Bachelor of Science

(B.Sc. - PCM)

Differential Calculus
(DBSPCO103T24)

Self-Learning Material
(SEM 1)

Jaipur National University

Centre for Distance and Online Education
_____________________________________________
Established by Government of Rajasthan
Approved by UGC under Sec 2(f) of UGC ACT 1956
&
NAAC A+ Accredited
Jaipur National University Course Code: DBSPCO103T24
Differential Calculus

TABLE OF CONTENT
Course Introduction (i)
Unit 1
1 –17
Numbers and Functions
Unit 2
18–26
Derivatives
Unit 3
27–40
Limits and Continuous Function
Unit 4
41–58
Partial Differentiation
Unit 5
59–64
Lagrange‟s and Cauchy‟s Forms
Unit 6
65–73
Maclaurin‟s Series of sinx, cosx, ex , log(l+x ), (l+x )m
Unit 7
74–80
L-Hospital‟s Rule
Unit 8
81 – 87
Tangents and Normal
Unit 9
88 – 94
Tracing of Curves
Unit 10
95 – 101
Concavity and Convexity
Unit 11
102-106
Asymptotes
Unit 12
107– 112
Parametric Equations
Unit 13
113– 123
Multiple Integrals and Change of Order of Integration
Unit 14
124– 128
Beta and Gamma Functions
EXPERT COMMITTEE

Dr. Vikas Gupta

Dean,
Department of Mathematics
LNMIIT, Jaipur

Dr. Nawal Kishor Jangid

Department of Mathematics
SKIT,Jaipur

COURSE COORDINATOR

Prof. (Dr.) Hoshiyar Singh

Dept. of Basic Science
JNU, Jaipur

UNIT PREPARATION
Unit Writers Assisting & Proof Reading Unit Editor
Dr. Sanju Jangid Mr. Mohhamad Asif Dr, Yogesh Khandelwal
Dept. of Basic Science Dept. of Basic Science Dept. of Basic Science
JNU, Jaipur JNU, Jaipur JNU, Jaipur
Unit: 1-7
Mr. Nitin Chauhan
Dept. of Basic Science
JNU, Jaipur
Unit: 8-14

Secretarial Assistance:
Mr. Suresh Sharma
COURSE INTRODUCTION

Differential calculus is a foundational branch of mathematics with far-reaching implications in

various fields, including physics, engineering, economics, and computer science. It serves as a
fundamental tool for understanding rates of change, optimization, and the behavior of functions.
The course is divided into 14 units. Each Unit is divided into sub topics.
The Units provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the real number system and
its characteristics. They also examine continuity, differentiability, and integrability concepts in a
rigorous mathematical framework, analyze sequences and series of real numbers and functions,
and apply these concepts to solve theoretical and practical problems.
There are sections and sub-sections inside each unit. Each unit starts with a statement of
objectives that outlines the goals we hope you will accomplish. Every segment of the unit has
many tasks that you need to complete. We wish you enjoy the Course.

Course Outcomes: After completion of the course, the students will be able to

1. Recall the many properties of the real line and learn to define sequence in terms of
functions from to a subset.
2. Explain bounded, convergent, divergent, Cauchy and monotonic sequences.
3. Apply to calculate their limit superior, limit inferior, and the limit of a bounded sequence.
4. Analyze various applications of the fundamental theorem of integral calculus.
5. Evaluate uniform continuity, differentiation, integration and uniform convergence.
6. Create the ratio, root, alternating series and limit comparison tests for convergence and
absolute convergence of an infinite series of real numbers.

Acknowledgements:

The content we have utilized is solely educational in nature. The copyright proprietors of the
materials reproduced in this book have been tracked down as much as possible. The editors
apologize for any violation that may have happened, and they will be happy to rectify any such
material in later versions of this book.

i
 CHAPTER - 1
Numbers and functions

Learning Objectives:
 Differentiate between types of numbers (natural, whole, integers, rational, irrational, real
and complex).
 Identify key features of functions (domain, range) from different representations.
 Recognize common function types (linear, quadratic, exponential, logarithmic,
trigonometric)

Structure:
1.1 Numbers Introduction
1.2 Functions
1.3 Summary
1.4 Keywords
1.5 Self-Assessment Questions
1.6 Case Study
1.7 References

We use numbers in our day to day life. They are often called numerals. Without numbers, we
cannot do counting of things, date, time, money, etc. Sometimes these numbers are used for
measurement and sometimes they are used for labelling. The properties of numbers make
them capable of performing arithmetic operations on them. These numbers are expressed in
numeric forms and also in words. For example, 2 is written as two in words, 25 is written as
twenty-five in words, etc. Students can practice writing the numbers from 1 to 100 in words
to learn more.
There are different types of numbers in Maths, which we learn. They are natural and whole
numbers, odd and even numbers, rational and irrational numbers, etc. We will discuss all the
types here in this article. Apart from these, the numbers are used in various applications such
as forming number series, maths tables, etc.

1
1.1 Numbers Introduction
A number is an arithmetic value used for representing the quantity and used in making
calculations. A written symbol like “3” which represents a number is known as numerals.
A number system is a writing system for denoting numbers using digits or symbols in a
logical manner. The numeral system:
 Represents a useful set of numbers
 Reflects the arithmetic and algebraic structure of a number
 Provides standard representation
We use the digits from 0 to 9 to form all other numbers.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

With the help of these digits, we can create infinite numbers.

For example, 12, 3456, 1298, etc.

Counting Numbers:
We use numbers to count different things or objects such as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. Humans have been
using numbers to count things from the past thousands of years. For example, there are 7
cows in the field. The counting numbers start from 1 and it goes till infinity.

The Number Zero:

The position of the number “Zero (0)” plays an important role in Mathematics and it is used
as a placeholder in the place value number system. The number 0, acts as an additive identity
for the real numbers, and other algebraic structures. We use the number “0” to show nothing.
For example, there were 3 apples, but now there are none. To represent nothing, we can use
zero.

Types of Numbers
The numbers can be classified into sets known as the number system. The different types of
numbers in maths are:
 Natural Numbers: Natural numbers are known as counting numbers that contain the
positive integers from 1 to infinity. The set of natural numbers is denoted as “N” and it
includes N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……….}

2
 Whole Numbers: Whole numbers are known as non-negative integers and it does not
include any fractional or decimal part. It is denoted as “W” and the set of whole numbers
includes W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ……….}
 Integers: Integers are the set of all whole numbers but it includes a negative set of natural
numbers also. “Z” represents integers and the set of integers are Z = { -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
 Rational Numbers: Any number that can be written as a ratio of one number over another
number is written as rational numbers. This means that any number that can be written in
the form of p/q. The symbol “Q” represents the rational number.
 Irrational Numbers: The number that cannot be expressed as the ratio of one over
another is known as irrational numbers and it is represented by the symbol “P”
 Real Numbers: All the positive and negative integers, fractional and decimal numbers
without imaginary numbers are called real numbers. It is represented by the symbol “R”.
 Complex Numbers: The number that can be written in the form of 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where “a and
b” are the real number and “𝑖” is an imaginary number, are known as complex numbers
“C”.
 Imaginary Numbers: The imaginary numbers are the complex numbers that can be
written in the form of the product of a real number and the imaginary unit “i”.

Apart from the above, there exist other numbers namely even and odd numbers, prime
numbers and composite numbers. These can be defined as given below:
Even Numbers: The numbers which are exactly divisible by 2, are called even numbers.
These can be positive or negative integers such as -42, -36, -12, 2, 4, 8 and so on.
Odd Numbers: The numbers which are not exactly divisible by 2, are called odd numbers.
These can be both positive and negative integers such as -3, -15, 7, 9, 17, 25 and so on.
Prime Numbers: Prime numbers are the numbers that have two factors only i.e., 1 and the
number itself. In other words, the number which is divided by 1 and the number itself is
called prime numbers. For example 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 etc.
Composite Numbers: A composite number is a number that has more than two factors. For
example, 4 is a composite number, as the number 4 is divisible by 1, 2, and 4. Other
examples of composite numbers are 6, 8, 9, 10, and so on.
Note: The number “1” is neither prime nor composite.

3
Numbers Chart: The number chart represents Real and Complex numbers (Fig. 1.1.1)

Figure 1.1.1: Number Chart

Number Series
In mathematics, the number series consists of a series of numbers in which the next term is
obtained by adding or subtracting the constant term to the previous term. For example,
consider the series 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … In this series, the next term is obtained by adding the
constant term “2” to the previous term. There are different types of number series namely,
 Perfect Square series
 Two-stage type series
 The odd man out series
 Perfect cube series
 Geometric series
 Mixed series

Special Numbers
Cardinal Numbers: Cardinal number defines how many of something are there in a list,
such as one, five, ten, etc.
Ordinal Numbers: Ordinal numbers explain the position of something in a list, such as first,
second, third, fourth, and so on.
Nominal Numbers: Nominal number is used only as a name. It does not denote an actual
value or the position of something.
Pi (π): Pi is a special number, which is approximately equal to 3.14159. Pi (π) is defined as
the ratio of the circumference of the circle divided by the diameter of the circle.
(i.e.,) Circumference/ Diameter = π = 3.14159.

4
Euler’s Number: Euler‟s number is one of the important numbers in Maths, and it is
approximately equal to 2.7182818. It is an irrational number and it is the base of the natural
logarithm.
Golden Ratio: A golden ratio is a special number and it is approximately equal to 1.618. It is
an irrational number and the digits do not follow any pattern.

Properties of Numbers
The properties of numbers are basically stated for real numbers. The common properties are:
Commutative Property: If a and b are two real numbers, then according to commutative
property;
a+b = b+a
a.b = b.a
Example: 2+3 = 3+2
and 2 × 3 = 3 × 2

Associative Property: If a, b and c are three real numbers, then according to associative
property;
(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)
(a.b).c = a.(b.c)
Example: (1+2) +3 = 1+ (2+3)
(1.2).3 = 1.(2.3)

Distributive Property: If a, b and c are three real numbers, then according to distributive
property;
a×(b + c) = a×b + a×c
Example: 2 × (3 + 4) = 2×3 + 2×4
2×7=6+8
14 = 14

Closure Property: If a number is added to another number, then the outcome will be a
number only, such as;
a+b = c; where a, b and c are three real numbers.
Example: 1+2 = 3

5
Identity Property: If we add zero to a number or multiply by 1, the number will remain
unchanged.
a+0=a
a.1 =a
Example: 5+0 = 5 and 5 x 1 = 5
Additive Inverse: If a number is added to its own negative number, then the result is zero.
a+(-a) = 0
Example: 3+(-3) = 3-3 = 0

Multiplicative Inverse: If a number apart from 0, is multiplied to its own reciprocal then the
result is 1.
a × (1/a) = 1
Example: 23 × (1/23) = 1

Zero Product Property: If a.b = 0, then; either a = 0 or b = 0.

Example: 7 × 0 = 0 or 0 × 6 = 6

Reflexive Property: This property reflects the number itself.

a=a
Example: 9 = 9

The properties which are explained above can vary based on the different types of numbers.
Solved Problems:
Example 1.1.1:
Prove the associative property of addition and multiplication.
Solution:
We know that the associative property of addition and multiplication are:
(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)
(a.b).c = a.(b.c)
Now, assume that a = 2, b = 4 and c = 5
Proving associative property of addition:
Now, substitute the values in the property
(2+4)+5 = 2+(4+5)
6+5 = 2+9
6
11 = 11
L.H.S = R.H.S
Hence, (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) is proved.
Proving associative property of multiplication:
(2.4).5 = 2.(4.5)
(8).5 = 2.(20)
40 = 40
L.H.S = R.H.S
Hence, (a.b).c = a.(b.c) is proved.

Example 1.1.2:
Solve the given algebraic expression 4.(3+2) using the distributive property
Solution:
We know that the distributive property is a × (b + c) = (a×b) + (a×c)
Now, take a= 4, b= 3 and c= 2
Now, substituting values, we get
4.(3+2) = (a×b) + (a×c)
= (4×3) + (4×2)
= 12+8
= 20
Hence, 4.(3+2) is 20.

1.2 Functions
The relationship between the particle location and time, the relationship between a point on
the x- and y-axes, and several other similar relationships are investigated in-depth in the
name function.
Assume that a particle is travelling across space. The physical particle is taken to be a point.
The particle's location fluctuates with time. From a mathematical perspective, the point is
always located in the three-dimensional space R3. Let time ranges from 0 to 1, then the
particle's function or movement determines its position at any given time t, which ranges
from 0 to 1. Stated differently, the functioning of the particle yields a point in R 3 for each t ∈
[0, 1]. Let f(t) represent the particle's location at time t.
Here's another simple illustration. We are aware that a straight line is described by the
equation 2x - y = 0. In this case, y takes on a value in accordance with whatever x assumes.
7
The way that x moves or functions determines how y moves. Let y be represented by f(x).
Such situations are common in nature. It is evident that when studying natural events, one
must take into account how one quantity varies in relation to another.
The relationship between the particle location and time, between a point on the x- and y-axes,
and several other similar relationships are investigated in-depth in the name function. The
definition of a function prior to Cantor is a rule that links one variable to another. A function
is defined as a rule that associates a unique element in set B with each element in set A with
the emergence of the idea of sets. Nevertheless, rule and association are not mathematical
notions with precise definitions. Every word used in modern mathematics needs to be defined
correctly. Thus, relations are used to provide a definition of function.
Let's say we intend to talk about an exam that a group of students wrote. We will consider
this to be related. Let A represent the group of students who took the exam, and let B = {0, 1,
2, 3,... 100} represent the range of potential scores. A relation R is defined as follows:
A student a is related to a mark b if a got b marks in the test. When a student receives b
marks on an exam, they are associated with a mark b. Each student achieved a grade. Put
differently, for any a ∈ A, there exists an element b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ R.
In any test, a student cannot receive two distinct scores. Put differently, there exists a single b
∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ R for each a ∈ A. Another way to put this is thus: b = c if (a, b), (a, c) ∈
R. A significant class of relations known as functions is made up of relations with the two
above mentioned characteristics.
Finally, let us have a precise specification of a function using relations.
Definition 1.2.1
Let A and B be two sets. A relation f from A to B, a subset of A×B, is called a function from
A to B if it satisfies the following
(i) For all a ∈ A, there is an element b∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ f.
(ii) If (a, b) ∈ ƒ and (a, c) ∈ ƒ then b = c.
Put another way, a function is a relation where every element in the domain is mapped to a
single element in the range exclusively.
The terms "domain" and "co-domain" refer to A and B, respectively, of f. When (a, b) is in f,
we express f(a) = b; this indicates that element „a‟ is a pre-image of „b‟ element „b‟ is the
image of „a‟ and f(a) is the value of f at „a‟. The function's range is the set
{b: (a, b) ∈ f for some a ∈ A}.

