MIAPOLY Data Communication and Networking HND II CS

Data Communication and Networking

Table of Contents

1. Introduction to Data Communication and Networking

- Definition

- Importance

- Applications

2. Fundamentals of Data Communication

- Components

- Data Representation

- Data Flow

3. Network Models

- OSI Model

- TCP/IP Model

4. Physical Layer

- Transmission Media

- Signal Encoding Techniques

- Digital and Analog Transmission

5. Data Link Layer

- Error Detection and Correction

- Flow Control

- MAC (Media Access Control)

6. Network Layer

- IP Addressing

- Routing Protocols
MIAPOLY Data Communication and Networking HND II CS

- Subnetting

7. Transport Layer

- TCP and UDP

- Port Numbers

- Flow Control and Error Control

8. Application Layer

- Protocols (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.)

- Domain Name System (DNS)

- Network Security Basics

9. Wireless and Mobile Networks

- WLAN

- Cellular Networks

- Satellite Communication

10. Network Security

- Cryptography

- Network Attacks

- Security Protocols

1. Introduction to Data Communication and Networking

MIAPOLY Data Communication and Networking HND II CS

Definition

- Data Communication: The exchange of data between devices via some form of transmission
medium (e.g., wire cable).

Fig1. Data communication

- Networking:

Connecting two or more computers together to share resources.

Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and
share resources with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called
communications protocols, to transmit information over physical or wireless technologies.

Fig.2 : Types of Computer Network

Importance

- Facilitates communication

- Resource sharing

- Data sharing
MIAPOLY Data Communication and Networking HND II CS

- Distributed computing

Applications areas of data communication

- Internet

- Email

- Video Conferencing

- Online Gaming

2. Fundamentals of Data Communication

Components

1. Message: The data to be communicated.

2. Sender: The device that sends the data.

3. Receiver: The device that receives the data.

4. Medium: The physical path by which a message travels.

5. Protocol: A set of rules that govern data communication.

Data Representation

- Text: ASCII, Unicode

ASCII a standard data-encoding format for electronic communication between

computers. ASCII assigns standard numeric values to letters, numerals, punctuation marks,
and other characters used in computers. In full: American Standard Code for Information
Interchange.

Unicode is an international character encoding standard that provides a unique

number for every character across languages and scripts, making almost all characters
accessible across platforms, programs, and devices.

- Numbers: Binary, Decimal, Hexadecimal

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- Images: Pixels, Bitmaps, JPEG

- Audio: Analog, Digital

- Video: Frames, MPEG

Data Flow

- Simplex: One direction

Simplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow only in one direction, i.e.,
the communication is unidirectional. In this mode, a sender can only send data but cannot
receive it. Similarly, a receiver can only receive data but cannot send it.

Fig.3: Diagram showing simplex mode of communication

- Half-duplex: Both directions, one at a time

In this mode, every station can both- receive and transmit data- but not at the very same
moment. When one of the devices sends information, the other one can only then receive it. It
also happens vice versa because the transmission is not unidirectional.
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Fig.4: Diagram showing half-duplex mode of communication

- Full-duplex: Both directions simultaneously

Full-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a
signal carrier at the same time. For example, on a local area network with a technology that
has full-duplex transmission, one workstation can be sending data on the line while another
workstation is receiving data.

Fig.5: Diagram showing full-duplex mode of communication

3. Network Models

OSI Model

1. Physical Layer: Transmission and reception of raw bit streams.

2. Data Link Layer: Node-to-node data transfer, error correction.

3. Network Layer: Routing of data packets.

4. Transport Layer: Reliable data transfer, flow control.

5. Session Layer: Managing sessions between applications.

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6. Presentation Layer: Data translation, encryption, compression.

7. Application Layer: Network services to applications.

Fig.6: Diagram showing the OSI model

TCP/IP Model

1. Network Interface: Physical and Data Link Layers.

2. Internet: Network Layer.

3. Transport: Transport Layer.

4. Application: Application, Presentation, and Session Layers.

Fig.7: Diagram showing the OSI and TCP/IP model

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Transmission Media

- Guided Media: Twisted-pair cable, Coaxial cable, Fiber-optic cable.

