MEMEE44: CNC Technology

and Programming
Dr. Andriya Narasimhulu
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Netaji Subhas University of Technology
Google Class Code:
 Unit-IV

Machining considerations: Tooling for CNC, cutting tool material, hard

metal insert tooling, chip breakers, non-insert tooling, tooling systems,
speeds and feeds, cutting speed and spindle speed calculations, feed rate
calculations, tool life calculations, work holding and setting, principles of
location, principles of clamping, work holding devices.

3
Introductions- Machining Consideration
● CNC machining is a marvelous technology that offers a
range of possibilities for accurate parts, but your end-
product is only as good as the design you set out with.
● There are some major considerations one has to make
when developing any machined part, taking into
account its full geometry.

4
Introductions- Machining Consideration
● As of yet, such guidelines are more rules of thumb than real
protocols set in stone.
● Industry-wide standards are rare and the technology is
always in flux, coming up with new and exciting innovations
that push the envelope in terms of what is and isn’t
possible.
● However, there are many practices that have become tried
and true rules to live by.
● Here are some of the restrictions and considerations that
come with designing parts for CNC machining. 5
Machining Consideration - Basic Rules
● Generally, it is best to design parts so that tools of the
largest diameters possible can machine them.
● This helps avoid the need for specialist tools and
ensures faster processing. It’s also best not to design
cavities that are more than four times deeper than
their width.
● It’s vital to make sure the features of the design align
with the principal directions your machine allows.
● This involves keeping in mind the number of axes one
is machining with. 6
Machining Consideration - Basic Rules
● When trying to machine text or letters, it is best to use
engraved text rather than embossed.
● Embossed text can end up using a large amount of
material that needs to be removed throughout the
process.
● Using a sans serif font with a minimum size of 20
points is also recommended to avoid small, unwanted
features within the engraved text.

7
Machining Consideration - Basic Rules
● It’s best to submit a technical drawing when working
with a machinist.
● These need to have a very specific format but can
greatly help work through the design of the part and
bring out its best qualities.

8
Machining Consideration - Machine Type
● Before you consider the specifics of the part, it’s
important to note the limitations and strengths of the
type of CNC machine you have.
● This may seem basic, but various types of CNC
machines offer better control over certain forms and
shapes. Some of the most common types are listed
below along with their strengths.

9
Machining Consideration - Machine Type
● Lathes are commonly used for complex cylindrical
shapes.
● Due its capabilities, the lathe is often the most
prominently used for these circular cuts as it offers
tight tolerances and a cost-effective level of operation.

10
Machining Consideration - Machine Type
Lathes

● With lathes, the material turns while the cutting tool

remains stationary, so geometries rely on the movement
and feed rates of the stationary tools along with the
rotational speed control of the material.
● Lathes are made for turning so shaping is not there biggest
forte. Lathes also get less accurate as the material in use
11

gets thicker.
Machining Consideration - Machine Type
● Milling Machines come in a lot of varieties.
● The core difference in comparing them to lathes is that
the cutting tool moves as opposed to the material.
● Vertical milling machines have a spindle axis and
cutting tool that is aligned vertical to the machines’
bed.

12
Machining Consideration - Machine Type
Milling Machines

● Horizontal milling machine cutters are mounted on a

horizontal spindle across the table.
● They are used when a lot of material needs to be removed
by the cutters or there is less need for accuracy, in general.
Machines with more axes can harness and combine the
advantages of both lathes and mills in one set-up.
13
Machining Consideration - Machine Type
● Routers are similar to the vertical milling machine in
that cutting tools are aligned vertically to the machine’s
bed.
● Additionally, the router also moves about processing
the materials, as the part remains fixed in place.

14
Machining Consideration - Machine Type
Routers

● The main difference is the work-area-to-machine ratio, which is

almost 1:1 for a router but closer to 1:3 for a mill.
● It is particularly good for large sheets of wood.
● Design should take into account these differences in area along
with how they find inside corners a bit trickier.
● Similarly, detailed cuts with fine detail will have to use small tools
but there’s only so small any tool can get before it becomes
15

ineffective.
Machining Consideration - Tool Restrictions
● One of the most common rules of thumb when it comes to
machining is the ratio of tool diameter to cavity depth.
● The recommended depth of any cavity in your design is four
times its width because end mill tools have a limit to their
cutting length.
● This is typically three to four times the diameter of the tool.
Lower depth-to-width ratios lead to increased vibration, tool
deflection and chip evacuation. 16
Machining Consideration - Tool Restrictions
● Another common restriction one has to keep in mind is the tool’s
geometry.
● A vast number of CNC cutting and machining tools are cylindrically
shaped and can have a restricted cutting length.
● This shape has a bearing on the final cut that is made. The internal
corners of a piece, for example, invariably have a radius.
● This is true even if you machine them with an extremely small
cutting tool.
17
Machining Consideration - Tool Restrictions
● Specialized tools can help go around some of these problems but they
can have their own trade-offs.
● If the length of the tool is giving you problems in reaching deeper
parts of a cavity in the workpiece, can employ a specialized tool with a
longer shaft, however the drawbacks need to be kept in mind.
● Longer tools can increase vibration and reduce the accuracy you are
capable of achieving.
● Part design should typically aim towards employing tools with longer
diameters and shorter lengths, as is most feasible for the user.
18
Tooling for CNC

19
Introduction - Tooling for CNC

● Cutting tools are available in three basic material types:

○ high-speed steel,
○ tungsten carbide, and
○ ceramic.
● High-speed steel is generally used on aluminum and other
nonferrous alloys
● tungsten carbide is used on high-silicon aluminums, steels,
stainless steels, and exotic metals.
● Ceramic inserts are used on hard steels and exotic metals.