8
It is said that the function is real-value if B is a subset of R. If the domains of two functions, f
and g, are the same and f(a) = g(a) for every „a‟ in the domain, then the two functions are
considered equivalent. We write f: A → B if f is a function with domains A and B. (Read this
as f being a function from A to B or as f being from A to B). The term "f maps A into B" is
sometimes used. We say that f maps a to b or that f maps a onto b if f(a) = b, and so on.
The set of all co-domain elements with pre-images is referred to as a function range. It is
obvious that a function's range is a portion of its co-domain. The domain of a relation R from
a set A to a set B is defined as the set of all members of A having images, not as A, because
the first condition further stipulates that each element in the domain must have an image. An
element in the domain cannot have two or more photos, according to the second requirement.
Although a relation does not always imply a function, we see that every function is a relation.
Let f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 4)} be a function. This function goes from {{a, b}, {c}, {d}}
to {1, 2, 4}. Since e has no image, this function from {a, b, c, d, e} to {1, 2, 3, 4} cannot
exist. Since the image of d is not in the co-domain and f is not a subset of {a, b, c, d}×{1, 2,
3, 5}, this function from {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 3, 5} is not defined.

1. Way of Representing Functions

(a) Tabular Representation of a Function
When the members of the domain are listed like x1, x2, x3, . . . xn, we can use this tabular form.
Here, the values of the arguments x1, x2, x3, . . . xn and the corresponding values of the
function y1, y2, y3 . . . yn are written in a definite order.

(b) Graphical Representation of a Function

A graph with x-axis for the domain and y-axis for the co-domain in the (x, y)-plane may be
used to depict numerous functions when the domain and the co-domain are subsets of R.
Mapping Table Graph

Figure: 1.2.1: Graphical Representation of a Function

9
(c) Analytical Representation of a Function
We say that the function y of x is represented or defined analytically if the function y = f(x) is
such that f denotes an analytical phrase. Several instances of analytical phrases include

Illustrations of functions define are

Now recall the domain of the function which are analytical in nature described as

Piece- wise defined functions , considering the function f(x) defined as

We can create the function's graph if it is defined from R or a subset of R. For instance, we
may display the points (x, x/2 + 1) for all ∈ [0, 4] if f: [0, 4] → R is defined by f(x) = x/2 + 1.
After that, a straight line segment connecting (0, 1) and (4, 3) will appear. Refer to figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2.2: Straight line segment

Other example of function f(x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0. The mapping will be specified by its graph

Figure: 1.2.3: Mapping of f(x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0

10
A point in the domain is denoted by x. Now let us draw a line across point x that is vertical.
At P, let it intersect the curve. f(x) is the place where the y-axis and the horizontal line drawn
via P meet. In a similar manner, we may determine the pre-images of y by drawing horizontal
lines across a point y in the co domain.

Is it possible to define a curve on a plane as a function that maps a subset of R to R? No, we

are unable to. To determine this, there is a straightforward test.

Vertical Line Test

As we previously said, the y-coordinate of each point x in the domain is equal to f(x), where
the vertical line across the point intersects the curve at that point. We will obtain many values
for f(x) for a single x if the vertical line passing through a point x in the domain encounters
the curve more than once. This isn't appropriate for a function. Furthermore, there won't be an
image for x if the vertical line through a point x in the domain doesn't match the curve; this
can't happen in a function either. Thus, we may state,
“if the vertical line through a point x in the domain meets the curve at more than one point or
does not meet the curve, then the curve will not represent a function”.

Figure 1.2.4 Arch depict

Figure 1.2.5 Arch depict

Figure 1.2.6 Arch depict

11
 Figure 1.2.7 Arch depict

The Arch depict in Figure 1.2.4 does not symbolize a map from [0, 4] to R due to a vertical
line meets the curve at greater than one point Figure 1.2.5. The graph shows in Figure 1.2.6
does not signify a function from [0, 4] to R due to a vertical line drawn through x =
2.5 in [0, 4] does not convene the graph Figure 1.2.7.

2. Various Elementary mapping

A few commonly used mapping have names attached to them. Let's enumerate a few of them.

(i) Let X be any non-empty set. The function f : X → X described by f(x) = x for each x ∈ X is
identified the identity mapping on X (See Figure 1.2.4). It is represented by IX or I.

Figure 1.2.8 Mapping

Figure 1.2.9 Mapping

(ii) Two sets, X and Y, are given. Assume that c is a fixed element in Y. A constant function
is the mapping f: X → Y defined by f(x) = c for every x ∈ X (See Figure 1.2.9).

12
 Figure 1.2.10 Constant Function
The value of a invariable mapping is same for all values of x throughout the domain.

Figure 1.2.11: Identity function

Figure 1.2.12: Identity function

The graphs of the identity function and a constant function are shown in Figures 1.2.11 and
1.2.12 if X and Y are both R. The zero function is the constant function defined by f(x) = 0
for every x, if X is any set. Thus, a specific instance of a constant function is the zero
function.

13
Now for f(x) = |x|

(iii) The map f : R → R defined by f(x) = |x|, where |x| is the modulus or absolute value of x,
is called the modulus mapping or absolute value function. Figure 1.2.13 & Figure 1.2.14

Figure 1.2.13: Modulus Mapping

Figure 1.2.14: Modulus Mapping

3. Types of Functions
While there are many other forms of functions depending on the situation, we will focus on
two fundamental categories: onto functions and one-to-one functions.

14
 Figure 1.2.15 One-to-one functions

Figure 1.2.16 One-to-one functions

Figure 1.2.17 One-to-one functions

Let's examine the two straightforward functions shown in Figures 1.2.15 and 1.2.17. While
this is not the case in Figure 1.2.16, two domain items, b and c, are mapped onto the same
element, y, in the first function. One-to-one functions include those such as the second one.
Examining the two functions displayed in Figures 1.2.16 and 1.2.17 is our next task. The
element z in the co-domain does not have a pre-image in Figure 1.2.16, but it does in Figure
1.2.17. Examples of onto functions are the functions shown in Figure 1.2.17. We now define
onto and one-to-one functions.
Definition 1.2.2
A function ƒ A → B is said to be one-to-one if x, y A, x≠yf(x) ≠f(y) [or equivalently f(x)
= f(y) ⇒ x=y]. A function f: A → B is said to be onto, if for each b B there exists at least
one element a  A such that f(a) = b. That is, the range of ƒ is B.

15
An onto function is a surjective function, while an injective function is another term for a
one-to-one function. If a function f: A → B is both onto and one-to-one, it is referred to as
bijective.
In order to demonstrate that a function f: A → B is one-to-one, one just has to demonstrate
one of the following:
If x-1 y, then f(x)-1f(y), or equally if f(x) = f(y), then x = y.

Example 1.2.1: Check whether the following functions are one-to-one and onto.
i. 𝑓: 𝑁 → 𝑁 defined by 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛 + 2.
ii. 𝑓: 𝑁 ∪ −1, 0 → 𝑁 defined by 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛 + 2.

Solution:
i. If 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑚), then 𝑛 + 2 = 𝑚 + 2 and hence m=n. Thus f is one –to-one. As 1 has no
pre-image, this function is not onto.
ii. As above, this function is one-to-one, If m is in the co-domain, then 𝑚 − 2 is in the
domain and 𝑓(𝑚 − 2) = (𝑚 − 2) + 2 = 𝑚; thus m has a pre-image and hence this
function is onto.

Figure 1.2.18 Mappings

1.3 Summary
Functions are fundamental concepts in mathematics and computer science. In mathematics, a
function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of possible outputs, with the property
that each input is related to exactly one output.

1.4 Keywords
 Numbers
 Types of Numbers
 Number Series
16
 Functions
 Types of Functions
 Operations on Functions

1.5 Self – Assessment Questions

1. What is a mapping?
2. How is a mapping different from a function?
3. What are the components of a mapping?
4. Can mappings have multiple outputs for a single input?
5. What is the inverse of a mapping?
6. What is the domain and range of a mapping?
7. How do you represent a mapping graphically?
8. What is the difference between a one-to-one mapping and an onto mapping?
9. Give an example of a real-life mapping.
10.
1.6 Case Study
Geographic mapping plays a critical role in disaster response efforts, enabling responders to
visualize affected areas, identify vulnerable populations, and coordinate rescue and relief
operations efficiently. This case study illustrates the use of mapping technology in the
aftermath of a natural disaster.
Objective: A powerful earthquake has struck a densely populated region, causing widespread
destruction to infrastructure and displacing thousands of people. Emergency responders are
mobilizing to provide aid and support to affected communities.

1.7 References
1. Dantzig, T. (2007). Number: The Language of Science (Revised edition). Dover
Publications.
2. Stewart, J. (2015). Calculus (8th ed.). Brooks Cole.

17
 CHAPTER - 2
Derivatives
Learning Objectives:
 Define what a derivative is and its significance in calculus.
 Understand and apply differentiation rules, including the power rule, product rule, quotient
rule, and chain rule.
 Identify and analyze real-world applications of derivatives, such as optimization, curve
sketching, and motion problems.

Structure:
2.1 Derivatives
2.2 Fundamental Rules of Derivatives
2.3 Summary
2.4 Keywords
2.5 Self-Assessment Questions
2.6 Case Study
2.7 References

2.1 Derivatives
A derivative in calculus is the rate of change of a quantity y with respect to another quantity
x. It is also termed the differential coefficient of y with respect to x. Differentiation is the
process of finding the derivative of a function.
Let us learn what exactly a derivative means in calculus and how to find it along with rules
and examples.

Meaning of Derivatives in Calculus

The derivation of a function f(x) is usually represented by d/dx(f(x)) (or) df/dx (or) Df(x)
(or) f'(x). Let us see what a derivative technically means. Consider a curve of function f(x)
and let two points on it be (x, f(x)) and ((x + h), f(x + h)). Then the slope of the secant line
through these points is given by [f(x + h) - f(x)]/(x + h - x) = [f(x + h) - f(x) / h. See the figure
below and observe that when the distance between two points is closely equal to 0 (i.e., as h
approaches 0), the second point overlaps the original point and the secant line becomes

18
the tangent line. In calculus, the slope of the tangent line is referred to as the derivative of the
function. i.e.,
 The derivation of the function, f '(x) = Slope of the tangent = limh→0 [f(x + h) -f(x) / h.

Figure 2.1.1 Derivative of function

This formula is popularly known as the "limit definition of the derivative" (or) "derivative by
using the first principle".

Interpretation of Derivatives
The derivation of a mapping f(x) in math is denoted by f'(x) and can be contextually
interpreted as follows:
 The derivation of a mapping at a point is the slope of the tangent drawn to that curve
at that point.
 It also represents the instantaneous rate of change at a point on the map.
 The velocity of a particle is found by finding the derivative of the displacement
function.
 The derivatives are used to optimize (maximize/minimize) a function.
Thus, whenever we see the phrases like "slope/gradient", "rate of change", "velocity (given
the displacement)", "maximize/minimize" etc. Then it means that the concept of derivatives is
involved.

Derivation of a Function Using the First Principle

The derivation of a function can be obtained by the limit definition of derivative which is
f'(x) = limh→0 [f(x + h) - f(x) / h. This process is known as the differentiation by the first

19
principle. Let f(x) = x2 and we will find its derivative using the above derivative formula.
Here, f(x + h) = (x + h)2 as we have f(x) = x2. Then the derivative of f(x) is,
f '(x) = limh→0 [(x + h)2 - x2] / h
= limh→0 [ x2 + 2xh + h2 - x2] / h
= limh→0 [ 2xh + h2] / h
= limh→0 [ h(2x + h) ] / h
= limh→0 (2x + h)
= 2x + 0
= 2x
Thus, the derivative of x2 is 2x. But it may be difficult to use this limit definition to find the
derivatives of complex functions. Thus, there are some derivative formulas (of course, which
are derived from the above limit definition) that we can use readily in the process of
differentiation.

Power Rule of Derivatives

By using the above example, the derivative of x2 is 2x. Similarly, we can prove that the
derivative of x3 is 3x2, the derivative of x4 is 4x3, and so on. Power rule generalizes this and it
is stated as d/dx (xn) = n xn - 1.

Derivatives of Log/Exponential Functions

 The derivative of ln x is, d/dx (ln x) = 1/x
 The derivative of log x is, d/dx (loga x) = 1/(x ln a)
 The derivative of ex is, d/dx (ex) = ex
 The derivative of ax is, d/dx (ax) = ax ln a

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

20
2.2 Fundamental Rules of Derivatives
The following are the fundamental rules of derivatives. Let us discuss them in detail.
Power Rule: By this rule, if y = xn , then dy/dx = n x n-1 . Example: d/dx (x5) = 5x4.
Sum/Difference Rule: The derivative process can be distributed over addition/subtraction.
i.e., dy/dx [u ± v]= du/dx ± dv/dx.
Product Rule: The product rule of derivatives states that if a function is a multiplication of
two functions, then its derivation is the derivative of the second mapping multiplied by the
first function added to the derivation of the first function multiplied by the second function.
dy/dx [u × v] = u · dv/dx + v · du/dx. If y = x5 ex , we have y' = x5 . ex + ex . 5x4 = ex (x5 + 5x4)
Quotient Rule: The quotient rule of derivatives states that
d/dx (u/v) = (v·du/dx - u·dv/dx)/v2
Constant multiple Rule: The constant multiple rule of derivatives states that d/dx [c(f(x)] =
cd/dx f(x). i.e., the constant which when multiplied by a function, comes out of the
differentiation process. For example, d/dx (5x2) = 5 d/dx (x2) = 5(2x) = 10 x.
Constant Rule: The constant rule of derivatives state that the derivative of any constant is 0.
If y = k, where k is a constant, then dy/dx = 0. Suppose y = 4, y' = 0. This rule directly
follows from the power rule.