• Twisted-Pair Cable

Twisted-pair cable consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. This design
reduces electromagnetic interference and crosstalk between adjacent pairs, making it suitable
for data transmission. There are two main types: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP). UTP is commonly used in telephone systems and Ethernet
networks, while STP offers additional protection against interference, making it suitable for
industrial environments.

Fig.8: Diagram showing classification of twisted pair cables.

• Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable features a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer
insulating layer. This construction provides excellent protection against electromagnetic
interference, allowing for high-frequency signal transmission over long distances. Coaxial
cables are widely used in cable television systems, internet connections, and other broadband
communications due to their high bandwidth and durability.

Fig.8: Diagram showing coaxial cable.

• Fiber-Optic Cable
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Fiber-optic cable transmits data as light pulses through thin strands of glass or plastic fibers.
It offers extremely high bandwidth, low signal attenuation, and immunity to electromagnetic
interference. Fiber-optic cables are ideal for high-speed data transmission over long distances
and are commonly used in telecommunications, internet infrastructure, and advanced
networking applications. They come in two main types: single-mode (for long-distance
communication) and multi-mode (for shorter distances).

Fig.9: Diagram showing fibre optic cable.

- Unguided Media: Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared.

• Radio Waves

Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than infrared
light. They are widely used for wireless communication due to their ability to travel long
distances and penetrate through buildings and other obstacles. Applications of radio waves
include AM and FM radio broadcasting, television signals, cell phone communications, and
Wi-Fi networks. They operate at frequencies ranging from about 3 kHz to 300 GHz.
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Fig.10: Diagram showing radio wave signal.

• Microwaves

Microwaves are a subset of radio waves with shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies,
typically ranging from 1 GHz to 300 GHz. They are used in various communication
technologies, such as satellite links, radar systems, and point-to-point communication links.
Microwaves can transmit large amounts of data over long distances with relatively low
interference, making them suitable for telecommunications and data transmission. They are
also used in microwave ovens for cooking by heating food through dielectric heating.

Fig.11: Diagram showing microwave signal.

• Infrared

Infrared (IR) radiation lies between visible light and microwaves on the electromagnetic
spectrum, with wavelengths ranging from about 700 nm to 1 mm. Infrared is commonly used
for short-range communication, such as remote controls for televisions and other electronic
devices, as well as in infrared sensors and security systems. Infrared communication requires
a direct line of sight and is often used in applications where wireless data transfer over short
distances is needed. Additionally, IR is used in fiber-optic communication and thermal
imaging.
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Fig.12: Diagram showing infra-red transmission from a remote to T.V

Signal Encoding Techniques

1. Digital Data, Digital Signals: NRZ, Manchester encoding.

2. Analog Data, Digital Signals: PCM.

3. Digital Data, Analog Signals: ASK, FSK, PSK.

4. Analog Data, Analog Signals: AM, FM, PM.

1. Digital Data

Digital data refers to information that is stored and processed in a binary format, using a
series of 0s and 1s (bits). This format allows for efficient data storage, manipulation, and
transmission. Digital data is the foundation of modern computing and telecommunications,
enabling various applications like text, audio, video, and multimedia to be represented and
transmitted in a reliable and standardized manner.

Digital Signals:
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Digital signals are used to represent digital data through discrete levels or states. Unlike
analog signals, which vary continuously, digital signals have a finite number of distinct
values. This makes them more resistant to noise and interference, leading to more reliable
communication.

NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) Encoding:

NRZ encoding is a method of mapping binary data to signal levels without returning to a zero
(neutral) voltage between bits. In NRZ, a binary '1' is represented by one voltage level and a
binary '0' by another. There are two main types:

- NRZ-L (NRZ-Level): The signal level is constant during the bit interval, and
the voltage does not return to zero.

- NRZ-I (NRZ-Inverted): A transition at the beginning of the bit interval

represents a binary '1', while no transition represents a '0'.