20
Introduction - Tooling for CNC

● Inserted carbide tooling is becoming the preferred tooling for

many CNC applications.
● For the full utilization of CNC machines it is essential to pay
due attention to the selection and usage of tooling, namely tool
holders, cutting tools and work holding devices.
● The tools for CNC machines must be quickly changeable to
reduce non-cutting time, preset and reset outside the machine,
high degree of interchangeability, increased reliability and high
rigidity

21
Classification of Cutting Tools

● The cutting tools can be classified on the basis of setting

up of tool, tool construction and cutting tool material :
● On the Basis of Setting up of Cutting Tool
(a) Preset tools.
(b) Qualified tools.
(c) Semi qualified tools

22
Classification of Cutting Tools

● The cutting tools can be classified on the basis of setting

up of tool, tool construction and cutting tool material :
● On the Basis of Cutting Tool Construction
(a) Solid tools.
(b) Brazed tools.
(c) Inserted bit tools.

23
Classification of Cutting Tools

● The cutting tools can be classified on the basis of setting

up of tool, tool construction and cutting tool material :
● On the Basis of Cutting Tool Material
(a) High speed steel (HSS).
(b) High carbon tool steel (HCS). (e) Ceramics.
(c) Cast alloy. (f) Boraon Nitride.
(g) Diamond.
(d) Cemented carbide
(h) Sialon.
24
Preset Tools

● The setting of tools in advance at a place away from the

machine tool or offline, in special holders is known as
preset tools.
● A presetting device is used to preset axial and radial
positions of the tool tip on the tool holder.
● Once this is done, the tool holder is ready to be mounted
on the machine and produce a known dimension

25
Preset Tools

● Presetting devices to various levels of sophistication are

available like optical projector.
● Tool length and tool diameter compensation facilities available
in the present day CNC machines have brought down the
importance of presetting.
● Since the generation of actual geometry is taken care of by the
CNC part program, which is essentially the coordinates through
which the cutting tool tip moves, it is important to know the
actual dimensions of the tool when it is placed in the spindle

26
Preset Tools

● The relationship of the tool with reference to the tool holding

mechanism requires a special attention during CNC machining
process.
● The actual point to be programmed in a CNC part program is
the tip of the tool whereas the axes will be moving with respect
to a known point in the spindle, e.g. the centre of the spindle in
case of machining centres. It becomes therefore necessary to
know precisely the deviation of the tool tip from the gauge point
on the spindle.

27
Preset Tools

Tool Offset
Determination in
CNC Machines
28
Qualified Tools
Tool which fits into a location on the machine, where its cutting
edge is accurately positioned within close limits relative to a
specified datum on the tool holder or slide, is known as qualified
tool. The cutting tools satisfy the following requriements :
(a) Tools need not be measured individually.
(b) No presetting device is used.
(c) The dimensions of the tool holder which are fixed and known.
(d) Set up time is reduced.

29
Qualified Tools
Tool which fits into a location on the machine, where its cutting
edge is accurately positioned within close limits relative to a
specified datum on the tool holder or slide, is known as qualified
tool. The cutting tools satisfy the following requriements :
(e) Control dimensions of the tool are nominal and fixed.
(f) Higher control on resharpening e.g. drills, reamers.
(g) Cutter for better size control e.g. end mills, teamers.
(h) Chip breaking facilities incorporated in tool.
(i) Impoved designs.
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Qualified Tools-
The qualified tool with holder shown in Figure

Qualified
Tooling for CNC
Machines

31
Semi-qualified Tools
The qualified tools which can be adjusted to the dimensions
by using several adjustable buttons on the tool shank are
known as semi qualified tools.
These tools demand regular maintenance and calibration for
accurate dimensioning.

32
Semi-qualified Tools
Semi-qualified Tooling for CNC
Machines

33
Different Tooling materials for CNC

● Solid tools
● Brazed tools
● Inserted bit tools
● High Speed steel
● High carbon tool steel
● Cast alloy
● Cemented carbides
● Ceramics
● Boron Nitride
● Diamond
● Sailon
34
DESIGN FEATURES OF CNC TOOLING

In general the following points are to be considered while designing

of CNC tooling : ]
(a) To give High accuracy.
(b) For variety of operations.
(c) Interchangeability to produce same accuracy.
(d) Flexibility.
(e) Rigidity of tooling to withstand cutting forces.
(f) Rigidity to transmit the power at higher speeds.
(g) Quick changing of tools to keep the down time minimum
35
AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER

● The CNC machines are designed to perform a number of

operations in a single setting of the job.
● A number of tools may be required for making a complex
part.
● In a manual machine, the tools are changed manually
whenever required. In a CNC machine, tools are changed
through program instructions.

36
AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER

● The tools are fitted in a tool magazine or drum. When a

tool needs to be changed, the drum rotates to an empty
position, approaches the old tool and pulls it.
● Then it again rotates to position the new tool, fits it and
then retracts.
● This is a typical tool changing sequence of an automatic
tool changer (ATC).

37
AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER

● The concept of the ATC is that the range of tools for a specific
job shall be made available for automatic selection and
positioning.
ATC can be
● Drum Type
For holding small number of tools usually not more than 30,
Stored on periphery of drum and tool search speed is faster.
● Chain Type
For more number of tools (40 or more), tools search speed is
less.
38
AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER

: Drum Type Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)

39
AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER

Chain Type Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) 40

AUTOMATIC TOOL CHANGER

● As soon as the tool selection command is received by the

system, the selected tool comes to a fixed place known as
tool change position.
● The selected tool is transferred to the spindle from
magazine after the previous tool is transferred to the
magazine from spindle.
● This is called tool change cycle.

41
Automatic Tool Changer Advantages

● Lines changed in seconds instead of hours.