Derivatives of Composite Functions (Chain Rule)

If f and g are differentiable functions in their domain, then f(g(x)) is also differentiable. This
is known as the chain rule of differentiation used for composite functions. (fog)'(x) = f'[(g(x)]
g'(x). This also can be write as "if y = f(u) and u = g(x) , then dy/dx = dy/du · du/dx.
For example, consider y = tan2x. This is a composite function. We can write this function as y
= u2, where u = tan x. Then

21
dy/du = 2u
du/dx = d/dx (tan x) = sec2x
By the chain rule,
dy/dx = dy/du · du/dx
= 2u · sec2x
= 2 tan x sec 2 x

Derivatives of Implicit Functions

In equations where y as a function of x cannot be explicitly defined by the variables x and y,
we use implicit differentiation. If f(x, y) = 0, then differentiate on both sides with respect to x
and group the terms containing dy/dx at one side, and then solve for dy/dx.
For example, 2x + y = 12
d/dx(2x + y) = d/dx(0)
2 + dy/dx = 0
dy/dx = -2

Parametric Derivatives
In a function, we may have the dependent variables x and y which are dependent on the third
independent variable. If x = f(t) and y = g(t), then derivative is calculated as dy/dx =
f'(x)/g'(x). Suppose, if x = 4 + t2 and y = 4t2 -5t4 , then we find dy/dx as follows.
dx/ dt = 2t and dy/dt = 8t -20t3
dy/dx = (dy/dt)/(dx/dt)
dy/dx = (8t -20t3 )/2t
= 2t (4 - 10t2 ) / 2t
dy/dx = 4 - 10t2

Higher-order Derivatives
We can find the successive derivatives of a function and obtain the higher-order derivatives.
If y is a function, then its first derivative is dy/dx. The second derivative is d/dx (dy/dx)
which also can be written as d2y/dx2. The third derivative is d/dx (d2y/dx2) and is denoted by
d3y/dx3 and so on.
Alternatively, the first, second, and third derivatives of f(x) can be written as f'(x), f''(x), and
f'''(x). For higher order derivatives, we write the number in brackets as the exponent. Suppose

22
y = 4x3, we get the successive derivatives as follows. y' = 12x2 , y'' = 24 x and y''' = 24, y(4)=
0.

Partial Derivatives
If u = f(x,y) we can find the partial derivative of with respect to y by keeping x as the
constant or we can find the partial derivative with respect to x by keeping y as the constant.
Suppose f(x, y) = x3 y2 , the partial derivatives of the function are:
 ∂f/∂x(x3 y2) = 3x2y and
 ∂f/∂y(x3 y2) = x3 2y
Further, we can find the second-order partial derivatives also like ∂2f/∂x2, ∂2f/∂y2, ∂2f/∂x ∂y,
and ∂2f/∂y ∂x.

Finding Derivative Using Logarithmic Differentiation

Sometimes, the functions are too complex to find the derivatives (or) one function might be
raised to another function like y = f(x)g(x). In such cases, we can take log (or) ln on both sides,
apply log rules, and then differentiate on both sides to get dy/dx. This process is known
as logarithmic differentiation in calculus.

Example 2.1.1: Find the derivative of y = xx.

Solution:
Applying ln on both sides,
ln y = ln xx
ln y = x ln x
Taking derivative on both sides,
1/y dy/dx = x (1/x) + ln x (1) (by chain rule on left side and product rule on right side)
1/y dy/dx = 1 + ln x
dy/dx = y (1 + ln x) = xx (1 + ln x)

Maxima/Minima by Using Derivatives

The concept of slope, and hence the derivatives, is used to find the maximum or
minimum value of a function. There are two tests that use derivatives and are used to find the
maxima/minima of a function. They are
 first derivative test
23
 second derivative test

First Derivative Test

We can just use the first derivative to determine the maximum or minimum by observing
(Figure 2.2.1) the following points:
 f'(x) represents the slope of a tangent line.
 Hence, if f'(x) > 0, the function is increasing, and if f'(x) < 0, the function is decreasing.
 If f'(x) > 0 is changing to f'(x) < 0 at a point, then the function has a local maximum at that
point.
 If f'(x) < 0 is changing to f'(x) > 0 at a point, then the function has a minimum at that
point.
 Note that f'(x) = 0 at local maximum and local minimum.

Figure 2.2.1 Maxima & Minima

Second Derivative Test

The second derivative test uses the critical points and the second derivative to find the
maxima/minima. To perform this test:
 Find the critical points by setting f'(x) = 0.
 Substitute each of these in f''(x). If f''(x) < 0, then the function is maximum at that
point and if f''(x)>0, then the function is minimum at that point.
 If f''(x) = 0, the function neither has maxima nor minima at that point, and in this
case, it is known as the point of inflection.

24
2.3 Summary
The derivative of a function represents its rate of change with respect to its independent
variable. It gives the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at any point.
 The derivative of a function f(x) and higher-order derivatives with respect to x is denoted
by 𝑓’(𝑥), 𝑓’’(𝑥), 𝑓’’’(𝑥),......etc.
 Rules an formulas

2.4 Keywords

25
 Calculus
 Derivatives
 Parametric Derivatives
 Higher Order Derivatives
 Maxima and Minima

2.5 Self – Assessment Questions

1. Differentiate f(x)=3x4−5x2+2x−7.
2. Differentiate g(x)=(2x3+3x2−x+1)/x2.
3. Find the equation of the tangent line to f(x)=x2−4x+3 at x=2.
4. Determine the local extrema of h(x)=x3−6x2+9x+15.
5. Find the intervals of concavity and the inflection points for k(x)=x4−8x2.

2.6 Case Study

A ladder 10 feet long is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is sliding away
from the wall at a rate of 1 foot per second, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding down the
wall when the bottom is 6 feet from the wall?

2.7 References
1. Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2017). Calculus of a Single Variable (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.
2. Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.

26
 CHAPTER - 3
Limits and Continuous Function

Learning Objectives:
 Apply the concept of limits to analyze the behaviour of functions near specific points.
 Use algebraic manipulation and limit laws to simplify expressions and evaluate limits.
 Identify the three conditions for a function to be continuous at a point (existence of the
limit, existence of the function value, equality of the limit and function value).

Structure:
3.1 Limits and Continuity: Definitions, Types, Formulas
3.2 Continuity and Differentiability
3.3 Differentiability of Functions
3.4 Summary
3.5 Keywords
3.6 Self-Assessment Questions
3.7 Case Study
3.8 References

27
3.1 Limits and Continuity: Definitions, Types, Formulas
In calculus, limits and continuity are important concepts that help us understand the behavior
of functions as they approach certain values. A limit is a value that a function approaches as
its input approaches a certain value. Continuity is the property of a function that describes
whether it has any sudden jumps or breaks, or whether it can be drawn without lifting the pen
from the paper.

Introduction to Limits and Continuity

 Limits and continuity are fundamental concepts in calculus. They allow us to understand
how functions behave as their inputs approach certain values and to make precise
statements about the behaviour of functions at certain points.
 Continuity refers to the property of a function where the output changes smoothly and
gradually as the input changes. A function is continuous at a point in the event that the
limit of the function at that point exists and is equal to the esteem of the function at that
point. In the event that a function isn't continuous at a point, it is said to be discontinuous.
 Limits, on the other hand, allude to the behaviour of a function as the input approaches a
certain value/point. A limit can be utilized to portray what happens to a function if the
input gets subjectively near to a certain value, if the function isn't defined at that point.

Definition 3.1.1
The formal definition of a limit is given as follows:
For a function f(x), the limit of f(x) as x approaches a equals L, denoted as
Lim. f(x) = L
for every number ε > 0 there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such that |f(x) - L| < ε
whenever 0 < |x - a| < δ.
This definition can be hard to understand at first, but it basically says that as x gets arbitrarily
close to a, f(x) gets arbitrarily close to L. The ε and δ values represent arbitrarily small
positive numbers that determine the level of precision required for the limit.
For example, consider the function
f(x) = (x2 - 1)/(x - 1)
If we try to evaluate f(1), we get an undefined expression (0/0). However, we can find the
limit of f(x) as x approaches 1 by factoring the numerator and simplifying:
= f(x) = (x2 - 1)/(x - 1)
= (x + 1)(x - 1)/(x - 1)
28
=x+1
Now we can see that as x approaches 1, f(x) approaches 2. Therefore, we can write lim f(x) as
x approaches 1 = 2.

Properties of Limits
There are several important properties of limits that are useful for evaluating and
manipulating functions. These include:
 The limit of a whole is the sum of the limits:
lim (f(x) + g(x)) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
 The limit of a product is the product of the limits:
lim (f(x) * g(x)) = lim f(x) * lim g(x)
 The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits:
lim (f(x) / g(x)) = lim f(x) / lim g(x) (given lim g(x) ≠ 0)
 The limit of a constant multiple is the constant times the restrain:
lim (k * f(x)) = k * lim f(x)
 The limit of a composite function is the restrain of the external function connected to the
constrain of the inner function:
lim f(g(x)) = f(lim g(x))
In expansion to these properties, there are a few hypotheses that can be utilized to assess
limits, such as the squeeze theorem, which states that in the event that
g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x)
for all x in a few interim containing a, and lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L, at that point lim f(x) = L.
Another important theorem is the intermediate value theorem, which states that if f is a
continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] and c is a number between f(a) and f(b), at
that point there exists a number x between a and b such that f(x) = c.
Let's outline a few of these properties with a case. Consider the work
f(x) = x2 - 3x + 2
We can use the properties of limits to evaluate lim f(x) as x approaches 2.
First, we can factor in the expression:
f(x) = x2 - 3x + 2
= (x - 1)(x - 2)
Using the product property of limits, we can write:
lim f(x) as x approaches 2 = lim (x - 1)(x - 2) as x approaches 2
Then, we can use the limit laws to simplify this expression:
29
= lim (x - 1)(x - 2) as x approaches 2
= (lim (x - 2)) * (lim (x - 1)) as x approaches 2
= (2 - 2) * (2 - 1)
= 0
Therefore, we can conclude that lim f(x) as x approaches 2 = 0.

Evaluating Limits
Several methods for evaluating limits include direct substitution, factoring, and L'Hopital's
rule. Direct substitution is the simplest method, and it involves substituting the input value
directly into the function and evaluating the resulting expression.
For example, to evaluate
lim (x2 - 4x + 3)/(x - 3)
as x approaches 3, we can simply substitute x = 3 into the expression to get:
lim (x2 - 4x + 3)/(x - 3) = lim (32 - 4(3) + 3)/(3 - 3) = lim 0/0
Since this expression is indeterminate, we can use factoring or L'Hopital's rule to evaluate the
limit further.
Factoring involves rewriting the function as a product of simpler expressions that can be
canceled out.
For example, using the same limit as above, we can factor the numerator as
(x - 3)(x - 1) and cancel out the common factor of (x - 3) to get:
lim (x2 - 4x + 3)/(x - 3) = lim (x - 1)
as x approaches 3
This limit evaluates to 2, so we can conclude that
lim (x2 - 4x + 3)/(x - 3) as x approaches 3 = 2

L-Hospital's rule is another method for evaluating indeterminate limits. It involves taking the
derivative of both the numerator and denominator of the function and evaluating the resulting
expression. For example, to evaluate lim sin(x)/x as x approaches 0, we can apply L-
Hospital's rule to get:
lim sin(x)/x =lim cos(x) as x approaches 0
This limit evaluates to 1, so we can conclude that lim sin(x)/x as x approaches 0 = 1.

30
3.2 Continuity and Differentiability

Figure 3.2.1 Continuity and Differentiability

 Continuity and differentiability are closely related concepts in calculus. A function is said
to be continuous at a point if its graph has no breaks or jumps at that point. A function is
said to be differentiable at a point if it has a well-defined tangent line at that point.
 The differentiability implies continuity theorem states that if a function is differentiable at
a point, then it is also continuous at that point. However, the converse is not necessarily
true - a function can be continuous at a point but not differentiable at that point.
 For example, the function f(x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0, but it is not differentiable at that
point because it has a sharp corner.
 The relationship between continuity and differentiability can also be communicated
regarding the derivative. In the event that a function is differentiable at a point, at that
point its derivative exists at that point.
 The derivative gives the slant of the tangent line at that point, and the slant of the tangent
line can be utilized to decide whether the function is expanding or diminishing at that
point.

Types of Discontinuities
 A discontinuity occurs when a function has a break in its graph, either due to a hole, jump,
or asymptote.
 A removable discontinuity happens when a function has a gap in its graph, which can be
filled in by rethinking the function at that point.
 For illustration, the function f(x) = (x^2 - 4)/(x - 2) includes a removable discontinuity at x
= 2, where the function is vague. Be that as it may, we are able to redefine the work as f(x)
= x + 2 for x ≠ 2 to fill within the gap and make the function nonstop.
 A jump discontinuity happens when a work has two diverse limits from the left and right
sides of a point. For illustration, the work f(x) = {x on the off chance that x < 0, 1 in case x

31
 ≥ 0} includes a jump discontinuity at x = 0, since the left-hand restrain is and the right-
hand constrain is 1.
 An infinite discontinuity occurs when a function approaches positive or negative infinity
at a certain point. For example, the function f(x) = 1/x has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0
since the function grows without bound as x approaches 0.

Applications of Limits and Continuity

Limits and continuity are important mathematical concepts that have a variety of applications
in data science. Here are a few examples:
1. Derivatives and gradients: Limits are an essential component of calculus, which is the
foundation of many data science techniques. Derivatives, which are based on limits, are
used to calculate gradients, which are crucial for optimizing models using techniques such
as gradient descent.
2. Probability distributions: Continuous probability distributions are often used in data
science to model real-world phenomena. For example, the normal distribution is
commonly used to model the distribution of heights or weights in a population.
3. Regression analysis: In regression analysis, a continuous variable is predicted based on
other variables. The concept of continuity is essential here, as the prediction function must
be continuous in order to be useful.
4. Time series analysis: Time series data is a sequence of values that are ordered by time.
The continuity of time is an important aspect of time series analysis, as it allows us to
model the relationship between past and future values.
5. Signal processing: Many signals, such as audio or video, are continuous in nature.
Techniques from calculus, such as Fourier transforms, are used to analyze and process
these signals.

Conclusion
In conclusion, limits and continuity are fundamental concepts in calculus that help us
understand the behaviour of functions as they approach certain values. They are important in
many fields, such as physics, economics, and engineering, and are used to model and
optimize various systems. The relationship between continuity and differentiability is also
important, with differentiability implying continuity. Overall, understanding limits and
continuity is crucial for a solid foundation in calculus.

32
Key Takeaways
1. A limit is a value that a function approaches as its input approaches a certain value.
2. Continuity is the property of a function that describes whether it has any sudden jumps or
breaks.
3. Evaluating limits can involve different methods, such as direct substitution, factoring, and
L-Hospital's rule.
4. Types of discontinuities include removable, jump, and infinite discontinuities.
5. Differentiability implies continuity, but the converse is not necessarily true.
6. Limits and continuity are fundamental concepts in calculus and are important for
understanding the behaviour of functions.