NRZ encoding is simple and efficient but can suffer from synchronization issues when long
sequences of identical bits are transmitted, leading to a lack of transitions that are necessary
for maintaining synchronization.

Manchester Encoding:

Manchester encoding is a method of encoding digital data that ensures synchronization by

incorporating a transition in the middle of each bit period. Each bit is represented by a
transition rather than a static level:

- A binary '1' is represented by a low-to-high transition.

- A binary '0' is represented by a high-to-low transition.

This ensures that there is always a transition for each bit, aiding in clock synchronization
between the sender and receiver. Manchester encoding effectively doubles the bandwidth
requirement compared to NRZ because each bit period contains two transitions, but it
provides more reliable data transmission by preventing long sequences without transitions.

Digital and Analog Transmission

- Digital Transmission: Transmission of digital signals.

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Digital transmission refers to the process of sending information over a communication

channel in the form of digital signals. Digital signals consist of discrete values, typically
represented as binary numbers (0s and 1s), which can be processed and transmitted with high
precision and reliability.

Fig.13: Diagram showing transmission of digital signal

- Analog Transmission: Transmission of analog signals.

Analog transmission involves the transmission of information using continuous signals that
vary in amplitude, frequency, or phase to represent the data. Unlike digital signals, which use
discrete binary values (0s and 1s), analog signals are characterized by continuous waveforms.

Fig.14: Diagram showing transmission of analog signal

5. Data Link Layer

Error Detection and Correction

- Error Detection: Parity check, CRC.

Error detection techniques are crucial for ensuring data integrity during transmission. Two
common methods are the Parity Check and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).

Parity Check
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The parity check is a simple error detection method that adds an extra bit, called a parity bit,
to a group of data bits. The parity bit ensures that the total number of 1s in the group
(including the parity bit) is even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).

Even Parity: The parity bit is set so that the total number of 1s in the group is even.

Odd Parity: The parity bit is set so that the total number of 1s in the group is odd.

Parity checks can detect single-bit errors but cannot detect errors where two bits are flipped,
as the parity will remain the same.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

The CRC is a more complex and robust error detection method that uses polynomial division
to generate a checksum (CRC code) for a block of data. The transmitter appends this
checksum to the data before transmission. Upon receiving the data, the receiver performs the
same division and compares the result with the transmitted checksum to detect errors.

Fig.15: Diagram showing error detection and correction.

Flow Control

- Stop-and-Wait: Sender waits for acknowledgment before sending next frame.

Stop-and-Wait is a fundamental flow control protocol used in data communication. It ensures

reliable transmission of data by requiring the sender to wait for an acknowledgment (ACK)
from the receiver before sending the next frame. This simple protocol is effective for
ensuring data integrity but can be inefficient due to the potential for idle time while waiting
for acknowledgments.
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Key Points of Stop-and-Wait Protocol:

Basic Operation:

The sender transmits a frame to the receiver.

The sender then waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver.

Upon receiving the ACK, the sender sends the next frame.

If the sender does not receive an ACK within a specified timeout period, it assumes the frame
was lost or corrupted and retransmits the frame.

Acknowledgment (ACK):

The receiver sends an ACK to the sender to confirm the successful reception of a frame.

If a frame is received with errors, the receiver discards it and does not send an ACK,
prompting the sender to retransmit the frame after the timeout period.

Timeout:

A timeout period is set by the sender. If the ACK is not received within this period, the sender
retransmits the frame.

This mechanism helps to handle lost or delayed frames and acknowledgments.

Efficiency Considerations:

The Stop-and-Wait protocol can lead to inefficient use of the communication channel,
especially over long distances or high-latency networks, due to the idle time while waiting for
ACKs.

The channel utilization is low because only one frame is in transit at any time.

Error Handling:

Lost frames: If a frame is lost, the sender retransmits it after the timeout period.

Lost ACKs: If an ACK is lost, the sender retransmits the frame after the timeout period, and
the receiver must handle duplicate frames correctly.

- Sliding Window: Multiple frames sent before needing acknowledgment.

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MAC (Media Access Control)

- Channel Partitioning: TDM, FDM.