● Increase operator safety by changing tools automatically.
● Change tools in seconds for maintenance and repair.
● Increase flexibility.
● Heavy and large multi-tools that are automatically
exchanged

42
Tooling Systems

43
44
Modular tooling systems
● Modular tooling systems provides the ability to
build an optimized and tailored assembly for a
specific application using standard items.
● A relatively small inventory can build a huge
number of combinations allowing common tooling
systems to be used throughout the factory
regardless of the machine interface.

45
Modular tooling systems
● A modular system interface is an intermediate
interface sitting between the machine interface
and a shank or insert.
● Applications and machines place different
requirements on a modular system interface.

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47
48
● Small and medium machine
spindle interfaces are selected
for smaller tool diameter and
shorter gauge length allowing
high rpms.
● For the best and most stable
result, use the shortest
assembly possible – preferably
solid adaptors.

49
Large and extra large
machine spindle
interfaces are selected
due to the requirement
for stability for larger
cutter diameters and
longer assembly length.

50
Modular solutions for turning applications
Modular solutions for turning, such as CoroTurn® SL,
provide very big benefits for two main reasons, the
ability for different tool combinations and cost
reduction.

51
Modular solutions for turning applications
Tool combinations: A large range of combinations
can be built up with a relatively small number of
adaptors and heads. This eliminates the need for
most engineered tools ensuring that standard tools
are always available even for some special
applications.

52
Modular solutions for turning applications
Cost reduction: Quick change holders are more
expensive than a shank tool or boring bar. By using
modular solutions for turning on some of the higher
risk applications helps to keep the tool cost at the
same level as for shank tools in the long run.

53
Modular solutions for turning applications
Modular solutions are available for both internal and
external turning, parting, grooving and threading
applications.

54
With modular tooling systems you can
build many combinations with a small
number of adaptors and heads.

There are also modular options for

multi-task machining which is
beneficial when there is a need to
reduce tool change time and at the
same time rationalize the number of
magazine pockets by using multiple
cutting heads on one adaptor.
55
Video to watch Modular Tooling System

https://www.sandvik.coromant.com/en-gb/knowledge/machine-tooling-
solutions/tooling-considerations/modular-solutions

56
Critical gauge length
When machining over 3 × the spindle contact diameter, vibration will
become a problem with higher cutting forces limiting the metal cutting
efficiency. A spindle interface with flange contact (BIG-PLUS® and
HSK), provides increased stability and productivity. The gauge length is
a limiting factor on small, but even medium-sized, interfaces for end
mills.

57
CNC Tooling

● ER spring collets
● HSK63 Tool Holder Locking Device
● Dust Chip Extraction Nut Cyclone Dust Twister Nut for
CNC Router

58
59
ER Sping Collets

High Precision ER32 Collets

ER25 Chucks for CNC Router
Spindles

Model: ER Collects

Material: 65Mn Steel

Brand: RICOCNC

Product description: This ER 60

spring collets are used

ER Spring Collets

Product description: This

ER spring collets are used

with CNC router machines,

hold the cutter bits into the

spindle. High precision

CNC ER collet system

allows to reduce the

vibrations on the tools and 61

motors, assure bet

 HSK63 Tool Holder

HSK63 Tool Holder Locking

Device BT40 Toolholder
Clamping Stands ISO40 Tool
Tightening
This tool tightening stand is
specifically designed for the HSK-
63F, HSK-63E HSK-63A
toolholders and for ISO40, BT40
tool holders. Roller-bearing
design for non-keyway toolholder
tightening and loosening. Heavy
duty steel fixture for tool change
out of your toolholders. 62
 HSK63 Tool Holder

Toolholder Locking Device

Features:

Toolholder clamping fixtures use

roller bearing locking technology
to provide a safe, secure and tight
grip on the holder without fear of
slipping. The roller bearings act as
a cam lock and tighten as the
holder is rotated in either direction.
These vises are ideal for
tightening or loosening various
tooling, including nuts, pull studs
and arbors. 63
 HSK63 Tool Holder
HSK 63 Tool Holder Clamping
Stand Parameters:

1, Tool holder to be locked on the

flange diameter 63mm (HSK63,
BT40, ISO40)

2, Roller-bearing design

3, Fastest tool change

4, Mounts directly to table top

64
Dust Chip Extraction Nut https://youtu.be/-GTP-LIiyNc

Dust removal can be a time-

consuming health and safety
problem if the dust extraction
on your CNC router is
inadequate. The dust
extraction nut helps both dust
and chip evacuation during
CNC nesting and
conventional CNC routing
operations.
65
Dust Chip Extraction Nut
Dust Chip Extracting Nut
Principles and Advantages:

1, The cyclone dust twister nut is

a high-performance dust and
chip extraction tool. The dust
extracting nut creates additional
suction from its spiral design,
which helps create a cyclone
effect which evacuates chip and
dust from the workpiece surface
to your CNC's dust collection
66
hood.
Dust Chip Extraction Nut
Dust Chip Extracting Nut
Principles and Advantages:

2, Assemble directly on the collet

chuck instead of the standard
nut. Replacing standard or ball-
bearing nuts, the twister nut
tightens collets into the chuck
clamping down on the cnc
router bit.

67
Dust Chip Extraction Nut

Dust Chip Extracting Nut

Principles and Advantages:

3, The nut works best when

distance of 3-10mm from the
workpiece (1/8" to 3/8"), but can
achieve good results up to 25mm
(1") away. When rotating at high
speeds (16,000-18,000rpm), the
twister creates a powerful
vacuum drawing chips and dust
off the surface of the material
and directly into your CNC 68

extraction system.
 Real Time Tool Monitoring System
● Smart machines, smart monitoring, smart control and
smart scheduling can be achieved with the help of
Industry 4.0 that should take automation to the next level.
● The tool monitoring system is one such solution that
minimizes the downtime needed to check the tool status.