3.3 Differentiability of Functions:

The differentiation of a function gives the change of the function value with reference to the
change in the domain of the function. Differentiability of a function can be understood both
graphically and algebraically. Geometrically the differentiation of function is the slope of the
graph of the function y = f(x) at the point x=a, in the domain of the function. Algebraically
the differentiation of the function is the change in the value of the function y = f(x)
from (𝑥1) to (𝑥2), with reference to the change in the domain value of x from 𝑥1, to 𝑥2. This
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥 2 )−𝑓(𝑥 2 )
can be expressed as 𝑑𝑥 = .
𝑥 2 −𝑥 1

Figure 3.3.1: Differentiability of Functions

𝑑𝑦
Differentiation of the function at point 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑥

33
For a real valued function f(x) having a point x = c in the domain of this function, the
𝑓(𝑐+𝑕)−𝑓(𝑐)
derivative of the function f(x) at the point x = c is defined as 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑐 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = .
𝑕

Thus the derivative of a function is defined as f'(x) or (d/dx)f(x) and is also represented
𝑓(𝑥+𝑕)−𝑓(𝑥)
as 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑥→𝑕 . This process of finding the derivative is called as
𝑕

differentiation. Also, the phrase differentiate f(x) with respect to x is used to mean dy/dx or
f'(x).
The three important rules of the algebra of differentiation of functions are as follows.
(f + g)'(x) = f'(x) + g'(x)
(f.g)'(x) = f'(x).g(x) + g'(x).f(x)
(f/g)'(x) = (f'(x).g(x) - g'(x).f(x))/(f(x))2

The following are some of the important differentiation of the functions f(x) based on the
type of functions.
 Derivative of Composite Function
 Derivatives of Implicit Functions
 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
 Derivatives of Exponential Functions
 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms

Theorems on Continuity and Differentiability

The following important theorems on continuity and differentiability, set the right
background for the deeper understanding of the concepts of continuity and differentiability.
Theorem 3.3.1: If two functions f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a real valued function and
continuous at a point x = c, then we have:
f(x) + g(x) is continuous at the point c = c
f(x) - g(x) is continuous at a point x = c
g(x).g(x) is continuous at point x = c
f(x)/g(x) is continuous at a point x = c, provided g(c) ≠ 0

Theorem 3.3.2: For two real values functions f(x) and g(x) such that the composite function
fog(x) is defined at x = c. If g(x) is continuous at x = c and the function f(x) is continuous at
g(c), then fog(x) is continuous at x = c.

34
Theorem 3.3.3: If a given function f(x) is differentiable at a point x = c, then it is continuous
at that point. This can be summarized as every differentiable function is continuous.

Theorem 3.3.4: Chain Rule: For a real valued function f(x), which is a composite of two
functions u and v ie, f = vou. Also let us suppose t = u(x) and if both dt/dx and dv/dt exists,
then we have df/dx = dv/dt.dt.dx.

Theorem 3.3.5: The derivative of ex with respect to x is ex. d/dx.ex = 1. And the derivative of
logx with respect to x is 1/d. d/dx. logx = 1/x.

Theorem 3.3.6: (Rolle's Theorem). If a function f(x) is continuous across the interval [a, b]
and differentiable across the interval (a, b), such that f(a) = f(b), and a, b are some real
numbers. Then there exists a point c in the interval [a, b] such that f'(c) = 0.

Theorem 3.3.7: (Mean Value Theorem). If a function f(x) is continuous across the interval
[a, b] and differentiable across the interval (a, b), then there exists a point c in the interval [a,
b] such that 𝑓′(𝑐)=𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)𝑏−𝑎.

Successive Differential
Successive differentiation is the differentiation of a function successively to derive its higher-
order derivatives.
1. If 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥) is a function of 𝑥, then the derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥 is denoted
by 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 or 𝐷𝑦 or 𝑓′(𝑥) or 𝑦1. This is the first-order derivative of 𝑦.
2. If 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 is differentiated again, 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥) is derivable twice with respect to 𝑥, then the
derivative of 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 with respect to 𝑥 is denoted by 𝑑2𝑦/𝑑𝑥2 or 𝐷2𝑦 or 𝑓′′(𝑥) or 𝑦2.This is
the second-order derivative of 𝑦.
3. If 𝑑2𝑦/𝑑𝑥2 is differentiated again, 𝑦=𝑓(𝑥) is derivable thrice with respect to 𝑥, then the
derivative of 𝑑2𝑦/𝑑𝑥2 with respect to 𝑥 is denoted by 𝑑3𝑦/𝑑𝑥3 or 𝐷3𝑦 or 𝑓′′′(𝑥) or 𝑦3. This
is called the third-order derivative of 𝑦.

Implicit vs Explicit
A function can be explicit or implicit:
Explicit: "y = some function of x". When we know x we can calculate y directly.

35
Implicit: "some function of y and x equals something else". Knowing x does not lead directly
to y.

Example 3.3.1:
Explicit Form Implicit Form
y = ± √ (r2 − x2) x2 + y2 = r2
In this form, y is expressed In this form, the function is
as a function of x. expressed in terms of both y and x.

Figure 3.3.2: The graph of x2 + y2 = 32

How to do Implicit Differentiation

 Differentiate with respect to x
 Collect all the dy/dx on one side
 Solve for dy/dx

Example 3.3.1: x2 + y2 = r2
Differentiate with respect to x:
d/dx(x2) + d/dx(y2) = d/dx(r2)
Let's solve each term:
Use the Power Rule:d/dx(x2) = 2x
Use the Chain Rule (explained below):d/dx(y2) = 2ydy/dx
r2 is a constant, so its derivative is 0:d/dx(r2) = 0
Which gives us:
2x + 2ydy/dx = 0
Collect all the dy/dx on one side

36
ydy/dx = −x
Solve for dy/dx:
dy/dx = −xy

Leibniz Theorem
Leibniz rule generalizes the product rule of differentiation. The Leibniz rule states that if two
functions f(x) and g(x) are differentiable n times individually, then their product f(x).g(x) is
𝑛
also differentiable n times. The Leibniz rule is (𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥))𝑛 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑓 (𝑛−𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟 (𝑥)
The Leibniz rule can be applied to the product of multiple functions and for numerous
derivatives. Let us understand the different formulas and proof of Leibniz rule.
𝑛
𝑛
(𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝐶𝑟 𝑓 (𝑛 −𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟 (𝑥)
𝑛!
Here n𝐶𝑟 = 𝑟!.(𝑛−𝑟)!. and n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × ....(n - 1) × n.

The Leibniz rule is primarily used as the derivative of the product of two functions. The
Leibniz rule for the first derivative of the product of the functions f(x), and g(x) is equal to
the sum of the product of the first derivative of the function f(x), and the function g(x), and
the product of the first derivative of the function g(x), and the function f(x). .
(f(x).g(x))' = f'(x).g(x) + f(x).g'(x)
or
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
. 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥). . 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥). . 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Further we can use the leibniz rule to find the second derivative of the product of two
functions. The leibniz rule for the second derivative of the product of the functions f(x) and
g(x) can be understood to be similar to the binomial expansion of two terms of second
degree. Let us also check the second derivative of the product of the functions.
(f(x).g(x))'' = f''(x).g(x) + 2f'(x).g'(x) + f(x).g'(x)
or
𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑2
. 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥). . 𝑓(𝑥) + 2 . 𝑓(𝑥). . 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥). . 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

The Leibniz rule can be applied to the product of multiple functions and for numerous
derivatives. The Leibniz rule can be proved using mathematical induction.

37
Proof of Leibniz Rule
The Leibniz rule can be proved with the help of mathematical induction. Let f(x) and g(x) be
n times differentiable functions. Applying the initial case of mathematical induction for n = 1
we have the following expression.
(f(x).g(x))' = f'(x).g(x) + f(x).g'(x)
Which is the simple product rule and it holds true for n = 1. Let us assume that this statement
is true for all n > 1, and we have the below expression.
𝑛

(𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥))𝑛 = 𝐶𝑟 𝑓 (𝑛−𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟 (𝑥)

Further we have the following expression for n + 1.

(𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥))𝑛+1 =𝑛 𝐶𝑟𝑛 𝑓 (𝑛−𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟 (𝑥)

𝑟=0

=𝑛 .𝑛 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑓 (𝑛 +1−𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟 (𝑥) +𝑛 .𝑛 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑓 (𝑛−𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟+1 (𝑥)

𝑟=0 𝑟=0

=𝑛 .𝑛 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑓 (𝑛 +1−𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟 (𝑥) +𝑛+1 .𝑛 𝐶𝑟−1 . 𝑓 (𝑛+1−𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟 (𝑥)

𝑟=0 𝑟=1

=𝑛 𝐶0 . 𝑓 𝑛+1 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 +𝑛 .𝑛 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑓 𝑛 +1−𝑟
𝑥 . 𝑔𝑟 𝑥
𝑟=1

+𝑛 .𝑛 𝐶𝑟−1 . 𝑓 𝑛 +1−𝑟
𝑥 . 𝑔𝑟 𝑥 +𝑛 𝐶𝑛 . 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔𝑛 +1 𝑥
𝑟=1

= 𝑓 𝑛 +1 (𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)+𝑛 [𝑛 𝐶𝑟 +𝑛 𝐶𝑟 ]. 𝑓 (𝑛+1−𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟 (𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔𝑛+1 (𝑥).

𝑟=1

= 𝑓 𝑛 +1 𝑥 . 𝑔 𝑥 +𝑛 .𝑛+1 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑓 𝑛 +1−𝑟
𝑥 . 𝑔𝑟 𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑔𝑛+1 𝑥
𝑟=1

=𝑛+1 .𝑛+1 𝐶𝑟 . 𝑓 (𝑛 +1−𝑟) (𝑥). 𝑔𝑟 (𝑥)

𝑟=0

Examples on Leibniz Rule

Example 3.3.2: Find the derivative of the product of the functions f(x) = x4 , and g(x) =
Logx, using the Leibniz rule.
Solution:
The two given functions are f(x) = x4 , and g(x) = Logx.
The rule for Leibniz formula for product of two functions f(x), g(x) is

38
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
. 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥). . 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥). . 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 4 𝑑 𝑑
= . 𝑥 . 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥. . 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 4 . . 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 4 1
= . 𝑥 . 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥. 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 4
. 𝑥 . 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 . 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥

Therefore, by using leibniz rule the derivative of the product of the two given functions
is 4𝑥 3 . 𝐿𝑜𝑔𝑥 + 𝑥 3 .

3.4 Summary
Understanding limits and continuous functions is fundamental in the study of differential
equations, as it lays the groundwork for analyzing and solving these equations accurately.
 L'Hôpital's Rule: If the limit results in an indeterminate form 0/0 or ∞/∞, differentiate the
numerator and the denominator and then find the limit.
 Limits: The limit of a function f(x) as x approaches a point a is denoted as Limx→af(x). It
represents the value that f(x) gets closer to as x gets closer to a.
 Continuous Functions: A function f(x) is continuous at a point a if the following three
conditions are met:
1. f(a) is defined.
2. Limx→af(x) exists.
3. Limx→af(x) =f(a).
 A function f(x) is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point within the
interval.

3.5 Keywords
 Limit and Continuity
 Differentiability
 Leibnitz‟s rule
 Euler‟s theorem

3.6 Self – Assessment Questions

1. Determine if f(x)=(x2−4)/(x+2) is continuous at x=−2.
39
2. Investigate the continuity of g(x)=x at x=0.
3. Compute the limit of f(x)=(x2−1)/(x−1) as x approaches 1.
4. Find limx→∞(1/x) and limx→0+ln(x).
5. Determine limx→∞(2x2−3x+1)/(3x2+5).
6. Calculate limx→−∞(ex /x).
7. Apply L'Hôpital's Rule to evaluate limx→0(sin(x)/x).

3.7 Case Study

a) The height of a ladder above the ground is dropping at a rate of 0.1 meters per second as it
leans against a wall. With its base three meters from the wall, how quickly is the ladder
slipping away from the wall?
b) What does the ladder's motion indicate from the pace at which its distance from the wall
changes?

3.8 References
1. Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2017). Calculus of a Single Variable (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.
2. Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.

40
 CHAPTER - 4
Partial Differentiation

Learning Objectives:
 Apply the concept of partial derivatives to analyze the rate of change of a function with
respect to one of its variables while holding other variables constant.
 Differentiate functions of multiple variables with respect to one variable while treating
other variables as constants.
 Identify and analyze real-world applications of partial derivatives, such as optimization
problems in economics, physics, and engineering.

Structure:
4.1 Partial Derivative
4.2 First Order Partial Derivatives
4.3 Second Order Partial Derivatives
4.4 Power Rule
4.5 Product Rule
4.6 Quotient Rule
4.7 Chain Rule of Partial Differentiation
4.8 Maxima and Minima
4.9 Euler‟s theorem on homogeneous functions
4.10 Lagrange‟s method of undetermined multipliers
4.11 Summary
4.12 Keywords
4.13 Self-Assessment Questions
4.14 Case Study
4.15 References

41
4.1 Partial Derivative
The partial derivative of a function (in two or more variables) is its derivative with respect to
one of the variables keeping all the other variables as constants. The process of calculating
partial derivative is as same as that of an ordinary derivative except we consider the other
variables as the variable with respect to which we are differentiating as constants.
Let us learn more about how to calculate partial derivatives of different orders along with
examples.

What is Partial Derivative?

The partial derivative of a multivariable function, say z = f(x, y), is its derivative with respect
to one of the variables, x or y in this case, where the other variables are treated as constants.
For example,
 for finding the partial derivative of f(x, y) with respect to x (which is represented by ∂f /
∂x), y is treated as constant
 for finding the partial derivative of f(x, y) with respect to y (which is represented by ∂f /
∂y), x is treated as constant
Note that we are not considering all the variables as variables while doing partial
differentiation (instead, we are considering only one variable as a variable at a time) and
hence the name "partial". The limit definition of a partial derivative looks very similar to
the limit definition of the derivative. We can find the partial derivatives using the following
limit formulas:
If z=f(x, y), then
 ∂f / ∂x = lim h → 0 [ f(x + h, y) - f(x, y) ] / h
 ∂f / ∂y = lim h → 0 [ f(x, y + h) - f(x, y) ] / h
These formulas resemble the derivative definition using the first principle.

Example 4.1.1
If f (x, y) = xy, then find the partial derivative ∂f / ∂x.
Solution:
∂f / ∂x = lim h → 0 [ f(x + h, y) - f(x, y) ] / h
= lim h → 0 [ (x + h)y - xy ] / h
= lim h → 0 [xy + hy - xy] / h
= lim h → 0 [hy]/h

42
= lim h → 0 y
=y
Therefore, ∂f / ∂x = y.

