Elements of Fiction

Atmosphere
Atmosphere (Mood) is the dominant emotion/feeling that pervades a story.
It is less physical and more symbolic, associative, and suggestive than setting, but often akin to the setting.

A. Every story has some kind of atmosphere, but in some, it may be the most important feature or, at
least, a key to the main points of the story.
B. Atmosphere is created by descriptive details, dialogue, narrative language, and such.

Tone
While related to atmosphere, tone is distinct from it. Tone is the narrator’s attitude toward his subject and
audience.
A. Narrator’s tone may show, for example, admiration for the subject or a character.
B. Or the narrative tone can suggest pity or hostility; on the other hand, the narrator may be
condescending or “folksy” with the audience.
C. Sometimes the narrative tone is ironic.
D. The narrative tone may be demonstrated by direct comment, by characterization, or by choice of
words, symbols, or other literary devices.

Character / Characterization
Character is the mental, emotional, and social qualities to distinguish one entity from another (people,
animals, spirits, automatons, pieces of furniture, and other animated objects).
Character development is the change that a character undergoes from the beginning of a story to the end.
The importance of a character to the story determines how fully the character is developed.
Characterization = process by which fictional characters are presented/developed.

1) Methods of Characterization [“Show and Tell”; or Telling versus Showing]

1. Expository/Direct Presentation: described and/or “explained” by the narrator.
2. Dramatic/Indirect Presentation: actions “show” the kind of person the character is.
a. His/Her own actions, behaviour, speech, and recorded thoughts and/or.
b. Qualities are apparent by what other characters say about him/her.

2) Types of Characters
1. Flat: a one-dimensional character, typically not central to the story.
2. Two-dimensional characters may be used as vessels to carry out the plot.
3. Round: a complex, fully-developed character, usually prone to change.
4. Static: these can be either round or flat characters, but they do not change during the story. Folktales,
fairytales, and other types use static and flat characters whose actions are predictable, so the reader is free to
concentrate on the action and theme as each moves toward an often times universal discovery.
5. Dynamic: a developing character, usually at the center of the action, who changes or grows to a new
awareness of life (the human condition).
6. Stock: “borrowed” personage or archetype (ex. Western hero in white hat; old, longed-nosed, straggly-
haired hag as evil witch). Closely related to stereotype.
7. Stereotype: a character so little individualized as to show only qualities of an occupation, or national, ethnic,
or other group to which s/he belongs (ex-Irishman, Sicilian, soldier, nerd, dumb blonde, obnoxious brat, silly
teenager).
8. Universal: characters with problems and traits common to all humanity.
9. Individual: a more eccentric and unusual representation of character.

3) Function of Character
1. Protagonist: the main figure in the story.
2. Antagonist: the character with whom the protagonist is engaged in a struggle.
Note: a conflicting agency not embodied in an actual character is called an antagonistic force as is the weather
in Tales of the Yukon or the sea in stories like “The Open Boat”
3. "Confident" for confidant (e): the character in whom another character (usually the protagonist) confides,
much like Watson is confidante to Sherlock and Tonto is confidante to the Lone Ranger.
4. Foil: a secondary character serving as a backdrop (mirror) for a more important character. Typically, the foil
is rather ordinary and static so that the unusual qualities of the primary character will be more striking in
contrast. Often this same character is both confidant and foil.
5. Mirror: almost certainly share personality traits, values, similar skill sets, and possibly even goals and likely
a narrative arc.

The most common foil characters are the heroes and villains, who stand for different values and want to
achieve separate goals. Mirror characters are used for a similar purpose. They tend to share several qualities
and are used to complement and highlight each other's traits.

Anthropomorphic characterization is the characterization of animals, inanimate objects, or natural

phenomena as people. Skilled authors can use this to create fantasy even from stuffed toys (Winnie the
Pooh). The characterizing of inanimate objects from tiny soldiers to trees and so on has many effects in
stories. However, sometimes a bird is just a bird, a cigar is just a smoke, and water is simply water.

Animal characters personified create particular effects, especially when the animal characters contain
connotative metaphoric connects to human traits, i.e., fox = sly, weasel = duplicity, swan = elegance.