69
 Real
● As per Timemonitoring
the several Tool Monitoring System
methods, tool condition monitoring
methods are differentiated into direct measurement as well as indirect
measurement. Indirect detection measurement depends on the
features of cutting force, acoustic emission, current, vibration,
temperature and other signals concerned with tool damage.
● Though, there are some faults in the analyzing method based on
sensor signal:
● Firstly, it utilizes a lot of human resources and needs thorough
knowledge to take out features related to tool damage from the signal;
● Secondly, the prediction model depends on multi-sensor signal is a
definite mapping under the certain machine type and processing
parameters. 70
Tool Monitoring System
● Today, machine tool monitoring systems are leveraged for
the purpose of monitoring CNC machines.
● These systems collect information from CNC machine
components or parts and process them to understand
their working conditions and the lifecycle of the tool.
● The more accurate the prediction of tool failure, the lower
the overall tool or machine cost incurred.

71
Tool Monitoring System
● After monitoring different factors, tool life monitoring software
can notify operators about the tool wear and predicted tool
life.
● This provides greater visibility into the process and enables
operators to get as much life as possible from each tool.
● They can also handle their time better to perform changes
with minimum downtime.
● Estimating the tool failure enables operators to replace the
tool at an optimum point, while avoiding damage to the
machine, tool costs.
72
Tool Monitoring System
● Also, the tool monitoring supports recognizing the amount
of power utilized by several CNC machine tools to cut
various materials.
● If a tool utilizes a long time to cut the material, the power
consumption is high in that case.
● Then the machine tool stops and underlines the affected
concern by utilizing graphs or statistical data.

73
How do Tool Monitoring Systems exactly Work?
● For industries performing tool monitoring systems, there
are importantly three levels of perspective.
● Each provides a varying degree of reliability to indicate
when a tool failure will happen and as a result, each step
provides varying degrees of effectiveness.

74
How do Tool Monitoring Systems exactly Work?
● The most basic widely utilized level across the machining
industry is level 1.
● It is simply just a variation on an old inactive maintenance
practice where the tool is enabled to operate to failure.
● This method utilizes the failure points to generate an
average utilized as a replacement guide.
● Near about 95% of the industry is using this method.

75
How do Tool Monitoring Systems exactly Work?
Further, there can be all sorts of other variables that are not
considered for those who obstruct the work of the tool,
causing it to deviate from the average. This results in one of
below two things:

1. Huge amounts of scrap parts by enabling tools to run to

failure or
2. Wasted tool life and unessential high tooling costs

76
How do Tool Monitoring Systems exactly Work?
● The second more advanced level system monitor’s the
power being utilized by the spindle and tracks the
waveform, such as the sound waves on a recording, to
recognize failure points.
● By reading the extent of the power over time, improves
and decreases in the load can specify the failure point.

77
How do Tool Monitoring Systems exactly Work?
● The most complex solution available, this approach to tool
monitoring uses algorithms that can recognize a
perspective to failure in time to replace the part within an
allowable maintenance stop and with crucially minimized
scrap.

78
How do Tool Monitoring Systems exactly Work?
● And the third level tool monitoring system utilizes high-
frequency data and advanced algorithms to determine,
forecast and avoid failures.
● These systems also need no sensors to analyze the tool.
● By estimating high-frequency data from torque utilization,
data can be analyzed, cleaned, and monitored.
● This data is drawn directly from the machine control, thus
increasing tool monitoring to enclose the last mile and
becoming an essential part of a more advanced machine
condition monitoring system 79
Benefits of Tool Monitoring System
Optimizing Performance:
● Machine tool monitoring assists to optimize performance
of CNC machines by offering essential information about
their entire operation. T
● his supports to eliminate the high costs caused due to
replacing worn tools, lost machine parts, etc.

80
Benefits of Tool Monitoring System
Condition Monitoring:
Operators are informed about the broken or worn tools which
will help them to prevent damage to machine parts or
machines.

81
Benefits of Tool Monitoring System
Condition Monitoring:
Operators are informed about the broken or worn tools which
will help them to prevent damage to machine parts or
machines.

82
 Calculation for Cutting Speed, Spindle Speed and
● Speed – Surface Feet per Minute (SFM) Feed
● Feed – Inches per Minute (IPM)
● Feed per Tooth (FPT)
● Adjusted Feed per Tooth – Chip Thinning (AFPT)
● Feed per Revolution (FPR)
● Depth of Cut (DOC)
● Width of Cut (WOC)
● Tool Diameter (D)
● # of Teeth in Cutter (Z)
● Metal Removal Rate – Cubic Inches per Minute (MRR)

83
CNC Turning Cutting Speeds & Feeds - How
to Calculate Speeds and Feeds for CNC

Speeds and feeds are critical parameters need to be

considered for the CNC cutting process. Proper
settings are beneficial to the CNC cutters, production
efficiency and surface finish of the final parts. What is
cutting speed and feed rate? How to calculate speeds
and feeds? Let's find out CNC speeds and feeds
parameters definition, formula, calculator and more in
this guide.

84
What are Speed and Feed?
Cutting speed, also called surface speed or speed, refers to the relative velocity of
the cutting tool and surface of the workpiece, or the speed at the outside edge of
the rotating part. The units are distance along the workpiece surface per unit time,
can be expressed in revolutions per minute (RPM) or surface feet per minute
(SFM).
Feed rate or feed is the relative velocity at which the cutter is advanced along the
workpiece, which means how fast the cutting tool of the machine will move
through the material. The units are generally distance per spindle revolution in
CNC turning, expressed in an inch per revolution (IPR), and distance per time in
CNC milling, presented by an inch per minute (IPM).