Channel partitioning techniques allow multiple signals to share the same communication
channel by dividing it into separate sections. Two common methods for channel partitioning
are Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM).

• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

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TDM divides the channel into time slots, with each slot assigned to a different signal or data
stream. Each signal transmits its data in its assigned time slot, allowing multiple signals to
share the same channel sequentially.

Key Points of TDM:

1. Time Slots: The channel is divided into fixed-duration time slots, and each signal is
assigned a specific slot.

2. Synchronous TDM: Each time slot is preassigned to a specific signal, and slots are
allocated whether or not the signal has data to transmit.

3. Asynchronous (or Statistical) TDM: Time slots are dynamically allocated to signals
with data to transmit, improving channel utilization.

4. Synchronization: Both the sender and receiver must be synchronized to ensure data is
correctly interpreted.

Example:

- Suppose four signals (A, B, C, D) share a channel. In TDM, the channel is divided into time
slots, and each signal transmits its data in turn:

- Slot 1: Signal A

- Slot 2: Signal B

- Slot 3: Signal C

- Slot 4: Signal D

• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

FDM divides the channel into different frequency bands, with each band assigned to a
different signal or data stream. Each signal transmits simultaneously in its designated
frequency band, allowing multiple signals to share the channel concurrently.

Key Points of FDM:

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1. Frequency Bands: The channel is divided into non-overlapping frequency bands, and
each signal is assigned a specific band.

2. Guard Bands: Small frequency gaps (guard bands) are placed between adjacent
frequency bands to prevent interference and crosstalk.

3. Simultaneous Transmission: All signals transmit simultaneously, each in its own

frequency band.

Example:

- Suppose four signals (A, B, C, D) share a channel. In FDM, the channel is divided into
frequency bands, and each signal transmits in its own band:

- Frequency Band 1: Signal A

- Frequency Band 2: Signal B

- Frequency Band 3: Signal C

- Frequency Band 4: Signal D

Comparison:

- TDM:

- Utilizes time slots.

- Requires synchronization.

- Can be synchronous or asynchronous.

- Suitable for digital data streams.

- FDM:

- Utilizes frequency bands.

- Requires guard bands.

- Signals transmit simultaneously.

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- Suitable for analog signals (e.g., radio broadcasting).

Applications:

- TDM:

- Telecommunication systems.

- Digital communication networks.

- Time-sharing computer systems.

- FDM:

- Radio and TV broadcasting.

- Cable television.

- Analog telephone networks.

Both TDM and FDM are fundamental techniques for efficient use of communication
channels, enabling multiple signals to be transmitted over a single channel without
interference.

- Random Access: ALOHA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA.

Random access methods are used in communication networks to manage how multiple
devices share a common communication channel. These methods allow devices to transmit
data whenever they have data to send, with mechanisms to handle potential collisions when
MIAPOLY Data Communication and Networking HND II CS

two or more devices transmit simultaneously. Three common random-access methods are
ALOHA, CSMA/CD, and CSMA/CA.

Fig. 16: Diagram showing Multiple Access Protocols

ALOHA

ALOHA is one of the simplest random-access protocols and was originally developed for
wireless communication in the ALOHAnet project.

Types of ALOHA:

1. Pure ALOHA:

- Devices transmit data whenever they have data to send.

- If a collision occurs (two devices transmit simultaneously), the data is considered lost.

- Devices wait for a random amount of time before retransmitting.

2. Slotted ALOHA:

- Time is divided into discrete slots equal to the frame time.

- Devices can only transmit at the beginning of a time slot.

- This reduces the probability of collisions compared to Pure ALOHA.

Efficiency:

- Pure ALOHA has a maximum efficiency of about 18.4%.

- Slotted ALOHA has a maximum efficiency of about 36.8%.

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Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

CSMA/CD is a protocol used primarily in wired Ethernet networks to manage access to the
communication channel.

Key Points of CSMA/CD:

1. Carrier Sense: Devices listen to the channel before transmitting to check if it is idle (no
other transmission is occurring).