Dialogue

Dialogue is the direct (quoted) “verbal” exchanges between characters. It can be used to:

 Break up narrative: the writer can use dialogue to balance out the other elements of fiction such as
description.
 Advance the plot: What characters discuss can ultimately change the course of the story.
 Develop conflict: Arguing characters create conflict, dialogue can also build tension.
 Present information: Dialogue can be used as an alternative to exposition; instead of being fed dry
facts, the reader will enjoy learning the background of the story.
 Develop character: Dialogue can reveal the personality, age, intelligence, and experience of a
character.

Some important elements to identify about dialogue include:

1. How much of the story is dialogue?

2. What can the reader determine about the characters through their diction, accent, vocabulary,
references, idioms, vernacular, tone, etc.?
3. Is the dialogue necessary to the story? Does it add to or detract from the plot?
4. What, if anything, other than characterization is revealed by the dialogue?

Dialogue, when applied well, can add to the story line, enhance a character’s image, and tell a story all on its
own. A friendly Southern diner would not be the same without a few pieces of essential dialogue. “Y’all come
back!” and “Bless her heart”, just these words alone identify a place and its characters. Most people would
know where they are in this story without being told.

Slang and cliché are also powerful tools for the fiction writer. Taut conversation can put the readers on the
edge of their seats the same way that the parting scene between two doomed lovers can draw tears.

Emotions are conveyed within quotation marks. Nuances and subtle hints of character are evident in what
people say. Many writers use dialogue more than narrative as a means of advancing the plot.

Narrator/Narrative voice

Fundamental Literary Terms that identify Components of Narratives

Fiction is defined as any imaginative re-creation of life in prose narrative form. All fiction is a falsehood of sorts
because it relates events that never actually happened to people (characters) who never existed, at least not
in the manner portrayed in the stories. However, fiction writers aim at creating “legitimate untruths,” since they
seek to demonstrate meaningful insights into the human condition. Therefore, fiction is “untrue” in the absolute
sense, but true in the universal sense.
Critical Thinking – Analysis of any work of literature – Requires a thorough investigation of the “who, where,
when, what, why, etc.” of the work.

Narrator / Narrative Voice

Guiding Question: Who is telling the story? What is the…

Narrative Point of View

It is the perspective from which the events in the story are observed and recounted. To determine the point of
view, identify who is telling the story, that is, the viewer through whose eyes the readers see the action (the
narrator). Consider these aspects:

A. Pronoun p-o-v: First (I, We), Second (You), Third Person narrator (He, She, It, They]
B. Narrator’s degree of Omniscience [Full, Limited, Partial, None]*
C. Narrator’s degree of Objectivity [Complete, None, Some (Editorial?), Ironic]*
D. Narrator’s “Un/Reliability”

The Third Person (therefore, apparently Objective) Totally Omniscient (fly-on-the-wall) Narrator is.

The classic narrative point of view through which a disembodied narrative voice (not that of a participant in the
events) knows everything (omniscient) recounts the events, introduces the characters, reports dialogue and
thoughts, and all details.

Nota Bene: Whether the voice of an unidentified, anonymous speaker or that of an observer/character in the
story, the narrator is never the author [never], not even if the character has the same name as the author. As
with “real” life, one should always “consider the source” of a report and/or evaluation concerning events and/or
people.

Therefore, “know” who is telling the story, measure the omniscient details (if any), note how objectively the
report (story) is related, and determine how reliable the person/voice (narrator) may be. For example, does
s/he have anything to gain from misrepresenting the “facts”?

Types of Narrative Voice:

A. Omniscient: a story told in the third person; the narrator's knowledge, control, and prerogatives are
unlimited, allowing “authorial” subjectivity.
B. Limited Omniscient: a story told in the third person in which the narrative voice is associated with a major or
minor character who is not able to “see/know” all, may only be able to relate the thoughts of one or some
characters but not others, may not know what happened “off stage” or in the past.
C. First Person: the story is told from the first person "I” personal point-of-view, usually that of the main
character.
 Interior Monologue: first person, train of thought “overheard” by the reader (NOT spoken out loud as
is a monologue), or sometimes “overheard” and reported by an omniscient narrator; other times it occurs
as stream of consciousness (“The Jilting of Granny Weatherall”).
 Subjective Narration: first person, narrator seems unreliable, tries to get readers to share his/her side
or to assume values or views not usually presumed by the reader.
 Detached Autobiography: reliable narrator that guides the reader. Narrator is main character, often
reflecting on a past "self”, sometimes an adult recounting an event from childhood. When it is the latter, it
is important to notice “how” the adult voice affects the child’s story.
 Memoir or Observer Narration: narrator is observer rather than main participant; narrator can be
confidant (e), eyewitness or "chorus" (provides offstage or background information). This narrator can be
reliable or unreliable.
D. Objective or Dramatic: the opposite of the omniscient; displays an objectivity; compared to a roving camera
with sound. Very little of the past or the future is given; the story is set in the present. It has the most speed
and the most action; it relies heavily on external action and dialogue, and it offers no opportunities for
interpretation by the narrator.
E. Framed Narrative: some narratives, particularly collections of narratives, involve a frame narrative that
explains the genesis of, and/or gives a perspective on, the main narrative or narratives that follow, e.g.,
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales; Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley’s Frankenstein; and Joseph Conrad’s Heart of
Darkness. Some stories have multiple narrative frames that draw the reader away from the initial, outer setting
(and the “reality” of the story) through a narrative maze to the core events that are far/deeply removed from the
first narrative encounter, e.g., Henry James’s short story “The Turn of the Screw.”
F. Intrusive Narrator: When he breaks away from telling the story and speaks directly to the reader.

Focalization

It refers to the perspective through which a narrative is presented. For example, a narrative where all
information presented reflects the subjective perception of a certain character is said to be internally focalized.
An omniscient narrator corresponds to zero focalization. External focalization - camera eye.

Plot & Plot Structure

Guiding Questions: What happens in the story? What is the design (structure) - time “line” - of the narrative?
The plot is the series of events and actions that occur in a story. The structure of the plot is the method or
sequence in which incidents in a narrative are organized/presented to the audience/readers.

A. Conflict: in the sense of “friction” or “battle” but not military/war) in fiction is the opposition of forces or
characters; this “friction” usually fuels the action. Complication or “Exciting” Force is what fuels the rising action
and may incite later events. Longer works may have several “complications.”
1. Man versus Man / the Individual versus another Individual
2. Human versus Nature / the Individual versus the Physical World
3. Human versus Society / the Individual versus the Civilization or “Order”
4. Human versus Herself/Himself / The Individual versus the Self (human nature)

B. Order: Narrative events may be related in different orders: for example, Chronological/Linear (natural
order); in media res (in the middle of things); or begin in the present and return to the past.

C. Divisions of the plot:

1. Exposition and/or Rising Action: how readers learn details previous to the story’s beginning, and then
continues toward the climax of the story.
2. Diversion: any episode prior to the climax that does not contribute directly to the rising action or add to
the suspense (example: comic relief in tragedy).
3. Climax: the moment in the story at which a crisis reaches its highest intensity and its potential
resolution, the turning point.
4. Dénouement (“unknotting”) or Falling Action.

D. Flashback: a scene inserted into a film, novel, story, or play to show events that occurred at an earlier time;
this technique is used to complement the events in the “present” of the story.

E. Foreshadowing: a literary device in which the outcome of the struggle or conflict is anticipated or hinted at
by such elements as speeches or actions of characters or by symbols in the story.

Plot/Structure Continued

F. Resolution: Type of Conclusion/Ending

1. Happy ending: everything ends well and all is resolved.

2. Tragic or Unhappy ending: many events in life do not end pleasantly, so literary fiction that emulates
life is more apt to have an unhappy conclusion, forcing the reader to contemplate the complexities of
life.
3. Open-ended/Lack of Resolution/Partial Resolution/Indeterminate: no definitive ending or resolution
occurs, leaving the reader to ponder the issued raised by the story.

G. Suspense (What is going to happen next?): Critical investigation will ask the more important question
“Why?” rather than “What?” Suspense is most often produced either by mystery or by dilemma.
H. Artistic Unity: is essential to a good, effective, successful story. Nothing in the story is irrelevant,
superfluous; that is, the story contains no detail or element that does not contribute to the meaning. Nothing
occurs that “flies in the face” of the “reality” of the story and/or the characters. The work should have a sense
of “natural inevitability” with its specific set of characters and the initial or core situation.

I. Deus ex Machina (literally, God from the Machine): Plot device in which someone or something appears "out
of the blue" to help a character to overcome a seemingly insoluble difficulty.