85
 How to Calculate Speeds and Feeds in CNC
Turning?
In order to extend the tool life, reduce CNC machining time, and improve the
material removal rate and surface finish, we need to find out and use the most
effective calculating method of CNC cutting speed and feed.
You can build a spreadsheet, use CAM software, or by sound or feel, while the
most popular way is to use Feeds & Speeds Calculator, which is available in many
CNC technical or intellectual websites

86
Calculation for Cutting Speed, Spindle Speed and
Feed

87
 General Speeds and Feeds Formula &
Definition
There are many forms of formulas. Pay attention to what each variable represents.
1. Speeds
- RPM Definition: revolution per minute, spindle speed, the number of turns completed in one minute.
- SFM Definition: surface feed per minute, cutting speed, the speed at which materials through the edge of the cutting
tool.
- Formula:
Imperial: RPM = (12 * Speed)/(3.14 * Diameter)
Metric: RPM = (1000 * Speed)/(3.14 * Diameter)
SFM = RPM * Cut Diameter * Pi/12
Cutting Speed = π * Diameter * Spindle Speed/1000
RPM = (SFM * 3.82)/Tool Diameter
Spindle Speed = Cutting Speed ÷π÷ Diameter x 1000
RPM = Spindle Speed
SFM = Cutting Speed 88
 General Speeds and Feeds Formula &
Definition
2. Feeds
- IPM Definition: inch per minute
- IPR Definition: in per revolution
- Formula:
Imperial: Feed Rate = RPM * Number of Teeth * Chip Load (in/min)
Metric: Feed Rate = RPM * Number of Teeth * Chip Load (mm/min)
Feed = n * f * Z (n=RPM, f=feed per tooth, Z=number of flutes)
IPM = IPR x RPM = RPM * Chip Load (IPF) * number of flutes
89
 The Factors & Variables Affecting Feeds and
Speeds
The cutting tool is the most direct influencing factors on CNC feeds and speeds,
there are also many other variables you can control to optimize your parameters.
1. Cutting tool selection, tool material, geometry, coating, etc.
2. Machining parts material, condition, diameter, etc.
3. Types and depth of cutting
4. The condition and rigidity of the machine
5. Rigidity and grip of tool holders
6. Machine spindle horsepower and torque at different RPM 90
Tool Life Calculations

● Tool life is a critical aspect in the realm of manufacturing

and machining processes, encompassing the duration for
which a cutting tool, such as a drilling machine, end mill,
or lathe tool, remains in service while effectively
performing its intended functions.

91
Tool Life Calculations

● The concept of tool life is of paramount importance in

industries ranging from automotive to aerospace, where
precision and efficiency are paramount.
● Extending tool life not only contributes to cost-
effectiveness by reducing tool replacement expenses but
also plays a pivotal role in maintaining product quality,
minimising downtime, and optimising the overall
efficiency of production processes.
92
Tool Life
● Tool life refers to the duration a cutting or machining tool
can effectively perform its intended function before
becoming dull, worn, or otherwise unusable.
● It is a crucial factor in manufacturing and machining
processes, impacting productivity, quality, and operational
costs.
● Extending tool life involves proper maintenance, tool
material selection, and cutting conditions optimization.

93
What is Tool Life?
● Tool life represents the duration a machine tool
remains effective in producing quality parts and can
be quantified by the number of accurately machined
components it can generate.
● Once a tool reaches the point where it can no longer
maintain the required specifications for the parts it
manufactures, its operational life comes to an end,
necessitating replacement. 94
What is Tool Life?
● In CNC machining, tool wear, tool failure, and tool life are
inevitable occurrences.
● All machine tools undergo wear and will eventually fail if
they continue to operate.
● However, optimizing tool lifespan is where manufacturers
can maximize the efficiency of their machine tools.

95
What is Tool Life?
● The most effective approach to extend machine tool life
while preventing defects and failures involves the
collection and utilization of machine tool data to
determine the optimal time for tool replacement.

96
What is Tool Life?
● Tools exhibit predictable lifespan curves, specifying the
expected duration they can consistently produce parts to
meet quality standards.
● Nevertheless, accurately determining tool life can be
challenging, particularly when done manually, due to the
multitude of variables that influence a tool's longevity,
including factors such as the material being processed,
the cutting method, and the speeds and feed rates
employed. 97
Tool Life Equation
Taylor's tool life equation As per F.W. Taylor, the relationship between Cutting
Speed and Tool Life can be expressed as

V = Cutting speed (m/min)

T= Tool life (minutes)

n = a constant whose value depends upon the material of the cutting tool & job, called
tool life Index.

(Commonly, n=0.08 to 0.02 for H.S.S tools, n=0.2 to 0.4 for cemented carbide tools, n=
0.5 to 0.7 for Ceramic Tools, n = 0.1 to 0.15 for cast alloys)
98
C = a constant, called machining constant
Factors Affecting Tool Life
The various factors which affect Tool life are:

○ Cutting Rate Optimisation

Optimal cutting rates are not solely about speed; they depend on factors such as
workpiece hardness, tool materials, cut complexity, and other variables unique to
each situation.

○ Machine Tool Life and Cut Cycle Data

Extending machine tool life involves considering factors like feed rate, depth of
cut, and cutting speed, with the optimum point determined by the required cut's
level of aggressiveness.
99
Factors Affecting Tool Life
The various factors which affect Tool life are:

○ Workpiece Hardness Impact

The hardness of the workpiece significantly affects tool wear. Tools cutting very
hard materials wear out faster and may exhibit different wear patterns. Soft
metals like aluminum can lead to built-up edge, while materials like titanium can
cause catastrophic tool failure if not matched correctly.

○ Tool Material Selection

Tool materials must match or exceed the properties of the workpiece. Some tools
can be specially hardened to handle materials like heat-treated steel or exotic
metals such as titanium. Additionally, they should be compatible with materials
that result in poor surface finishes.