Partial Derivative Symbol

We know that the ordinary derivative of a function y = f(x) is denoted by one of the notations
dy/dx, d/dx (y), d/dx (f(x)), f '(x), etc. For representing a partial derivative, we use the symbol
"∂" instead of "d". We pronounce "∂" to be "doh" but it has some other names like "partial",
"del", "partial dee", "dee", "Jacobi's delta", etc. If z = f(x, y) is a function in two variables
then
 ∂f / ∂x is the partial derivative of f with respect to x
 ∂f / ∂y is the partial derivative of f with respect to y
Just like how we have different symbols of ordinary derivatives, we have different notations
for partial derivatives as well. For example, ∂f / ∂x can be written as fx, fx', Dxf, ∂ / ∂x (f),
∂x f, ∂ / ∂x [f(x, y)], ∂z / ∂x, etc.

Calculate Partial Derivatives

We have already seen that the limit definitions are used to find the partial derivatives. But
using the limit formula and computing the limit is not always easy. Thus, we have another
method to calculate partial derivatives that follow right from its definition. In this method, if
z = f(x, y) is the function, then we can compute the partial derivatives using the following
steps:
 Step 1: Identify the variable with respect to which we have to find the partial derivative.
 Step 2: Except for the variable found in Step 1, treat all the other variables as constants.
 Step 3: Differentiate the function just using the rules of ordinary differentiation.
Wait! Read Step 3 again. Yes, the rules of ordinary differentiation are as same as that of
partial differentiation. In partial differentiation, just treating variables is different, that's it!

Example 4.1.2
Let us solve the same above example (If f (x, y) = xy, then find the partial derivative ∂f / ∂x)
using the above steps.
Solution:

43
We have to find ∂f / ∂x. It means, we have to find the partial derivative of f with respect to x.
So we treat y as constant. Thus, we can write 'y' outside the derivative (as in ordinary
differentiation, we have a rule that says d/dx (c y) = c dy/dx, where 'c' is a constant). Thus,
∂f / ∂x = ∂ / ∂x (xy)
= y ∂ / ∂x (x)
= y (1) (Using power rule, d/dx (x) = 1)
=y
We have got the same answer as we got using the limit definition.
Partial Derivatives of Different Orders
We have derivatives like first-order derivatives (like dy/dx), second-order derivatives (like
d2y/dx2), etc in ordinary derivatives. Likewise, we have first-order, second-order, and higher-
order derivatives in partial derivatives also.

4.2 First Order Partial Derivatives

If z = f(x, y) is a function in two variables, then it can have two first-order partial derivatives,
namely ∂f / ∂x and ∂f / ∂y.

Example 4.2.1
If z = x2 + y2, find all the first order partial derivatives.
Solution:
fx = ∂f / ∂x = (∂ / ∂x) (x2 + y2)
= (∂ / ∂x) (x2) + (∂ / ∂x) (y2)
= 2x + 0 (as y is a constant)
= 2x
fy = ∂f / ∂y = (∂ / ∂y) (x2 + y2)
= (∂ / ∂y) (x2) + (∂ / ∂y) (y2)
= 0 + 2y (as x is a constant)
= 2y

4.3 Second Order Partial Derivatives

The second-order partial derivative is obtained by differentiating the function with respect to
the indicated variables successively one after the other. If z = f(x, y) is a function in two
variables, then it can have four second-order partial derivatives, namely ∂2f / ∂x2, ∂2f / ∂y2,
∂2f / ∂x ∂y and ∂2f / ∂y ∂x. To find them, we can first differentiate the function partially with
44
the latter variable, and then partially differentiate the result with respect to the former
variable. i.e.,
 fxx = ∂2f / ∂x2 = ∂ / ∂x (∂f / ∂x) = ∂ / ∂x (fx)
 fyy = ∂2f / ∂y2 = ∂ / ∂y (∂f / ∂y) = ∂ / ∂x (fy)
 fyx = ∂2f / ∂x ∂y = ∂ / ∂x (∂f / ∂y) = ∂ / ∂x (fy)
 fxy = ∂2f / ∂y ∂x = ∂ / ∂y (∂f / ∂x) = ∂ / ∂y (fx)
Observe the notations fyx and fxy. The order of variables in each subscript indicates the order
of partial differentiation. For example, fyx means to partially differentiate with respect to y
first and then with respect to x, and this is same as ∂2f / ∂x ∂y.

Example 4.3.1
If z = x2 + y2, find all the second order partial derivatives.
Solution:
In the above example, we have already found that fx = 2x and fy = 2y.
Now, fxx = ∂ / ∂x (fx) = ∂ / ∂x (2x) = 2
fyy = ∂ / ∂y (fy) = ∂ / ∂y (2y) = 2
fyx = ∂ / ∂x (fy) = ∂ / ∂x (2y) = 0
fxy = ∂ / ∂y (fx) = ∂ / ∂y (2x) = 0
Now that fyx = fxy. Thus, the order of partial differentiation doesn't matter.

Partial Differentiation Formulas

The process of finding partial derivatives is known as Partial Differentiation. To find the
first-order partial derivatives (as discussed earlier) of a function z = f(x, y) we use the
following limit formulas:
 ∂f / ∂x = lim h → 0 [ f(x + h, y) - f(x, y) ] / h
 ∂f / ∂y = lim h → 0 [ f(x, y + h) - f(x, y) ] / h

But instead of using these formulas, just treating all the other variables than the variable with
respect to which we are partially differentiating as constants would make the process of
partial differentiation very easier. In this process, we just use the same rules as ordinary
differentiation and among them; the important rules are as follows:

45
4.4 Power Rule
The power rule of differentiation says (d/dx0(xn) = nxn-1. The same rule can be applied in
partial derivatives also.
Example 4.4.1
∂ / ∂x (x2y)=?
Solution:
∂ / ∂x (x2y) = y ∂ / ∂x (x2) = y (2x) = 2xy.

4.5 Product Rule

The product rule of ordinary differentiation says d/dx (uv) = u dv/dx + v du/dx. We can apply
the same rule in partial differentiation as well when there are two functions of the same
variable.
Example 4.5.1
∂ / ∂x (xy sin x)=?
Solution:
∂ / ∂x (xy sin x) = y ∂ / ∂x (x sin x)
= y [ x ∂ / ∂x (sin x) + sin x ∂ / ∂x (x)]
= y [ x cos x + sin x]

4.6 Quotient Rule

The quotient rule of ordinary differentiation says d/dx (u/v) = [ v du/dx - u dv/dx] / v2. As
other rules, this rule can be applied for finding partial derivatives also.
Example 4.6.1
∂ / ∂x (xy / sin x)=?
Solution:
∂ / ∂x (xy / sin x)
= y ∂ / ∂x (x / sin x)
= y [ ( sin x ∂ / ∂x (x) - x ∂ / ∂x (sin x) ) / sin2x ]
= y [ sin x - x cos x] / sin2x

4.7 Chain Rule of Partial Differentiation

The chain rule is used when we have to differentiate an implicit function. The chain rule of
partial derivatives works a little differently when compared to ordinary derivatives.
Sometimes, the rule involves both partial derivatives and ordinary derivatives. There are
46
various forms of this rule and the application of one of them depends upon how each variable
of the function is defined.
 If y = f(x) is a function where x is again a function of two variables u and v (i.e., x = x (u,
v)) then
∂f/∂u = ∂f/∂x · ∂x/∂u;
∂f/∂v = ∂f/∂x · ∂x/∂v
 If z = f(x, y), where each of x and y are again functions of a variable t (i.e., x = x(t) and y
= y(t)) then
df/dt = (∂f/∂x · dx/dt) + (∂f/∂y · dy/dt)
 If z = f(x, y) is a function and each of x and y are again functions of two variables u and v
(i.e., x = x(u, v) and y = y(u, v)) then
∂f/∂u = ∂f/∂x · ∂x/∂u + ∂f/∂y · ∂y/∂u;
∂f/∂v = ∂f/∂x · ∂x/∂v + ∂f/∂y · ∂y/∂v

Example 4.7.1
If z = exy, where x = uv and y = u + v then find the partial derivative ∂f/∂u.
Solution:
By the chain rule of partial derivatives:
∂f/∂u = ∂f/∂x · ∂x/∂u + ∂f/∂y · ∂y/∂u
= ∂ / ∂x (exy) · ∂ / ∂u (uv) + ∂ / ∂y (exy) · ∂ / ∂u (u + v)
= (exy · y) (v) + (exy · x) (1)
= exy (x + vy)

Other Rules of Partial Differentiation

 If f(x, y) = a constant, then the following formula gives the relation between the ordinary
derivative and the partial derivatives which follows from implicit differentiation.
dy/dx =-fx/fy.
 For any two functions u(x, y) and v(x, y),
the determinant ∣∣∣(∂u/∂x)(∂u/∂y)(∂v/∂x)(∂v/∂y)∣∣∣|(∂𝑢/∂𝑥)(∂𝑢/∂𝑦)(∂𝑣/∂𝑥)(∂𝑣/∂𝑦)| is
known as Jacobian of u and v.
 The Laplace equation of partial derivatives is ∂2f/∂x2 + ∂2f/∂y2 + ∂2f/∂z2 = 0 where f(x, y,
z) is a function in three variables. Any function f that satisfies the Laplace equation is
known as the harmonic function.

47
4.8 Maxima and Minima
Maxima and Minima are called critical points of the function. A maxima is a high point and
a minima is a low point in any function. In a function, more than one maximum and
minimum point can exist. The points at which the function attains the highest and lowest
values are called Maxima and Minima.

Relative Maxima and Minima

Relative maxima and minima are the points at which the function gives the maximum and
minimum values respectively in their neighbourhood. Relative maxima and minima of any
function are easily found by using the first derivatives and second derivative test
respectively. The graph added below the relative maxima and minima (Figure 4.8.1) of a
function in its neighbourhood.

Figure 4.8.1 Relative Maxima & Minima

Points of Maxima and Minima (First Derivative Test)

In any smoothly changing function, the points where the function flattens out, give us either
minima or maxima. Now, this statement gives rise to two questions.
1. How to recognize the points at which function flattens out?
2. Suppose we got a point at which function flattens i.eofcritical point. How to tell whether
it‟s a minimum or a maximum?
To answer the first question let‟s look at the slope of the function. The points where the
function flattens out have zero slopes. We know that the derivative is nothing but the slope
of the function at a particular point. So, we try to find the points where the derivative is
zero. Thus, this test is also called the First Derivative Test. Then we equate the differential
equation with zero to get the critical points as,
f'(x) = 0

48
The solution to this equation gives us the position of the critical points. These critical points
tells us that these are the points where the tangent to the curve is parallel to x-axis but still
we don‟t know whether they are points o maxima or minima for that Second Derivative test
is used.

Recognizing Maxima and Minima

As shown in the figure below, it can be seen that if the sign of the derivative is positive
before the critical point and negative after the critical point, it is a maximum. Similarly, if it
is negative before the critical point and positive after the critical point. It is a minimum.
Maxima and minima can also be recognized by the second derivative test.

Figure 4.8.2 Maxima & Minima Slope

Notice the Figure 4.8.2 carefully, and see that the slope of the curve is continuously
decreasing, and then it becomes zero and goes further towards a negative value.

Second Derivative Test

When a function‟s slope is zero at x, then the second derivative f”(x) at that point is used to
tell whether at that point we have maxima or minima.
1. If f”(x) < 0, then maxima.
2. If f”(x) > 0, then minima.
Note: If the second derivative is zero at the critical points, then the test fails.

Steps to Find Relative Maxima and Minima

To find the relative maxima and minima of a function follow the steps added below, for a
given function,
f(x) = x2 – 4

49
We obtain the maximum and minimum value in the interval [-2, 2] as,

Step 1: Differentiate the Function

Given,
 f(x) = x2 – 4
 f'(x) = 2x

Step 2: Find out Critical Points

Putting f'(x) = 0 gives us the position of the critical points for the function. For the given
function,
2x = 0
⇒x=0
Thus, x = 0 is a critical point for this function. Now we need to find out whether it is a
minimum or a maximum.

Step 3: Test for the Second Derivative

We use the second derivative test mentioned above to obtain whether the given critical
point is minima or maxima. In the above case,
f”(x) = 2
Notice that, f”(x) > 0. Thus, it must be a minimum.

Step 4: Value at Critical Points

Find the value of the function at critical points get the smallest value(or the minima)
 f(0). = (0)2 – 4 = -4
Thus, the minimum value of f(x) is at x = 0 and the minimum value is -4.

Applications of Relative Maxima and Minima

Relative Maxima and Minima has various applications. it is used for various purposes such
as,
 This concept is used to determine the maximum and minimum value of a stock at
particular points by equating it to a function that represent the trajectory of the stocks.
 This concept are used in electronic circuits to manage the voltage and current in the
system.

50
 Relative maxima and minima is also used in astrophyscis to find the maximum and
minimum trajectory of an abject, etc.

Absolute Minima and Maxima

Absolute Maxima and Minima are the maximum and minimum value of the function defined
in fixed interval. A function in general can have high values or low values as we move along
the function. The maximum value of function in any interval is known as the maxima and
minimum value of function is named as the minima. These maxima and minima if defined on
the whole functions are called the Absolute Maxima and Absolute Minima of the function.
In this article, we will learn about Absolute Maxima and Minima, How to calculate absolute
maxima and minima, their examples, and others in detail.
Definition 4.8.1
Absolute maximum and absolute minimum
An absolute maximum of fat c if f(c)≥f(x)for all x in domainof f. The number f(c) is called
maximum value off in the domain. Similarly an absolute minimum of fat c if f(c)≤f(x) for
all x in domain of f and the number f(c) is called the minimum value of f on the domain. The
maximum and minimum value of f are called extreme values of f.

Absolute maxima and minima are maximum and minimum value of function on entire given
range. Absolute Maxima and Minima are similarly named the global maxima and minima of
the function it is the maximum and the minimum value that the function can achieve in its
entire domain. Suppose we have a function f(x) = sinx., defined on interval R that is -1 ≤ sin
x ≤ 1.
Thus,
 Maximum value of f(x). is 1
 Minimum value of f(x). is -1
Thus, absolute maxima and minima of f(x) = sin x defined over R is 1 and -1.

Critical Points and Extrema Value Theorem

Let‟s say we have a function f(x), critical points are the points with derivative of the function
becomes zero. These points can either be maxima or minima. A critical point is minima or
maxima are determined by the second derivative test. Since there can be more than one point
where the derivative of the function is zero, more than minima or maxima is possible. The
figure below shows a function that has multiple critical points.
51
 Figure 4.8.3 Absolute and Local Points of the Maxima & Minima

Notice the Figure 4.8.3, that points A, C are minima, and points B, D are maxima. B and C
are called local maxima and local minima respectively. This means that these points are
maximum and minimum in their locality but not necessarily on a global level. Points A and D
are called global minima and global maxima.
Let‟s say we have a function f(x) which is twice differentiable. Its critical points are given by
the f'(x) = 0. Second Derivative Test allows us to check whether the calculated critical point
is minima or maxima.
 If f”(x) > 0, then the point x is maxima.
 If f”(x) < 0, then the point x is minima.
Now, this test tells us which point is a minimum or a maximum, but it still fails to give us
information about the global maxima and global minima. Extrema value Theorem comes to
our rescue.