J. Motifs: recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and to inform the major
themes of the story.

Plot Elements in other words: Fiction writers can employ any one of countless structural elements to enhance
the design of a story’s plot; those used most often include the following five:

A. The Hook: How much time do you give a story to capture your undivided attention? A chapter? A page? A
paragraph? How long will it take you to capture your readers’ attention? The hook is what gets people
interested in what you have to say. Hooks are well-placed at the beginning but can be found elsewhere in the
plotting as well.
B. Back-story: There is more to every story than what we actually read. The characters each have a past and
there are usually important events that have taken place prior to the story itself, and sometimes the past will
drive the action in the present. This is back-story, also known as what-happened-before-this-story-took place.
C. Sub-plots: A story within a story… Sub-plots are the little things going on in the background that often make
the main plot more interesting by giving the reader more to think about. These little events are especially
effective when they tie in seamlessly with the main plot.
D. Conflict: Some plot elements are optional. Conflict is not. Without conflict, there is no purpose. Characters
want something they do not have, or they are looking for ways to change their current reality, or they must
overcome challenges of some kind, however great or minute. Were someone to write a story without conflict
and the product would be a character sketch or a character study.
E. Climax: Like conflict, climax is an essential part of storytelling. The climax normally occurs right before the
dénouement or final resolution of the main conflict in the plot. At this peak in a story’s plot, the interest of
readers is most piqued so that they race through the falling action to discover the conclusion.

Setting

Guiding Questions: Where, When, and (under) What Circumstances? What Cultural Content (if any)? These
are all the place/where & time/when & reason(s)/why the action/events occur.

Nota Bene: If this information is withheld by the narrator, critical thinkers must consider the narrative
motivation for the omission and the effects (on purpose or by “accident”) of this lack of information.

A. Where (place): The “physical” environment where the story takes place (the description of this environment
may suggest its importance to other aspects of the fiction such as theme and “message.” Special features of
some settings include:

1. Local Color: The use of regional details to add interest and (sometimes) meaning to the story. Use of
Local Color may include description of a specific locale, a manner of dress, customs, speech patterns (dialect
or accent), and slang expressions. Critical thinkers will determine if these details are just a decorative motif or
if these details reflect or enhance a theme, add to the meaning, or serve as a key to some aspect of the
narrative or characters.
2. Regionalism (Regional Literature): When the description of a region becomes an intrinsic and
necessary part of the work, the relationship of the region to the action is characteristic of Regional Literature.
Examples of Regional Literature include Thomas Hardy’s “Wessex” novels such as Return of the Native and
The Mayor of Casterbirdge.

B. When (time): Time includes all of its dimensions.* What was going on at that time? What, if any, importance
has the period and/or time-span of events with regard to the themes, motifs, characterizations, atmosphere,
tone, etc.?

1. What is the period (century, decade, year) during which the action occurs?
2. Over how many hours, days, weeks, months, years, decades, etc. does the action take place?
3. The effects of the setting may include a particular atmosphere, insight to the characters and/or their
motivations, and a key or connection to or reflection of other aspects of the story.

Also See “Atmosphere/Mood”

Style

Style refers to the qualities that distinguish the works of one author from another’s, including:
A. Diction: word choice: formal/informal
B. Sentence Structure (simple or complex)
C. Syntax: sentence patterns of language - grammatical and ungrammatical arrangements of words
D. Language: abstract or concrete
E. Dialogue: can be either more dialogue than description, or dialogue limited to certain characters, or simply
lacking dialogue altogether
F. Imagery: sensory details such as similes, metaphors, onomatopoeia in a work includes:
1. Visual: imagery of sight
2. Aural: imagery of sound (e.g., soft hiss of skis)
3. Olfactory: imagery of smell (e.g., the smell of stale beer)
4. Tactile: imagery of touch (e.g., the feel of bare feet on a hot sidewalk)
5. Gustatory: imagery of taste (e.g., the tart, dry taste of starchy, green bananas)

G. Symbols: symbols are concrete objects/images that stand for abstract subjects. The objects and images
have meanings of their own but may be ascribed subjective connotations such as heart = love; skull &
crossbones = poison; colour green = envy; light bulb = idea; seasons = times in a lifespan. Symbols may be
either of two types:

1. Established (General): the meaning of an established symbol is derived from outside the context of the
story, from “received association,” i.e., symbolism is agreed upon “universally” (artificially) by culture,
religion, tribe, kinship, etc. For example, a journey = life; water = rebirth/new beginning; lion = courage.
2. Private (Personal): definable only within the context of the story in which it appears.