100
Factors Affecting Tool Life
The various factors which affect Tool life are:

○ Varieties of Cutting Techniques

Different cutting tools perform various cutting actions, from light abrasion for
surface finish to more aggressive cuts. Tool life curves and wear reduction
strategies should account for the type of cutting being performed, alongside
cutting speed and feed rate considerations.

101
Ways to Improve Tool Life
Improving tool life encompasses several key strategies. Firstly, proper
maintenance is crucial, involving regular sharpening, cleaning, and lubrication to
prevent premature wear. Secondly, optimizing cutting parameters, such as
adjusting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut, can significantly extend tool life

The various ways of improving tool life are:

Optimize Speeds and Feeds

Properly configuring cutting speed and feed settings can significantly enhance
tool longevity while maintaining efficient cutting times.

102
Ways to Improve Tool Life
Utilize Cutting Fluid
Applying the appropriate type and amount of cutting fluid helps dissipate heat
generated during cutting, thereby extending tool life.

Prevent Chip Re-Cutting

Ensure settings are adjusted correctly to prevent the re-cutting of chips, which can
lead to increased flank wear, crater wear, and other forms of tool wear.

Select the Right Tools

Consider workpiece complexity, surface roughness, machining accuracy,
tolerance requirements, and other factors to choose the most suitable tool for the
job, such as high-speed steel tools for robust workpieces.

103
Ways to Improve Tool Life
Distribute Wear Across the Cutting Edge
Design cutting programs to evenly distribute wear across the cutting edge,
preventing excessive wear in specific areas.

Manage Runout
Control runout, particularly in older machines, to ensure proper tool positioning
and securement, reducing the risk of scrapped parts and extending tool life.

Minimize Deflection
Address the significant cutting forces and heat buildup by optimising variables to
prevent tool bending or deflection caused by chip buildup during machining
operations.

104
Example

The machining cast iron using a high-speed steel tool life of 60 minutes was
observed with a cutting speed of 120 m/min. Determine the tool life with a cutting
speed of 90 m/min. ? (n = 0.09)

105
Solution
Given Data

T = 60 min

V = 120 m/min

n = 0.09

For finding tool life, firstly we have to calculate the machining constant

As we know,

Taylor's Tool Life Equation,

106
Solution
Then,

C = 173.78

Now, we can find tool life at a speed of 90 m/min.

107
work holding and setting

108
109
 Work holding and setting
● Your CNC machining process is only as good as your workholding setup!
● CNC work holding methods keep your part rigidly in place and reduce the
stiffness.
● You can also refer to work holding as fixturing.
● A good CNC workholding setup is key for locating the next part to be
machined.
● Fixturing is also important for safety!

110
The Importance of a Strong CNC Workholding Method

● When machining anything, the stiffness of the entire operation is extremely

important.
● Reduced stiffness will cause vibration and a significant decrease in the
accuracy and precision of your machining process.
● The “chain of stiffness” is made up of the machine itself, the tool, your part,
and the fixture holding your part.

111
The Importance of a Strong CNC Workholding Method

● If your part is able to move while being machined, there is no way you will be
able to maintain any tolerances set forth by the design or drawing.
● Even a slight movement during machining results in poor accuracy.
● If you try to machine multiple parts with a poor setup, each part will be
significantly different from the rest, resulting in low precision.

112
The Importance of a Strong CNC Workholding Method

● Manufacturing effort also comes into play when thinking about your
workholding setup.
● For one, with an insufficient setup you will most likely have to remake the
part.
● With a thoughtful workholding solution, you can reduce the number of
machining setups.
● By designing useful features for fixturing into your part, you can reduce the
effort and cost of machining.

113
The Importance of a Strong CNC Workholding Method
● Finally, a good CNC workholding setup is necessary for safety.
● Oftentimes, the part will be enclosed inside an industrial CNC machine to
protect people from flying objects, but what if it’s not? Terrible things have
happened when your parts or pieces of a broken tool go flying.
● Even aside from your safety, you want to think about the safety of your
machine.
● Disasters can happen when a part comes loose or a tool crashes into
something.
● Your part needs to stay in one place, even under the tremendous forces of a
CNC machine.
● You also need to ensure that the fixture is not going to get in the way of the
tool.

114
Things to Think About For Your Workholding Setup

● Certain materials are easier to machine than others. Similarly, certain

features are going to be easier to machine.
● For instance, brass is one of the softest metals, and removing material is
going to take a lot less effort than a material like steel.
● The amount of material you are removing is also important to think about.
With knowledge of the potential load, you can start narrowing down options
for CNC workholding solutions.
● If you are machining a small brass part, you may be able to use a slightly
less sturdy but also less invasive workholding method.
● With a large steel part, you’ll want more substantial fixturing.

115
Things to Think About For Your Workholding Setup

● Another important consideration is where your fixturing method is going to

hold on to your part. Is it a standard block with parallel edges that can be
placed in a vice?
● Do you need to have multiple sides reachable by the tool in order to avoid an
extra operation?
● Is your part a funky shape that requires a creative method to fixture it in your
machine?
● These are all good questions to ask yourself when choosing a CNC
workholding device.

116
Things to Think About For Your Workholding Setup

● Finally, you want to consider how many parts you will need to make with your
fixture.
● If it is going to be a high volume operation, it may be worth it to invest some
more time and effort to create a custom fixture that can hold many parts at
once.
● If you’re only making a few parts, you may want to stick with one of the other
fixturing options we’ll get into below.

117
Examples of Workholding Solutions

● Vise
● Soft Jaws
● Step Clamps
● Fixture Plates

118
Examples of Workholding Solutions

Vise
● We’ll start with the classic machinist’s vise. A vise can be clamped down to
the table of your CNC machine.
● A vise won’t work for every part, though. There is a sweet spot in sizing
because of limitations on how large your part can be – a vise can only open
so much.
● Thickness matters as well – a very thin part may be warped when you tighten
the vise.
● You can also only use a vise for parts with parallel edges. When using a vise,
make sure that your part is level, and that it is tightened down fully.
● If set up correctly, a vise can be extremely repeatable and accurate!