2. Multiple Access: Multiple devices can use the same channel.

3. Collision Detection: Devices monitor the channel while transmitting to detect collisions.

4. Collision Handling:

- If a collision is detected, the transmission is stopped immediately.

- Devices wait for a random backoff time before attempting to retransmit.

Efficiency:

- CSMA/CD is more efficient than ALOHA, especially in high-load networks, because it

minimizes the chances of collisions and handles them quickly when they occur.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

CSMA/CA is a protocol used primarily in wireless networks (e.g., Wi-Fi) to manage access
to the communication channel.

Key Points of CSMA/CA:

1. Carrier Sense: Devices listen to the channel before transmitting to check if it is idle.

2. Multiple Access: Multiple devices can use the same channel.

3. Collision Avoidance:
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- Before transmitting, devices perform a random backoff time even if the channel is idle.

- Devices use a Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) handshake to reserve the
channel, further reducing the chances of collisions.

4. Acknowledgment:

- After successful transmission, the receiver sends an acknowledgment (ACK) to the sender.

- If no ACK is received, the sender assumes a collision occurred and retransmits after a
random backoff time.

Efficiency:

- CSMA/CA is designed for wireless networks where collision detection is not feasible due to
the nature of radio transmissions. It focuses on avoiding collisions through careful timing
and signalling.

Comparison:

- ALOHA:

- Simple and easy to implement.

- Lower efficiency due to higher collision probability.

- Used in early wireless networks.

CSMA/CD:

- Efficient for wired networks.

- Detects and handles collisions quickly.

- Common in Ethernet networks.

- CSMA/CA:

- Suitable for wireless networks.

- Focuses on avoiding collisions.

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- Used in Wi-Fi and other wireless communication protocols.

These random-access methods are fundamental for managing access to shared

communication channels, each suited to different types of network environments and
requirements.

- Token Passing: Token Ring, Token Bus.

Token Passing: is a network communication protocol where a token, a small data packet, is
passed around the network nodes. This token grants the holder the right to communicate,
ensuring orderly and collision-free data transmission.

Token Ring:

- Structure: In a Token Ring network, all nodes are connected in a circular (ring) topology.

- Operation: A token circulates around the ring, and a node can only send data when it
possesses the token. After sending data, the token is released back into the ring.

- Advantages: Predictable access times and reduced collisions, making it suitable for
timesensitive applications.

- Disadvantages: If any node or the connection fails, it can disrupt the entire network.

Token Bus:

- Structure: In a Token Bus network, nodes are connected in a linear or bus topology.

- Operation: The token is passed in a logical sequence between nodes on the bus, not
necessarily in physical order.

- Advantages:

Flexibility in node placement and scalability.

The bus topology can handle larger networks.

- Disadvantages:

More complex to manage the logical token sequence.

A failure in the bus can impact network communication.

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Both Token Ring and Token Bus protocols ensure orderly communication and reduce data
collisions, making them effective for certain network environments.

Fig. 17: Diagram illustrating token passing in a ring

6. Network Layer

IP Addressing

- IPv4: 32-bit address, dotted decimal notation.

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol and is widely
used to identify devices on a network using an addressing system. Here’s a breakdown of its
key features:

32-bit Address

Structure: IPv4 addresses are 32 bits in length.

Division: These 32 bits are divided into four octets (8 bits each).

Binary Representation: An IPv4 address is expressed in binary format as four groups of 8

bits.

Fig. 18: Table representing binary, hexadecimal and dotted decimal.

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This illustrates how an IP address can be represented in different number systems, useful for
networking and computer science applications.

- IPv6: 128-bit address, hexadecimal notation.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol designed
to address the limitations of IPv4, particularly the exhaustion of available IPv4 addresses.
Here’s a detailed look at its key features:

128-bit Address

Structure: IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length.

Division: These 128 bits are divided into eight 16-bit blocks.

Binary Representation: An IPv6 address in binary format would look like a long string of 128
bits.

Fig. 19: Table showing comparison of IPv4 vs IPv6

Routing Protocols

- Distance Vector: RIP.

- Link State: OSPF.

- Path Vector: BGP.