Nota Bene: The ability to recognize and to interpret symbols requires experience in literary readings,
perception, and tact. It is easy to "run wild" with symbols - to find symbols everywhere. Sometimes a bird is
just a bird, a cigar is just a smoke, and water is simply water.

The ability to interpret symbols is essential to the full understanding and enjoyment of literature. Given below
are helpful suggestions for identifying literary symbols:
1. The story itself must provide a clue that a detail is to be taken symbolically - symbols nearly always
signal their existence by emphasis, repetition, or position.
2. The meaning of a literary symbol must be established and supported by the entire context of the story.
A symbol has its meaning inside not outside a story.
3. To be considered a symbol, an item must suggest a meaning different in kind from its literal meaning.
4. A symbol has a cluster of meanings.

H. Motifs: recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the major
themes of the story.

Theme

Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.

Guiding Questions: Why did this writer bring these characters to this place at this time? What is the point?
What do readers now know, [should] understand?

 Theme is the central or dominating idea(s) in a literary work, may be several, particularly in longer,
complex fiction. A theme is the central and unifying concept of the story. It must adhere to the following
requirements:
1. It must account for all the major details of the story.
 2. It must not be contradicted by any detail of the story.
3. It must not rely on supposed facts - facts not actually stated or clearly implied by the story.
 There is no single way of stating the theme of a story. The theme must be expressible in the form of a
statement - not "motherhood" but "Motherhood sometimes has more frustration than reward." A theme must be
stated as a generalization about life. Names of characters or specific situations in the plot are not to be used
when stating a theme.
 A theme reflects a central vision of life or a statement about the human condition/experience conveyed
in a work. For examples, “Mankind exists in an indifferent world.”

1. Broadly, a theme may be the view of life that pervades a story; i.e., “Man’s self-importance is ridiculous in
comparison with the immensity of the universe.”
2. No theme is identical with a Moral. An example of a moral would be, “Honesty is the best policy.” A
mature piece of literature embodies a more complex theme than a mere moral. A mature work does not teach,
rather it reveals (it shows rather than tells); it does not preach, but interprets. Themes, unlike morals, are not
prescriptive. Themes add understanding of life and leave it to the readers to arrive at rules of behavior through
the increased perception offered by the story.
3. In longer works, the central theme may be accompanied by a number of lesser, related themes, or it may
contain two or more central themes. Usually, these contain insight into the human condition.
4. The means by which themes may be expressed include:
a. Narrator may sum up the significance or meaning in a pithy paragraph.
b. Narrator may use a wise character to voice the theme.
c. Modern writers generally embody the theme in dramatization – the action, dialogue, or other elements.

Literary Techniques

Irony
Irony is a term with a range of meanings, all of them involving some sort of discrepancy or incongruity. It
should not be confused with sarcasm which is simply language designed to insult or to cause emotional pain.
Irony is used to suggest the difference between appearance and reality, between expectation and fulfilment,
the complexity of experience, to furnish indirectly an evaluation of the author's material, and at the same time
to achieve compression. Three kinds of irony:
1. Verbal irony: what is said is actually the opposite of what is meant/intended. Verbal irony occurs when a
narrator or character says one thing and means something else.
2. Dramatic irony: occurs when a reader perceives something that a character or narrator in a work of literature
does not know. It is also the contrast between what a character or narrator says and what a reader knows to
be true.
3. Situational irony: is the discrepancy between appearance and reality, or between expectation and fulfilment,
or between what is and what would seem appropriate.

Allusion
Referencing another literary text or source. Indirect implied or indirect reference to a person or event, thing or
part of another text based on the assumption that there is a body of knowledge shared by author and reader>>
the reader will understand the writer´s reference.

Mirroring
Parallels in characters, events and so on that force the reader to compare them. Mirroring can also be
achieved through opposites. For example, the two main locations in Emily Bronte´s Wuthering Heights use this
technique. Wuthering Heights is a dark forbidding house high in the wild moors, whereas Thrushcross Grange
is a bright, spacious mansion set in beautiful ground in the green valley.

Double entendre
Literary device in which a word or phrase can be interpreted in two ways, on more straightforward and the
other one more ironic, inappropriate. For example in the ´Cask of Amontillado´, Montresor tells Fortunato: “You
are a man to be missed”, which can be interpreted in two ways: he will be missed from the carnival if he
leaves; and from earth, since Montresor is planning to kill him.