119
Examples of Workholding Solutions

Vise
● We’ll start with the classic machinist’s vise. A vise can be clamped down to
the table of your CNC machine.
● A vise won’t work for every part, though. There is a sweet spot in sizing
because of limitations on how large your part can be – a vise can only open
so much.
● Thickness matters as well – a very thin part may be warped when you tighten
the vise.
● You can also only use a vise for parts with parallel edges. When using a vise,
make sure that your part is level, and that it is tightened down fully.
● If set up correctly, a vise can be extremely repeatable and accurate!

120
121
Examples of Workholding Solutions
Soft Jaws
● A good work holding method for any part that needs to be held securely but
has an irregular form factor are soft jaws.
● Soft jaws refer to a set of two parts machined out of aluminum.
● Each part is flat and straight on one side (to align with one side of the vise)
and has the profile of your part machined into the other side.
● This way, you can hold your part in a vise even if it is round or has non-
parallel sides.
● Each soft jaw is bolted to a side of the vise once it’s ready to be used.
● Soft jaws are useful because aluminum is quick and easy to machine.
● You can also machine them over and over again to work for different parts.
● Soft jaws can be reused if you are machining multiple units of the same
design. 122
Examples of Workholding Solutions
Soft Jaws
● However, soft jaws are not well suited for high volumes of parts.
● They tend to wear out after many uses.
● If you are making thousands of parts, you can use steel jaws, which are the
same concept, but made from steel.
● However, steel is much harder and more time consuming to machine than
aluminum.
● When you move into large production volumes, it may be more efficient to
create a fixture than can hold many parts in one machine.
● With either of these machined jaws (aluminum or steel) you are limited by the
number of vises that can fit into a machine.

123
Examples of Workholding Solutions
Step Clamps
● Step clamps, also known as toe clamps, are a very common workholding
method for manual milling.
● This clamping system utilizes the T-slots on a machine’s bed.
● They are an extremely firm way of holding down your workpiece and are
another effective CNC workholding solution.
● However, there are some downsides that make other workholding devices a
better choice.
● Step clamps can be time consuming to set up, although they are adaptable to
a variety of parts (as long as you have a flat surface to clamp on.
● They are not as repeatable as other workholding fixtures.
● As soon as you loosen the clamp, it no longer stays in the same location.
● You then have to reconfigure the setup again for the next part.
● Step clamps are good for holding big plates to be machined and for clamping 124
down fixture plates.
125
Examples of Workholding Solutions
Fixture Plates
● Fixture plates can be used to mount a wide range of parts to be CNC
machined.
● You may also hear them referred to as tooling plates.
● They are made of aluminum or steel and have a grid of holes.
● Some of these holes are intended for dowel pins and some are threaded for
bolts.
● Fixture plates are a very useful workholding method due to their repeatability;
each hole has a known location and won’t move once the plate is installed.
● The dowel pin holes are useful for locating your fixture or part on the plate.
The threaded holes are good for bolting down your fixture or part.

126
127
Examples of Workholding Solutions
Fixture Plates
● There are a couple different ways to use a fixture plate.
● One method is to design in bolting holes to your part.
● This workholding method allows you to have access to multiple sides of the
part and machine interesting geometries or surfaces.
● However, it will require post-processing to remove the fixture holes.

128
Examples of Workholding Solutions
Fixture Plates
● Another method is to design a custom fixture that holds your part.
● Then, you then bolt that fixture to the fixture plate.
● This takes advantage of the locating features of the fixture plate.
● Fixture plates also protect the table of your CNC machine from a wayward
tool.
● There are many options for nuts, bolts and other tools to use with a fixture
plate, so get out there and explore!

129
Advanced Applications
● The CNC workholding methods that I have reviewed so far are great for a
standard 3-axis CNC milling machine.
● These machines have many capabilities, and with creative fixturing you can
machine a lot of different geometries.
● However, there are some limits to what a 3-axis machine can do.
● You may find yourself machining something more complex on a 4- or 5-axis
machine. 5th axis workholding is a whole different story.
● With the additional range of motion, the machine has much greater access to
the workpiece.
● More axes means more fun but also more potential for crashing! Pay extra
attention to allowing access to multiple surfaces.
● You also need to leave clearance around the workpiece and machine table
for the cutting tools to move. 130
131
Principles of Locations and Clamping

132
Guide To Locating & Clamping Principles
● Locating and clamping play pivotal roles in any
workholding system.
● Accurate positioning of the workpiece is crucial for
precision machining.
● Carr Lane Mfg. delves into the essential principles of
locating and clamping, offering valuable insights into
achieving precise and consistent results.

133
Basic Principles of Locating
● Workholders must position the workpiece accurately and
consistently relative to the cutting tool.
● Using locators correctly is vital for this purpose.
● These tools ensure proper referencing of the workpiece,
making the process repeatable and successful.

134
Referencing and Repeatability
● Referencing involves positioning the workpiece relative to
the workholder and the cutting tool through guiding
devices.
● Achieving accurate placement within the workholder is
crucial for machining precision.
● Designing a workholder requires considering the
referencing of both the workpiece and the cutter to ensure
accurate machining.
135
Referencing and Repeatability
● Repeatability, the workholder’s ability to consistently produce parts within
tolerance, relies on precise referencing capabilities.
● The ideal locating point is a machined surface for consistency.
● “Referencing“ is a dual process of positioning the workpiece relative to the
workholder and the workholder relative to the cutting tool. This process is
performed by guiding or setting devices.
● With drill jigs, referencing uses drill bushings. With fixtures, referencing uses
fixture keys, feeler gages, or probes. On the other hand, referencing the
workpiece to the workholder is done with locators.