Extrema Value Theorem

Extrema value theorem guarantees both the maxima and minima for a function under certain
conditions. This theorem does not tell us where the extreme points will exist, this theorem
tells us only that extreme value will exist. The theorem states that,
If, function f(x)is continuous on closed interval [a, b], then f(x) has both at least one
maximum and minimum value on [a, b].

52
Absolute Minima and Maxima in Closed Interval
Now to find the extreme points in any interval, we need to follow some basic steps. Let‟s say
we have a function f(x) and a region D. We obtain the extreme value of the function in the
interval.
Step 1: Find the critical points of function in interval D,
f'(x) = 0
Step 2: Find the value of the function at the extreme points of interval D.
Step 3: The largest value and smallest value found in the above two steps are absolute
maximum and absolute minimum of function.

Absolute Minima and Maxima in Entire Domain

Absolute minimum and maximum values of function in the entire domain are the highest and
lowest value of the function wherever it is defined. A function can have both maximum and
minimum values, either one of them or neither of them. For example, a straight line extends
up to infinity in both directions so it neither has a maximum value nor minimum value.
We need to follow some steps similar to the previous case to find out the absolute maxima
and minima for the entire domain.
Step 1: Find the critical points of the function wherever it is defined.
Step 2: Find the value of the function at these extreme points.
Step 3: Check for the value of the function when x tends to infinity and negative infinity.
Also, check for the points of discontinuity.
Step 4: Maximum and minimum of all these values give us the absolute maximum and
absolute minimum for the function in its entire domain.

Local Maxima and Minima

Local Maxima and Local Minima are the maximum and minimum value of the function
relative to other points over a specific interval of the function. They are generally calculated
in the same way we calculate Absolute maxima and minima. Local maxima and minima of
any function can be similar or not similar to Absolute maxima and minima of the function.
Suppose we have a function f(x) = cos x defined on [-π, π] then is maximum value is 1 and its
minimum value is -1 this is the local maxima and minima of the function. Now the function
f(x) defined on R also has the maximum and minimum value of the function to be 1 and -1
this is absolute maxima and minima of the f(x). Here, we can see that local maxima and
minima of the function are similar.
53
 f functionhas a local maximum (or relative maximum) at c if an open interval (a,b)
containing c such that f(c).≥.f(x) for every x ∈ (a,b)
 Similarly,local minimum of f at c if there is an open interval (a,b) containing c such
that f(c) ≤ f(x) for every x ! (a,b).

Note
Absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of a function f on an interval (a,b) are also
called the global maximum and global minimum of f in (a,b).
Criteria for local maxima and local minima
Let f be a differentiable function on an open interval (a,b) containing c and suppose
that f „‟ (c) exists.
(i) If f „ (c) = 0 and f „‟ (c) > 0, then local minimum of fat c.
(ii) If f „ (c) = 0 and f „‟ (c) < 0,then local maximum of fat c.

Note
In Economics, if y = f(x) represent cost function or revenue function, then the point at which
dy/dx = 0, the cost or revenue is maximum or minimum.

Example 4.8.1
Find extrema values of f(x)=2x3+3x2–12x.
Solution:
Given
f(x) = 2x3+3x2–12x … (1)
2
f „ (x) = 6x +6x–12
f''(x) = 12x + 6
f „ (x) = 0 ⟹ 6x2+6x–12 =0
⟹ 6(x2+x–2)= 0
⟹ 6(x+2)(x–1)= 0
⟹ x = –2 and x = 1
When
x= –2
f „‟ (–2) = 12(–2) + 6
= –18 < 0

54
f(x) attains local maximum at x = – 2 and local maximum value is obtained from (1) by
substituting the value x = – 2
f(–2) = 2 (–2)3+3(–2)2–12(–2)
= –16+12+24
= 20.
When
x=1
f „‟ (1) = 12(1) + 6
= 18.
f(x) attains local minimum at x = 1 and the local minimum value is obtained
by substituting x = 1 in (1).
f(1) = 2(1) + 3(1) – 12 (1)
= –7
Extremum values are – 7 and 20.

Example 4.8.2
Find the absolute (global) maximum and absolute minimum of the function f(x)=3x5–
25x3+60x+1 in the interval [–2,2]
Solution :
f(x) = 3x5-25x3+60x+1 … (1)
f’ (x) = 15x4–75x2+60
= 15(x4–5x2+4)
f „ (x) = 0 ⟹ 15(x4–5x2+4)= 0
⟹ (x2–4)(x2–1)= 0
x = ±2 (or) x = ±1
of these four points − 2, ±1 ∈ [−2, 1] and 2 ∉ [−2,1]
From (1)
f(–2) = 3 ( - 2 )5 – 25(- 2 )3 + 60 ( - 2 ) + 1
= –15
When x= 1
f(1) = 3 ( 1 )5 – 25(1 )3 + 60 ( 1 ) + 1
= 39
When x = – 1

55
f(-1) = 3 ( -1 )5 – 25(-1 )3 + 60 ( -1 ) + 1
= –37.
Absolute maximum is 39
Absolute minimum is -37

4.9 Euler’s theorem on homogeneous functions

Consider the expression (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑎0𝑥𝑛 + 𝑎1𝑥𝑛−1𝑦 + 𝑎2𝑥𝑛−2𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝑎n𝑦𝑛 … (1)
The degree of each term in the above expression is „n‟. Such an expression is called
a homogeneous function of degree „𝑛‟. A function f(𝑥,𝑦) is said to be a homogeneous
function in 𝑥 and 𝑦 of degree „𝑛‟ if 𝑓(𝑡𝑥, 𝑡𝑦) = 𝑡n𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).

Theorem 4.9.1
Let f(x,y) be a homogeneous function of order n so that
 Euler's theorem states that if 𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … . , 𝑥𝑛 is a homogeneous function of degree k,
𝑛 𝜕𝑓
then: 𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … . , 𝑥𝑛
𝑖

 In other words, the sum of the products of each variable and its partial derivative with
respect to that variable is equal to k times the original function.

Total derivatives
Definition 4.9.1
The total derivative of a function of multiple variables represents how the function changes
with respect to changes in all of its variables, not just one at a time.
Suppose we have a function 𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … . , 𝑥𝑛 which depends on 𝑛 variables. The total
𝑑𝑓
derivative of 𝑓 with respect to a variable 𝑥𝑖 (where 𝑖 ranges from 1 to 𝑛) is denoted as 𝑑𝑥 and
𝑖

is defined as:
𝑑𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑥1 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑥2 𝜕𝑓 𝑑𝑥𝑛
= + + ⋯…..+
𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥1 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥2 𝑑𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝑑𝑥𝑖
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑥
Here, 𝑑𝑥 represents the total derivative of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥𝑖 , and 𝑑𝑥𝑗 represents the rate of
𝑖 𝑖

change of variable 𝑥𝑗 with respect to 𝑥𝑖 .

4.10 Lagrange's method of undetermined multipliers

56
To determine the minimum or maximum value of a function f(x) subject to the equality
constraint g(x) = 0 will form the Lagrange`s function as:
L(x, λ) = f(x) – λg(x)
Here, L = Lagrange function of the variable x, λ = Lagrange multiplier

Important Notes on Partial Derivatives:

 While finding the partial derivative with respect to a variable, all the other variables
should be considered as constants.
 The order of taking derivatives doesn't matter in partial derivatives. i.e., ∂2f/∂x∂y =
∂2f/∂y∂x.
 The rules of derivatives apply for partial differentiation as well.
 Instead of using the limit definition, applying derivative formulas make the process of
finding the partial derivatives easier.

4.11 Summary
A partial derivative of a function of multiple variables measures how the function changes
with respect to changes in one variable while keeping all other variables constant. Partial
derivatives are denoted using the ∂ symbol, which represents a partial differentiation. In
geometric terms, the partial derivative represents the slope of the tangent line to the surface
defined by the function in the direction of the specified variable. Understanding partial
derivatives is fundamental for analyzing functions of multiple variables and solving problems
in various fields involving interdependent quantities. They provide a powerful tool for
studying the behavior of functions in complex systems and optimizing their performance.

4.12 Keywords
 Partial Derivative
 Higher order partial derivative
 Rules of Partial derivation
 Maxima and Minima
 Lagrange's method

4.13 Self – Assessment Questions

57
4.14 Case Study
a) A metal sheet measuring twelve meters by eight meters is to be used to build a rectangular
box with an open top. Determine the box's dimensions that will require the least quantity
of metal.
b) How may partial differentiation be used to address the optimization issue mentioned in
section (a)?

4.15 References
1. Arfken, G. B., & Weber, H. J. (2005). Mathematical Methods for Physicists (6th ed.).
Academic Press.
2. Strang, G. (2005). Introduction to Linear Algebra (4th ed.). Wellesley-Cambridge Press.

58
 CHAPTER - 5
Lagrange’s and Cauchy’s Forms

Learning Objectives:
 Recognize the two forms of Taylor's theorem: Lagrange's form and Cauchy's form.
 Understand the implications of Lagrange's form in approximating functions using Taylor
polynomials.
 Apply Cauchy's form to approximate functions and analyze the error in approximation.

Structure:
5.1. Cauchy‟s Mean Value Theorem
5.2. Lagrange‟s Mean Value Theorem
5.3 Summary
5.4 Keywords
5.5 Self-Assessment Questions
5.6 Case Study
5.7 References

5.1 Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem

Cauchy's mean value theorem is a generalization of the normal mean value theorem. This
theorem is also known as the Extended or Second Mean Value Theorem. The normal mean
value theorem describes that if a function f (x) is continuous in a close interval [a, b] where
(a≤x ≤b) and differentiable in the open interval [a, b] where (a < x< b), then there is at least
one point x = c on this interval, given as
f(b) - f (a) = f' (c) (b-a)
It establishes the relationship between the derivatives of two functions and changes in these
functions on a finite interval.
Let's consider the function f(x) and g(x) be continuous on an interval [a, b] differentiable on
(a,b), and g'(x) is not equal to 0 for all 𝑥𝜖(𝑎, 𝑏). Then there is a point x = c in this interval
given as
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
=
𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎) 𝑔′ (𝑐)

59
Proof of Cauchy's mean value theorem
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
=
𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎) 𝑔′ (𝑐)
Here, the denominator in the left side of the Cauchy formula is not zero: 𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0.
If 𝑔(𝑏) = 𝑔(𝑎), then by Rolle's theorem, there is a point 𝑑𝜖(𝑎, 𝑏), in which 𝑔′(𝑑) = 0.
Therefore, contradicts the hypothesis that 𝑔′(𝑥) ≠ 0 for all 𝑥𝜖(𝑎, 𝑏).
Now, we apply the auxiliary function.
𝐹 (𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝜆𝑔(𝑥)
And select λ in such a way to satisfy the given condition
𝐹 (𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑏). we get,
𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝜆𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑓 (𝑏) + 𝜆𝑔(𝑏)
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝜆[𝑔(𝑎) − 𝑔(𝑏)]
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓 (𝑎)
𝜆=
𝑔(𝑎) − 𝑔(𝑏)
And the function F (x) exists in the form
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔 𝑏 − 𝑔 𝑎
The function F (x) is continuous in the closed interval (a≤x ≤b), differentiable in the open
interval (a < x< b) and takes equal vales at the endpoints of the interval. So, it satisfies all the
conditions of Rolle‟s theorem. Then, there is a point c exist in the interval (a,b) given as
𝐹’ (𝑐) = 0.
It follows that
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎 ′
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑔 (𝑐)
𝑏− 𝑎
or
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
=
𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎) 𝑔′ (𝑐)
By putting g (x) = x in the given formula, we get the Lagrange formula:
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑐 =
𝑏− 𝑎
Cauchy‟s mean value theorem has the given geometric meaning. Consider the parametric
equations give a curve 𝑋 = 𝑓 (𝑡) and 𝑌 = 𝑔 (𝑡), where the parameter 𝑡 lies in interval
[a,b].
When we change the parameter t, the point of the curve in the given figure runs from
𝐴(𝑓(𝑎). 𝑔(𝑎)) to 𝐵(𝑓(𝑏). 𝑔(𝑏)).

60
According to Cauchy‟s mean value theorem, there is a point (f(c), g(c)) on the curve, where
the tangent is parallel to the chord linking of two ends A and B of the curve.

Figure 5.1.1 Cauchy function

Example 5.1.1
Calculate the value of xfor the following function, which satisfies the Mean Value Theorem,
F(x) = x2 + 2x + 2
Solution:
Given
f(x) = x2 + 2x + 2
According to Mean Value theorem,
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑐 =
𝑏− 𝑎
𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 2𝑐 + 2
1+2+1 − 4+4+1
2𝑐 + 2 = = −5
2− 1
2c = -7
c = -7/2

Example 5.1.2
Calculate the value of x for the following function, which satisfies the Mean Value Theorem,

61
F(x) = x2 + 4x + 7
Solution:
Given
f(x) = x2 + 4x + 7
According to Mean Value theorem,
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑐 =
𝑏− 𝑎
𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 2𝑐 + 4
1+2+1 − 4+4+1
2𝑐 + 4 = = −7
4− 1
2c = -11
C = -11/2

5.2 Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem

Lagrange's mean value theorem is also known as the mean value theorem or MVT or LMVT.
It states that if a function f (x) is a continuous in a close interval [a, b] where (a≤x ≤b) and
differentiable in open interval [a, b] where (a < x< b), then there is at least one point x = c on
this interval, given as
𝒇(𝒃) − 𝒇 (𝒂) = 𝒇′ (𝒄) (𝒃 − 𝒂)
The above theorem is called first mean value theorem. It enables to express the increment of
a function in the given interval through the derivative value at an intermediate point of the
segment.
Proof of Lagrange's mean value theorem
Consider the auxiliary function given below
F (x) = f (x) + x
Here, we will select a number so that the condition 𝐹 (𝑎) = 𝐹 (𝑏) is satisfied. Then
𝑓 𝑎 + 𝜆𝑎 = 𝑓 𝑏 + 𝜆𝑏
= 𝑓 𝑎 − 𝜆(𝑎 + 𝑏)
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝜆=−
𝑏− 𝑎
Then, the result, we get
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥
𝑏−𝑎

62
The function F (x) is continuous in the closed interval (a≤x ≤b), differentiable in the open
interval (a < x< b), and takes equal values at the endpoints of the interval. So, it satisfies all
the conditions of Rolle's theorem. Then, a point c exist in the interval (a,b) given as
F' (c) = 0.
It follows that
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑐 − =0
𝑏− 𝑎

5.3 Summary
 Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem, named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy, states that if two
functions f(x) and g(x) are continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable on the
open interval (a, b), then there exists a point c in (a, b) such that:
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
= 𝑔 ′ (𝑐)
𝑔(𝑏)−𝑔(𝑎)

 Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem, named after Joseph-Louis Lagrange, is a special case of
Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem where the two functions f(x) and g(x) are the same
function.
 It states that if a function f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable
on the open interval (a,b), then there exists a point c in (a,b) such that:
𝒇(𝒃) − 𝒇 (𝒂) = 𝒇′ (𝒄) (𝒃 − 𝒂)
Both theorems are fundamental in calculus and play significant roles in proving other
theorems and solving various problems related to rates of change and functions.