Routing Protocols
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Routing protocols are used to determine the best path for data to travel across a network.
They can be classified based on their operational mechanisms. Here’s an overview of three
major types of routing protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, and Path Vector.

Distance Vector: RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

- Mechanism: Uses distance vectors (hops) to determine the best path. Each router sends its
routing table to its immediate neighbors periodically.

- Metric: The number of hops (routers) to the destination network.

- Algorithm: Bellman-Ford algorithm.

- Features:

- Simple and easy to configure.

- Limited to small networks due to scalability issues.

- Maximum hop count of 15, making it unsuitable for larger networks.

- Example Protocol: RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

- RIP Version 1 (RIPv1): Does not support subnetting (classful routing).

- RIP Version 2 (RIPv2): Supports subnetting (classless routing) and includes authentication
features.

Link State: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

- Mechanism: Each router has a complete map of the network topology and independently
calculates the shortest path to every destination using the Dijkstra algorithm.

- Metric: Cost, which is often based on the bandwidth of the links.

- Algorithm: Dijkstra’s algorithm.

- Features:

- Suitable for large and complex networks.

- Fast convergence and reduced risk of routing loops.

- Hierarchical design with areas to optimize traffic and improve scalability.

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- Example Protocol: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)

- OSPFv2: Used for IPv4 networks.

- OSPFv3: Used for IPv6 networks.

- Supports advanced features like authentication, route summarization, and load balancing.

Path Vector: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

- Mechanism: Uses path vectors and maintains the path information that gets updated
dynamically to ensure loop-free and efficient routing between autonomous systems (ASes).

- Metric: Policy-based metrics such as path length, AS-path, and various path attributes.

- Algorithm: Path vector algorithm.

- Features:

- Designed for inter-domain routing (between different autonomous systems).

- Scales well to large, decentralized networks like the Internet.

- Supports complex routing policies and multipath routing.

- Example Protocol: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

- BGP-4: The current version used for both IPv4 and IPv6.

- Manages routes using path attributes, which provide flexibility for route selection and
policy enforcement.

Summary

- Distance Vector Protocols: like RIP are simple and suitable for small networks but have
limitations in scalability and hop count.

- Link State Protocols: like OSPF provide a detailed network map, allowing for efficient and
scalable routing in large and complex networks.
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- Path Vector Protocols: like BGP are essential for inter-domain routing on the global
Internet, offering robust policy-based routing capabilities.

Subnetting

- Subnet Mask: Divides IP address into network and host portions.

- CIDR: Classless Inter-Domain Routing.

Subnetting

Subnetting is a technique used in network design to divide a larger network into smaller,
more manageable sub-networks, or subnets. This helps in efficient IP address allocation,
improved security, and better network performance.

Subnet Mask

Purpose: The subnet mask is used to separate an IP address into the network and host
portions.

Structure: It is a 32-bit number that masks an IP address and divides it into network and host
addresses.

Binary and Decimal Format: Each bit of the subnet mask can be either a 1 (network part) or a
0 (host part). It is usually represented in dotted decimal format.

Example:

IP Address: 192.168.1.10

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 (binary: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000)

Network Part: 192.168.1

Host Part: 10
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CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing)

Purpose: CIDR is a method for allocating IP addresses and IP routing that replaces the old
system based on classes (A, B, C) with a more flexible and efficient system.

Notation: CIDR uses a notation that combines the IP address with the number of bits used for
the network part (prefix length).

Format: The format is IP address/prefix length. For example, 192.168.1.10/24.

Prefix Length: Indicates how many bits are used for the network portion of the address. In
this case, /24 means the first 24 bits are the network part, leaving the remaining 8 bits for host
addresses.

Benefits:

Allows more efficient use of IP address space.

Reduces the size of routing tables.

Simplifies the process of routing IP packets.

Example Breakdown

Subnet Mask Calculation

Consider the subnet mask 255.255.255.0:

Binary: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

Network Portion: The first 24 bits (1s) represent the network.

Host Portion: The last 8 bits (0s) represent the host.

