The more the miners come into action, the load increases
dramatically. So forking, in simple terms is like diving a given problem into smaller
pieces for better handling.

CODEBASE FORK: Codebase forks involve copying the blockchain code and modifying
it according to your needs. Most of the altcoins use the code of Bitcoin with few
changes to create a completely new experience.
LIVE BLOCKCHAIN FORK: Live Blockchain fork means a running blockchain is been
divided further into two parts or two ways. So in live blockchain at a specific page the
software is same and from that specific point the chain is divided into two parts.
ACCIDENTAL FORK : When multiple miners mine a new block at nearly the same time,
the entire network may not agree on the choice of the new block. Some can accept the
block mined by one party, leading to a di erent chain of blocks from that point onward
while others can agree on the other alternatives (of blocks) available
INTENTIONAL FORK: In intentional fork the rules of the blockchain are been changed,
knowing the code of the software and by modifying it intentionally. This gives rise to two
types of forks which can occur based on the backwards-compatibility of the blockchain
protocol and the time instant at which a new block is mined.
SOFT FORK: When the blockchain protocol is altered in a backwards-compatible way.
In soft fork you tend to add new rules such that they do not clash with the old rules. That
means there is no connection between the old rules and new rules
HARD FORK: When the blockchain protocol is altered in a non backwards-compatible
way. Hard fork is opposite of Soft fork, here the rules are loosened. When there is a
change in the software that runs on the full nodes to function as a network participant,
the change is such that the new blocks mined on the basis of new rules (in the
Blockchain protocol) are not considered valid by the old version of the software.

Consortium blockchain
A consortium blockchain is a semi decentralized type where more than one
organization manages a Blockchain network. This is opposite to private blockchain
where in which that is managed by only a single organization but in consortium
blockchain, more than one organization and banks etc. It is also known as Federated
Blockchain. Consortium blockchain are typically used by government organizations and
banks. etc..
 Digital Currency Ethereum :Blockchain technology is being used to create
applications that go beyond just enabling a digital currency. Launched in July 2015 by
Vitalik Buterin, Ethereum is the largest and most well-established, open-ended
decentralized software platform. Ether is the cryptocurrency generated by the Ethereum
protocol as a reward to miners in a proof of work system for adding blocks to the
blockchain. It is the only currency accepted in the payment of transaction of fees, which
also go to miners. Ethereum enables building and deploying smart contracts and
decentralized applications (dApps) without downtime, fraud, control, or interference
from a third party. To accomplish this, Ethereum comes complete with its own
programming language that runs on a blockchain.

Second Generation Blockchain: Ehereum

After Bitcoin's success, it was time for the next generation of blockchain, which was
brought about by Ethereum. Second-generation blockchain technology does more than
just document transactions. Using self-executing agreements between two parties,
called smart contracts, transactions are faster and more secure than first-generation
blockchain technology. Another advantage of second-generation blockchain technology
is that it acts more like a digital ecosystem instead of a system only for transactions.
Here we get an impressive variety of functional uses including decentralized finance
(DeFi),gaming, supply chain management, web browsing etc.

Third-generation blockchain: Cardano/Polkadot/Ethereum 2.0

Even though Bitcoin and Ethereum are successful in their own ways, they will run into
some issues in the future. As crypto is more readily adopted, the issue of scalability in
blockchains becomes more prevalent. When too many people make transactions at a
given time, fees can skyrocket and transactions take longer. With third-generation
blockchains like Cardano and Polkadot, they automatically scale with demand, leading
to lower fees overall. Another issue that third-generation blockchains solve is
interoperability, or the sharing of data across di erent blockchains. While this is still
being worked on, the idea is that multiple blockchains will be able to interact with each
other.
Compare AES and DES
DES (Data Encryption Standard) AES (Advanced Encryption Standard)

The entire block in AES is processed as a single

The data block in DES is split into two halves.
matrix.

The substitution and permutation principles are

It works on Feistel Cipher structure.
used in AES.

DES (Data Encryption Standard) creation year AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) creation
is 1976. year is 1999.

DES (Data Encryption Standard) was designed AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) was designed
by IBM. by Vincent Rijmen and Joan Daeman.

DES originate from the Lucifer cipher. AES originate from the square cipher.
Layered Architecture of Blockchain Ecyosystem
Hardware or Infrastructure Layer
Bicokchain technology based on the peer to peer network of computers that computes
transactions validates and stores them in an ordered form in a shared ledger. This
results in a distributed database that records all the data, transactions and various
relevant information. Blockchains are based on peer-to-peer information sharing. The
network of computers which contribute to the computing power of the blockchain form
the hardware layer
Computer in a peer to peer network is known as node. Nodes are accountable for
validating transactions, organizing them in to blocks, broadcasting them to the
blockchain network and it keeps on.
Reaching agreement the nodes commit the block to the blockchain network and update
their local ledger copy. When device gets connected to a blockchain network then it is
used as node.
2. Data Layer:
The next layer after the hardware layer is the data layer where details of transactions are
stored. The transaction stored on a block (the fundamental unit of a blockchain) has
details of the crypto sent, the public key of the receiver and the private key of the
sender. Each block which has data is connected to the previous block and the next
block which is generated. Only the genesis block, the first block of the network, is
connected forwards and not backward.
3.Network Layer
The network layer also known as a peer-to-peer layer .It is responsible for inter-node
communication and also called propagation layer.Network layer takes care of block
propagation, transactions and discover. Network layer ensures that nodes can reveal
each other and able to communicate synchronize and propagate with each other to
maintain valid current state of the blockchain network.There are two kinds of node i.e.
full node and light node. Full nodes guarantee that validation and verification of
transaction, enforcement of consensus rules and mining whereas light nodes only keep
the header of the blockchain and can send transaction.
4.consensus layer:
Consensus layer is essential to the existence of blockchain platforms.
Consensus layer is responsible for validating the blocks, ordering the blocks and
ensuring everyone agrees on it.
Consensus layer create a definite set of agreements between nodes across the
distributed peer to peer network.
Consensus layer ensures that power remains distributed and decentralized.
5.Application Layer
Application layer is divided into two sublayer ile application layer and execution layer.
Application layer comprise of the application that are used by end users to interact with
the blockchain network. E.g smart contracts, chain code and dApps etc for these
applications blockchain network is the backend and they connect via APIs