5.4 Keywords
 Cauchy's mean value theorem
 Lagrange's mean value theorem

5.5 Self – Assessment Questions

1. What does Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem state?
2. Describe the conditions under which Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem can be applied.
3. Provide an example of how Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem can be used to solve a
problem involving two functions.
4. Discuss a real-world scenario where Cauchy's Mean Value Theorem could be applied.
5. State Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem.

63
6. Compare and contrast Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem with Cauchy's Mean Value
Theorem.
7. Explain the conditions under which Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem holds.
8. How does Lagrange's Mean Value Theorem guarantee the existence of a point with a
certain property?

5.6 Case Study

a) Describe how the estimation of the error of Taylor series approximations differs between
Lagrange's form and Cauchy's form.
b) Talk about the circumstances in which estimating the error in Taylor series
approximations can be done using Lagrange's form and Cauchy's form.
c) Give an example of a function and expansion point for which the error estimates produced
by Lagrange's form and Cauchy's form differ noticeably.

5.7 References
1. Apostol, T. M. (1967). Calculus, Volume 1: One-Variable Calculus, with an
Introduction to Linear Algebra (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
2. Courant, R., & John, F. (1999). Introduction to Calculus and Analysis, Vol. 1 (2nd
ed.). Springer.

64
 CHAPTER - 6
Maclaurin’s series of sinx., cosx., ex, log(l+x.), (l+x.)m
Learning Objectives:
 Understand the concept of approximating functions using Maclaurin series
 Apply the derived Maclaurin series to approximate values of the function.
 Apply Maclaurin series to approximate functions and evaluate their values at specific
points.

Structure:
6.1. Rolle‟s Theorem and The Mean Value Theorem
6.2. The Taylor Series
6.3. Maclaurin Expansion of e x
6.4 Summary
6.5 Keywords
6.6 Self-Assessment Questions
6.7 Case Study
6.8 References

6.1 Rolle’s Theorem and The Mean Value Theorem

The Mean Value Theorem is most significant theorems in calculus.
Rolle‟s theorem states that if the output so differentiable function f are equal at the end points
of an interval, then there must be an interior point c where f′(c)=0. Figure 6.1.1 illustrates this
theorem.

Figure 6.1.1: If a differentiable function f satisfies f(a) = f(b), then its derivative
must be zero at some point(s) between a and b.

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Theorem 6.1.1: Rolle’s theorem statement
Let f be a continuous function over the closed interval [a,b] and differentiable over the open
interval (a,b) such that f(a) = f(b). There then exists at least one c ∈ (a,b) such that f′(c)=0.
Proof
Let k = f(a) = f(b).
We consider three cases:
1. f(x)=k for all x∈(a,b).
2. There exists x∈(a,b) such that f(x)>k.
3. There exists x∈(a,b) such that f(x)<k.
Case 1: Iff(x)=k for all x∈(a,b), then f′(x) = 0 for all x∈(a,b).
Case 2: Since f is a continuous function over the closed, bounded interval [a,b], by the
extreme value theorem, it has an absolute maximum. Also, since there is a point x∈(a,b)
such that f(x)>k, the absolute maximum is greater than k. f′(c)=0.
Case 3: The case when there exists a point x∈(a,b)such that f(x)<k is analogous to case2, with
maximum replaced by minimum.
Rolle`s Theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem. In Rolle‟s theorem, we
consider differentiable functions f that are zero at the endpoints. The Mean Value Theorem
generalizes Rolle‟s theorem by considering functions that are not necessarily zero at the
endpoints.

Theorem 6.1.2: Mean Value Theorem

If a function f(x) is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable on the open
interval (a, b), then there exists at least one point c in the open interval (a, b) such that the
instantaneous rate of change of f at c is equal to the average rate of change of f over the
interval [a, b]. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑐 − .
𝑏− 𝑎

Proof:
The proof follows from Rolle's Theorem by introducing an appropriate function that satisfies
the criteria of Rolle's Theorem. Consider the line connecting (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)). Since
the slope of that line is
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑏− 𝑎

66
and the line passes through the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) the equation of that line can be written as
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑦= 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑏− 𝑎

Let g(x) denote the vertical difference between the point (r.f(z)) and the point (r, y) on that
line. Therefore,
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑔 𝑥 =𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑏− 𝑎
Since f is a differentiable function over (a, b), g is also a differentiable function over (a, b).
Furthermore, since f is continuous over [a, b], g is also continuous over [a, b]. Therefore. g
satisfies the criteria of Rolle's theorem. Consequently, there exists a point 𝑐 ∈ (a, b) such that
g ′ (c) = 0. Since
we see that
𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑔′ 𝑥 = 𝑓′ 𝑥 − ,
𝑏− 𝑎

since g ′ (c) = 0, we conclude that

𝑓 𝑏 −𝑓 𝑎
𝑓′ 𝑐 − .
𝑏− 𝑎

6.2 The Taylor Series

Let's assume we are given a function, f(x), and we will see if there exists a power series
representation for that function.
We begin by assuming that we can let f(x) be represented by a power series:

But, we do not have the coefficients a0, a1, a2, ... and need to find a way to calculate them.
As a first step, substituting x = c into our power series yields a0 = f(c). To get the next
coefficient, a1, assuming we are able to differentiate our given function, we would obtain

Substituting x = c into this expression gives us an expression for a1,

So far, we have two of the coefficients, a0 and a1. Continuing with this process, provided that
we are able to differentiate our given function again, we would obtain:

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Again, substituting x = c into this expression yields

Continuing with this process, we can find as many coefficients as we need, provided that we
can differentiate our given function as many times as needed. In other words, if we can
differentiate our function N times, we can calculate N power series coefficients, and calculate
the series expansion coefficients up to N terms. If we can differentiate our function
an infinite number of times, we can find a power series expansion with an infinite number of
terms.
The specific power series representation we introduced here derived what is known as
the Taylor Series expansion. We will later discuss the conditions that are necessary for a
function to have a Taylor series.

We have now found a method to calculate power series expansions for functions who have a
certain property: that they have derivatives at all orders. Functions that have derivatives at all
orders, on some open interval, are referred to as analytic on that interval. Functions that are
analytic on an interval have what is called a Taylor series expansion.

Definition 6.2.1
Suppose that a given function, f(x), is analytic on an open interval that contains the
point x = c. The Taylor series expansion for f(x) at c is

and the coefficients of the series, ak are given by

Here we are using the notation f(k) to denote the kth derivative.
The Taylor series obtained when we let c = 0 is referred to a Maclaurin series.
When a Function Equals its Taylor Series
It is possible to show that if a given function is analytic on some interval, then it is equal to
its Taylor series on that interval. That is, on an interval where f(x) is analytic,

68
We will not prove this result here, but the proof can be found in most first year calculus texts.
The proof involves
 a derivation for an expression for the difference, or remainder, between f and
the Nth order partial sum of a power series expansion, and
 shows that if and only if the remainder goes to zero when N goes to infinity, the
Taylor series converges to f(x).
There are functions that are not equal to its Taylor series expansion. But for the purposes of
this module, we will assume that all functions can be expanded as a Taylor series.

6.3 Maclaurin Expansion of ex

Example 6.3.1
Find the Taylor series expansion for ex when x is zero, and determine its radius of
convergence.
Solution:
Before starting this problem, note that the Taylor series expansion of any function about the
point c = 0 is the same as finding its Maclaurin series expansion.
Step 1: Find Coefficients
Let f(x) = ex. To find the Maclaurin series coefficients, we must evaluate

for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ....
Because f(x) = ex, then all derivatives of f(x) at x = 0 are equal to 1. Therefore, all coefficients
of the series are equal to 1.
Step 2: Substitute Coefficients into Expansion
By substitution, the Maclaurin series for ex is

Step 3: Radius of Convergence

The ratio test gives us:

Because this limit is zero for all real values of x, the radius of convergence of the expansion
is the set of all real numbers.

69
Explanation of Each Step
Step 1:
Maclaurin series coefficients, ak are always calculated using the formula

Where f is the given function, and in this case is ex. In step 1, we are only using this formula
to calculate coefficients. We found that all of them have the same value, and that value is one.
Step 2:
Step 2 was a simple substitution of our coefficients into the expression of the Taylor series
given on the previous page.
Step 3:
This step was nothing more than substitution of our formula into the formula for the ratio test.
Because we found that the series converges for all x, we did not need to test the endpoints of
our interval. If however we did find that the series only converged on an interval with a finite
width, then we may need to take extra steps to determine the convergence at the boundary
points of the interval.

Write the Maclaurin series expansion of the following functions: (i) ex (ii) sinx (iii) cosx
(iv) log (1 – x); -1 ≤ x < 1 (v) tan-1 (x) ; -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(i) ex

(ii) sin x

70
(iii) cos x

71
(iv) log (1 – x); -1 ≤ x < 1

6.4 Summary

6.5 Keywords
 Rolle‟s Theorem
 Taylor's theorem

72
  Taylor's Series
 Maclaurin‟s series

6.6 Self – Assessment Questions

1. Who is Maclaurin and what is his series known for?
2. What is a Maclaurin series?
3. How does a Maclaurin series differ from a Taylor series?
4. What is the general form of a Maclaurin Maclaurin series?
5. What are some common examples of functions with known Maclaurin series
expansions?
6. How does the number of terms in a Maclaurin series affect its accuracy?
7. How do you find the Maclaurin series expansion of a function?
8. What is the significance of the Maclaurin series in calculus?
9. Can any function be represented by its. What is the relationship between the
Maclaurin series and the derivatives of a function at a point?

6.7 Case Study

The function ln(1+x) is to be approximated by the first three terms of its Maclaurin series.
i.e.,

Estimate the maximum value of x for which the approximation agrees with the exact value to
3 decimal places.

6.8 References
1. Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
2. Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2017). Calculus of a Single Variable (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.

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 CHAPTER -7
L-Hospital’s Rule

Learning Objectives:
 Recognize when L-Hospital‟s Rule can be applied to evaluate limits of
indeterminate forms.
 Identify situations where applying L-Hospital‟s Rule simplifies limit calculations.
 Use L-Hospital‟s Rule to analyze the behaviour of functions at points of
discontinuity or singularity.

Structure:
7.1 L-Hospital‟s rule
7.2 What is L-Hospital‟s rule?
7.3 When and How to Apply L-Hospital‟s Rule?
7.4 Important Notes on L-Hospital‟s Rule
7.5 Summary
7.6 Keywords
7.7 Self-Assessment Questions
7.8 Case Study
7.9 References

74
7.1 L- Hospital's Rule:-
L-Hospital‟s rule (L-Hospital's rule) is a very important rule in calculus that is used to
evaluate the limits that result in indeterminate forms (such as 0/0, ∞/∞, etc). These types of
limits
 Can't be calculated by direct substitution of the limit and/or
 Can be evaluated but using a very long procedure.
Let us see the L-Hospital‟s Rule along with its statement, proof, and examples. Also, let us
see some common misconceptions that may happen while the application of this rule.

History
L-Hospital‟s rule has various names such as L-Hospital‟s rule, L-Hospital‟s rule, Bernoulli's
rule, etc, and is used to evaluate the limits of ind determinant forms. It was first introduced by
a Swiss mathematician Johann Bernoulli in 1694 and hence it is known as Bernoulli's rule. It
was later developed by a French mathematician Guillaume de L-Hospital‟s and hence it
became popular with the name L-Hospital‟s rule.
Let us examine an example before going to see what this rule says: lim x → 2 (x2 - 4) / (x - 2).
The first thing we usually do to evaluate a limit is substituting the limit. Let us see what
happens when we apply the limit. We get (22 - 4) / (2 - 2) = 0 / 0. This is an indeterminate
form (as 0 / 0 is not defined). But let us try to simplify this limit in a different way. We know
that x2 - 4 can be written as (x + 2) (x - 2) (using𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 ). So lim x → 2 (x2 - 4) / (x - 2) = lim x
→2 [(x + 2) (x - 2)] / (x - 2) = lim x → 2 (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4. Because of the factorization, we
could evaluate this limit easily.
Let us take another limit lim x → 0 (sin x) / x (whose actual value is 1 and this will be proved
later) which also gives us an indeterminate form 0 / 0 but this cannot be evaluated easily as
the other one. L-Hospital‟s Rule simplifies the process of finding limits that give
indeterminate forms by the application of limit. Before going to learn it, let us just see what
can be the other indeterminate forms.

Indeterminate Forms:
The indeterminate form is something that cannot be defined mathematically. Indeterminate
forms can be of the form 0/0, ±∞/±∞, 0 × ∞, ∞ - ∞, 00, 1∞, ∞0, etc. But the most common
indeterminate forms that encounter while the application of L-Hospital's rule are 0/0 and
±∞/±∞.

75
7.2 What is L-Hospital’s rule?
L-Hospital‟s Rule is a technique used to evaluate limits of indeterminate forms, particularly
those involving fractions where both the numerator and denominator approach zero (or
infinity) as the independent variable approaches a certain value. It's named after the French
mathematician Guillaume de L-Hospital‟s

L-Hospital’s Rule Formula

L-Hospital‟s rule states that for any two continuous functions f(x) and g(x), limx→a f(x)/g(x)
is an indeterminate form, then lim x → a f(x) / g(x) = lim x → a f' (x) / g'(x), where
 'a' is any real number, or ∞, or - ∞.
 lim x → a f(x) / g(x) is an indeterminate form when x = a is applied.
 f'(x) is the derivative of f(x)
 g'(x) is the derivative of g(x) and g'(a) ≠ 0.