136
The Mechanics of Locating
● A workpiece has twelve degrees of freedom that must be
restricted for proper referencing.
● Sturdy enough to resist cutting forces, Locators play a
crucial role by providing a positive stop for the workpiece,
ensuring accurate machining.

137
The Mechanics of Locating
● As shown in Figure,
the twelve degrees of
freedom all relate to
the central axes of
the workpiece,
including six axial
degrees of freedom
and six radial
degrees of freedom.

138
The Mechanics of Locating
● The axial degrees of freedom permit straight line
movement in both directions along the three principal
axes, shown as x, y, and z.
● The radial degrees of freedom permit rotational movement
around the same three axes in both clockwise and
counterclockwise radial directions.

139
Forms of Location
● We categorize location into three forms: plane, concentric,
and radial.
● Each form has its specific application, with plane locators
working from any surface, concentric locators focusing on
a central axis, and radial locators restricting movement
around a central point.
● In most applications, plane-locating devices locate a part
by its external surfaces, as shown in Figure (a)
140
Forms of Location
Figure . The three forms of
location are plane, concentric,
and radial.

141
Forms of Location
● Some workpieces, however, might have a cylindrical
projection that requires a locating hole in the fixture, as
shown in Figure (b).
● The third type of location is radial, and as seen in Figure
(c), the radial locators restrict the movement of a
workpiece. In many cases, locating is performed by
combining these three locational methods.

142
Locating from External Surfaces
● Locating from flat surfaces uses solid, adjustable, and
equalizing supports to position the workpiece accurately.
● The 3-2-1 locational method is a common approach, using
six locators to reference and restrict the workpiece’s
movement effectively.

143
Locating from External Surfaces
Figure . Solid, adjustable,
and equalizing supports
locate a workpiece from a
flat surface.

144
Locating from External Surfaces
● Solid supports are fixed-height locators that precisely locate a surface in one
axis. Though solid supports may be machined directly into a tool body, a more
economical method can be accomplished with installed supports such as rest
buttons.
● Adjustable supports are variable-height locators. Like solid supports, they will
also precisely locate a surface on one axis. These supports are used where
workpiece variations require adjustable support to suit different heights and are
mainly used for cast or forged workpieces with uneven or irregular mounting
surfaces.
● Equalizing supports are a form of adjustable support used when compensating
support is required.
● Although these supports can be fixed in position, equalizing supports typically
float to accommodate workpiece variations. As one side of the equalizing support
is depressed, the other raises the same amount to maintain part contact.
145
Locating from External Surfaces
● Figures show three locators, or
supports, placed under the workpiece.
The three locators are usually
positioned on the primary locating
surface. This positioning restricts axial
movement downward, along the z-
axis (#6) and radially about the x (#7
and #8) and y (#9 and #10) axes.
Together, the three locators restrict
Three supports on the primary locating
five degrees of freedom. surface restrict five degrees of freedom

146
 Locating from External Surfaces
● The following two locators are usually placed
on the secondary locating surface, as shown
in Figures. They restrict an additional three
degrees of freedom by arresting the axial
movement along the +y axis (#3) and the
radial movement about the z (#11 and #12)
axis.
● Two additional locators are placed on the
secondary locating surface, as shown in
Figure, to restrict an additional three degrees
of freedom by arresting the axial movement Adding two locators on a side restricts
eight degrees of freedom
along the +y axis (#3) and the radial
movement about the z (#11 and #12) axis.
147
 Locating from External Surfaces
● The final locator, shown in Figure, is
positioned at the end of the part, restricting
axial movement in one direction along the –x-
axis.
● Together, these six locators restrict nine
degrees of freedom.
● The remaining three degrees of freedom (#1,
#4, and #5) will be restricted by clamps.
Adding a final locator to another side
restricts nine degrees of freedom,
completing the 3-2-1 location

148
Locating from Internal Surfaces
● Locating from an internal diameter is efficient, using locating pins
and plugs based on the feature’s maximum material condition
(MMC).
● This method ensures accurate positioning by restricting movement in
specific directions.
● The two forms of locators used for internal location are locating pins
and locating plugs.
● The only difference between these locators is their size: locating pins
are used for smaller holes, and locating plugs are used for larger
holes.
149
Locating from Internal Surfaces
● Figure shows that the plate
under the workpiece restricts one
degree of freedom, preventing
any axial movement downward
along the -z (#6) axis.
● The center pin, acting in
conjunction with the plate as a
concentric locator, prevents any
axial or radial movement along
or about the x (#1, #2, #7, and
#8) and y (#3, #4, #9, and #10)
axes. 150
Locating from Internal Surfaces
● Together, these two locators restrict nine degrees of freedom. The final
locator, the pin in the outer hole, is the radial locator that restricts two
additional degrees of freedom by arresting the radial movement around the z
(#11 and #12) axis. Together, the locators restrict eleven degrees of freedom.
The last degree of freedom, in the +z direction, will be restricted with a clamp.

151
Guidelines
● Locating the workpiece is the primary function of a jig or fixture.
● Once located, the workpiece must also be held to prevent
movement during the operational cycle.
● The process of holding the position of the workpiece in the jig
or fixture is called clamping.
● The primary devices used for holding a workpiece are clamps.
● Careful selection of the clamping devices and their location is
essential for proper performance.

152
Factors in Selecting Clamps
● Selecting the proper clamps for a job involves understanding
their two leading roles: keeping the workpiece in place against
the locators and stopping it from moving. Locators are
designed to handle the main cutting forces during machining,
not the clamps.
○ Holding the Workpiece Against Locators
○ Holding Securely Under Vibration, Loading, and Stress
○ Preventing Damage to the Workpiece
○ Improving Load/Unload Speed
○ Positioning the Clamps 153
THE END

154