For the IP address 192.168.1.10 with the subnet mask 255.255.255.0:

Network Address: 192.168.1.0

Broadcast Address: 192.168.1.255

Range of Host Addresses: 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.254

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CIDR Notation

For the IP address 192.168.1.10/24:

Prefix Length: /24 indicates that the first 24 bits are the network portion.

Network Address: 192.168.1.0

Subnet Mask Equivalent: 255.255.255.0

Range of Host Addresses: 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.254

7. Transport Layer

TCP and UDP

- TCP: Connection-oriented, reliable.

- UDP: Connectionless, best-effort.

Port Numbers - Well-

known Ports: 0-1023.

- Registered Ports: 1024-49151.

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- Dynamic Ports: 49152-65535.

Flow Control and Error Control

- TCP Flow Control: Sliding window.

- TCP Error Control: Checksum, acknowledgment, retransmission.

8. Application Layer

Protocols

- HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol.

- FTP: File Transfer Protocol.

- SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

- POP3/IMAP: Email retrieval protocols.

- DNS: Domain Name System.

Domain Name System (DNS)

- Hierarchy: Root, TLDs, Authoritative servers.

- Resolution: Mapping domain names to IP addresses.

Network Security Basics -

Encryption: Symmetric, Asymmetric.

- Authentication: Passwords, Biometrics.

- Firewalls: Packet filtering, Stateful inspection.

9. Wireless and Mobile Networks

WLAN

- Wi-Fi: IEEE 802.11 standards.

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- Security: WEP, WPA, WPA2.

Cellular Networks

- Generations: 1G to 5G.

- Components: Base stations, Mobile switching centers.

Satellite Communication

- Types: GEO, MEO, LEO.

- Applications: GPS, Satellite TV.

10. Network Security

Cryptography

- Symmetric Key: DES, AES.

- Asymmetric Key: RSA, ECC.

Network Attacks

- Types: Phishing, DoS, DDoS, Man-in-the-Middle.

- Mitigation: Firewalls, Intrusion Detection Systems.

Phishing: This involves fraudulent attempts to obtain sensitive information (like passwords,
credit card details) by disguising as a trustworthy entity in electronic communication.

DoS (Denial of Service): Attackers flood a network or server with traffic, overwhelming its
capacity and making it unavailable to users.

DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service): Similar to DoS but conducted from multiple sources,
making it harder to mitigate. Botnets are often used to orchestrate such attacks.

Man-in-the-Middle (MitM): Here, attackers intercept and possibly alter communications

between two parties without their knowledge. This can be used to steal data or inject
malicious content.
MIAPOLY Data Communication and Networking HND II CS

Mitigation techniques include:

Firewalls: These filter incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined
security rules, helping to prevent unauthorized access.

Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): IDS monitors network traffic for suspicious activity or
policy violations and alerts administrators when potential threats are detected.

These techniques, along with others like encryption, strong authentication, and regular
security audits, form a comprehensive approach to securing networks against various types of
attacks.

Security Protocols

- TLS/SSL: Secure communication over a computer network.

- IPsec: Secure IP communications.

TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets Layer):

Purpose: TLS and its predecessor SSL are cryptographic protocols designed to provide
secure communication over a computer network.

Usage: They are commonly used to secure web browsers' communication with websites
(HTTPS), email transmission (SMTPS, IMAPS), and other applications requiring data
confidentiality and integrity.

Features: TLS/SSL ensure that data transmitted over the network is encrypted, preventing
eavesdropping and tampering.
MIAPOLY Data Communication and Networking HND II CS

IPsec (Internet Protocol Security):

Purpose: IPsec is a suite of protocols that authenticate and encrypt IP packets to ensure the
confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity of data transmitted over an IP network.

Usage: It is often used in Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) to create secure tunnels between
devices or networks over the Internet or other insecure networks.

Features: IPsec can operate in two main modes: Transport mode, which encrypts only the
data portion of each packet, and Tunnel mode, which encrypts the entire IP packet.

These protocols are fundamental in ensuring secure communication and data protection
across networks, each serving specific purposes and offering robust security mechanisms
against various threats.