7.3 When and How to Apply L-Hospital’s Rule?

L-Hospital‟s rule should be applied only when lim x → a f(x) / g(x) leads to an indeterminate
form by the direct application of limit. In such cases, we just differentiate the numerator and
denominator (using derivative formula) separately and then apply the limit. Here are the same
examples that were mentioned in the first section and are solved using L-Hospital‟s rule very
easily.
 lim x → 2 (x2 - 4) / (x - 2) = 0/0 by the direct application of limit (x = 2).
Using L-Hospital‟s rule:
lim x → 2 (x2 - 4) / (x - 2) = lim x → 2 (2x) / (1) = 2(2) = 4
(this follows from power rule)
 lim x → 0 (sin x) / x = 0 / 0 when x = 0 is applied.
Using L-Hospital‟s rule:
lim x → 0 (sin x) / x = lim x → 0 (cos x) / 1 = cos 0 = 1
(this follows from the derivative of sinx formula)

76
Sometimes, the limit still results in an indeterminate form even after the application of L-
Hospital‟s rule for one time. In that case, we can apply the same rule again and again as
required.

Applying L-Hospital’s Rule Multiple Times

We can apply L-Hospital‟s rule as many times as required. Each time we apply the rule, we
compute the derivatives of numerator and denominator functions separately and then apply
the limit. But before each application of this rule, just make sure that the current limit leads to
an indeterminate form. Here is an example.

When can’t we apply L-Hospital’s Rule?

77
Application of L-Hospital‟s rule when the limit does NOT give an indeterminate form throws
the wrong result. For example:
limx→2(3x + 1) / (2x + 2) = (3(2) + 1) / (2(2) + 2) = 7/6 (correct answer)
The limit didn't result in an indeterminate form and so we can't apply the L-Hospital's rule.
Let us see what we get if we apply. We know that the derivatives of 3x + 1 and 2x + 2 are 3
and 2 respectively. So the above limit after the application of rule becomes:
limx→2(3/2) = 3/2 (incorrect answer)
So do apply the limit first and make sure that an indeterminate form is resulted before
applying the rule.

Simplify the Fraction Before Each Application:

When we apply L-Hospital‟s rule for multiple times, simplify the rational expression each
time before applying the limit every time. Otherwise, we result in a wrong answer. Here is an
example.
lim x → 1 (x3 - 1) / (x2 - 1)
= lim x → 1 (3x2/2x)
= lim x → 1 (3x / 2)
= 3(1)/2
= 3/2 (correct answer)
But what happens if we don't simplify the fraction (in the third step) and try to apply L-
Hospital‟s rule again?
lim x → 1 (x3 - 1) / (x2 - 1)
= lim x → 1 (3x2/2x)
= lim x → 1 (6x / 2)
= lim x → 1 3x
= 3(1)
= 3 (incorrect answer)
Thus, simplify everything into the lowest terms before the application of the rule.

7.4 Important Notes on L-Hospital’s Rule:

 The limit of a fraction of two functions (that result is equal to the limit of the
fraction of their derivatives.
 Do not apply L-Hospital‟s rule if the limit is not resulting in an indeterminate form.

78
  We can apply L-Hospital‟s rule as many times as required but before the application
of each time, we should check whether the limit in that particular step is giving
indeterminate form.
 When we are trying to apply L-Hospital‟s rule for the product f(x) · g(x), first, write
it as fraction (i.e., either as f(x) / (1 / g(x)) or as g(x) / (1/ f(x)) ).

7.5 Summary
L'Hospital's Rule is a method for finding limits of indeterminate forms. It applies to limits
that result in the forms 0/0 or ∞/∞. Indeterminate forms arise in calculus when the limit of an
expression is not immediately clear due to conflicting tendencies of its components.
Understanding these concepts is crucial for effectively solving complex limits and handling
expressions that initially seem undefined.

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7.6 Keywords
 L-Hospital‟s rule
 Indeterminate Forms

7.7 Self – Assessment Questions

1. Explain how the form 00 can be interpreted differently depending on the context of the
functions involved.
2. Define what an indeterminate form is. List the seven common indeterminate forms.
3. Determine if the following limits are in indeterminate forms:
 limx→0 sin(x)/x
 limx→∞(1+1/x)x
 limx→0xln(x)

7.8 Case Study

1. Consider the following limit problem that presents an indeterminate form:
limx→0(sin(3x)−3x)/x3.

7.9 References
1. Anton, H., Bivens, I., & Davis, S. (2010). Calculus Early Transcendentals (9th ed.).
John Wiley & Sons.
2. Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2017). Calculus of a Single Variable (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.

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 CHAPTER - 8
Tangents and Normal

Learning Objectives:
 Differentiate between tangents and normal based on their definitions and geometric
properties.
 Apply the point-slope form or slope-intercept form to derive equations of tangent
and normal lines.
 Interpret the geometric meaning of tangent and normal lines in relation to the curve's
shape and direction.

Structure:
8.1 Tangents and normal
8.2 Curvature
8.3 Center of Curvature
8.4 Chord of Curvature
8.5 Radius of curvature at the origin by Newton‟s method
8.6 Summary
8.7 Keywords
8.8 Self-Assessment Questions
8.9 Case Study
8.10References

81
8.1 Tangents and normal:-
The following Figure 8.1.1 shows the tangent and normal to a circle at a point on its
circumference.

Figure 8.1.1 The tangent and normal to a circle at a point

Both the tangent and normal are straight lines of the tom y=mx+c and to find these lines we
need two pieces of information, the gradient of the line and a point that the line passes
through.
The normal to a circle will always pass through the centre of the circle.
The tangent and the normal are always at right angles to each other.

Example 8.1.1
Find the equation of the normal circle x2+y2=9 at the point (1, 8 ) on its circumference. By
examining the equation of the circle you can see that the centre point is (0, 0).

Figure 8.1.2 The tangent and normal to x2+y2=9

𝑦 2 −𝑦 1
To find the gradients use , where (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are two points on the line
𝑥 2 −𝑥 1

8−1
So the gradient = = 8 =M
1−0

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So I've found one piece of information, now I need to use y-y1=M(x-x1) to find the equation
of the line.

I'll use the point (0, 0). I could use (1, 8) but I think (0, 0) would be easier!

So y-0 = 8 (x-0)

So y= 8x This is the equation of Normal.

So y- 8 =-(1/ 8 )(x- 1)

8𝑦 + 𝑥 = 9 Equation of the tangent.

8.2 Curvature
Curvature is a numerical measure of bending of the curve. At a particular point on the curve,
a tangent can be drawn. Let the positive x-axis and this line form an angle Ψ. The magnitude
of the rate of change of Ψ with respect to the arc length s is therefore defined as curvature.
𝑑Ψ
∴Curvature at 𝑃 = 𝑑𝑠

It is obvious that smaller circle bends more sharply than larger circle and thus smaller circle
has a larger curvature. Radius of curvature is the reciprocal of curvature and it is denoted by
ρ.

8.3 Center of Curvature: The center of the circle that most closely resembles the curve at a
given location is known as the center of curvature. Put another way, the center of curvature
would be the place at which you would draw a circle that matched the curve's curvature and
just touched it. From a mathematical perspective, it is the point where the distance along the
normal line, which is perpendicular to the curve at that point, equals the radius of curvature.
The concave side of the curve is where the center of curvature is located.

8.4 Chord of Curvature: The chord of curvature is a line segment connecting two points on
the curve that are separated by a specified distance along the curve. This distance is typically
the radius of curvature. The chord of curvature helps in approximating the curve by a straight
line segment over a small interval, providing a linear approximation to the curve's behavior in
that region.

83
Radius of curvature of Polar curves 𝒓 = 𝒇(𝚯)

84
8.5 Radius of curvature at the origin by Newton's method
It is applicable only when the curve passes through the origin and has x-axis or y-axis as the
tangent there. When x-axis is the tangent, then

When y-axis is the tangent, then

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8.6 Summary
Tangent: A line that touches a curve at a single point without crossing through it. It represents
the instantaneous direction of the curve at that point. • Normal: A line perpendicular to the
tangent at a given point on a curve. Curvature measures how much a curve deviates from
being a straight line at a particular point. It quantifies the rate at which the tangent direction
changes as one moves along the curve. The center of curvature is the center of the circle that
best approximates the curve at a given point. It lies on the normal to the curve at that point.

8.7 Keywords
 Tangents and Normal
 Radius of Curvature
 Polar Curve

8.8 Self – Assessment Questions

1. Define a tangent to a curve.
2. What is the slope of the tangent to a curve at a given point?
3. How is the equation of a tangent line to a curve at a given point derived?
4. What is the normal line to a curve?
5. How is the slope of the normal line related to the slope of the tangent line?
6. What is the condition for a line to be normal to a curve at a given point?
7. Can a curve have more than one tangent at a given point?
8. Can a curve have more than one normal at a given point?
9. How is the normal line equation derived at a point on a curve?
10. How are tangents and normal useful in calculus and real-world applications?

8.9 Case Study

Riya is studying in class XI. Today her brother Mayank is teaching her the topic of Maths
„Tangent and Normal‟. Mayank prepared the following notes on „Tangent and Normal‟ for
Riya.
(i) Slope of gradient of a line: If a line makes an angle q is called the slope of gradient of the
line.
(ii) Pictorial representation of tangent & normal
(iii) Facts about the slope of aline:

86
 (a) If a line is parallel to the x-axis (or perpendicular to y-axis), then its slope is 0 (Zero).
1
(b) If a line is parallel to the y-axis (or perpendicular x-axis), then its slope is 0 i.e., not

defined.
(c) If two lines are perpendicular, then product of their slope equals – 1 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑚1 ×
𝑚2 = – 1. Whereas, for two parallel lines, their slopes are equal 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑚1 = 𝑚2. (Here
in both the cases, 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 represent the slope of the respective line.

8.10 References
1. Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
2. Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2017). Calculus of a Single Variable (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.

87
 CHAPTER - 9
Tracing of Curves

Learning Objectives:
 Recognize the goal of curve tracing, which is to analyze and understand the
behaviour of curves represented by functions or parametric equations.
 Learn to identify and analyze key features of curves, such as intercepts, asymptotes,
critical points, and inflection points.
 Apply curve tracing techniques to sketch graphs of functions and parametric curves.

Structure:
9.1 Tracing of curves
9.2 Linear Functions
9.3 Polynomial Functions
9.4 Summary
9.5 Keywords
9.6 Self-Assessment Questions
9.7 Case Study
9.8 References

88
9.1 Tracing of curves
We can sketch any function using Curve Sketching but some functions can be quite tricky to
sketch. Let‟s consider some examples of various different functions which we will sketch
using the techniques of curve sketching.

9.2 Linear Functions

Sketching Linear Function is quite an easy task in curve sketching as we just need two points
on the graph and the line joining those two points is the graph of a linear function. Let‟s
consider an example:

Example 9.2.1
Draw the graph for the function, ℱ (x) = 2x + 3.
Solution:
For ℱ (x) = 2x + 3,
Put x = 0 ⇒ ℱ (0) = 3
and Put x = 1 ⇒ ℱ (1) = 5
Now, draw a striaght line passing through the pionts (0, 3) and (1, 5) which is the chart of the
linear function ℱ(x) = 2x+3.

Figure 9.2.1 Striaght line passing through the pionts (0, 3) and (1, 5) on 𝓕(x) = 2x+3.

9.3 Polynomial Functions

Polynomial functions occur a lot in calculus, and it is essential to know how to sketch their
graphs. We will look at a function and use the techniques studied above to infer the graph of
the function. The general idea is to look for asymptomatic values, and where they are going,

89
and then find the critical points and draw a graph according to them. Let‟s see it through
examples,

Example 9.3.1
Draw the graph for the given function,
ℱ (x) = x2 + 4
Solution:
We know that the domain of this function is all real numbers. This function will tend to
infinity as we go towards large positive and negative values of x.
Notice that 𝓕 (-x) = (-x)2 + 4 = x2 + 4 = 𝓕 (x). That is this function is even, so its graph must
be symmetric about the y-axis.
Now we know that graph goes to infinity and is symmetrical around the y-axis. Now, let‟s
look for critical points.
𝓕(x) = 2x = 0
⇒x=0
Thus, there is only one critical point which is x = 0. Checking the double derivative 𝓕”(x) =
2. Since 𝓕”(x) > 0 for every x. So, the graph must be convex upward everywhere with
minima at x = 0. Now we just need to know the value of the function at minima.
𝓕 (0) = 4.
Now we are ready to plot a graph.

Figure 9.3.1 Minima of 𝓕 (x) = x2 + 4

.

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Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are an essential part of calculus and are commonly represented as 𝓕
(x) = ax, where a is any positive constant and x can be any possible real number. To sketch
the graph of Exponential Functions we need to check, the domain, range, and asymptotes. We
also need to check whether the function is increasing or decreasing. If the base of the
exponential function lies between 0 and 1 then it decreases in its domain otherwise it is an
increasing function.
Let‟s consider an example of sketching the exponential function.

Example 9.3.2
Draw the graph for the given function, ℱ (x) = 2x – 1.
Solution:
The domain of this function is all real numbers. As x goes to negative infinity, the function
approaches zero, and as x goes to infinity, the function approaches infinity.
The base of the exponential function is 2, which is greater than one, so the function increases
as x increases.
To find critical points, we need to find where the derivative is zero. f'(x) = 2xln(2). This
derivative is zero only when x = 0.
Thus, the critical point occurs at x = 0. To determine the concavity, we can find the second
derivative of the function. f”(x) = 2x ln(2). Since the second derivative is always positive, the
graph must be convex upward everywhere.
Now we just need to find the value of the function at the critical point. f(0) = 20 – 1 = 0.
We can now use this information to sketch the graph of the exponential function.

Figure 9.3.2 Graph of 𝓕 (x) = 2x – 1

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Logarithmic Functions
We know that logarithmic functions are inverse of exponential functions. The function y =
logbx is the inverse of y = bx. The graph of the exponential function is given below. We also
know that the graph of an inverse of a function is basically a mirror image of the graph in y =
x. So we can derive the shape of the graph of log function from the given graph of the
exponential function.
The mirror image of the Logarithmic function is the exponential function both of them are
shown in the image below,

Figure 9.3.3 Graph of 𝓕 (x) = logx

Let‟s see an example of graphic logarithmic functions.

Example 9.3.3
Plot the graph for log10x + 5.
Solution:
We can see that the function is f(x) = log10x + 5.
The graph of this equation will be shifted 5 units in the upwards direction.

Figure 9.3.4 Graph of 𝓕 (x) = log10x + 5

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9.4 Summary
Tracing curves involves analyzing the behavior of functions and their graphs, including
understanding key features such as intercepts, asymptotes, local extrema, concavity, and end
behavior. Tracing curves typically involves plotting points, determining critical points and
intervals, analyzing derivatives and second derivatives, identifying symmetries, and
understanding transformations. Linear functions are functions that can be represented by a
straight line when graphed on a Cartesian coordinate system. A linear function has the form
f(x) = mx + b, where m represents the slope of the line and b represents the y-intercept.
Polynomial functions are functions that consist of terms involving powers of a variable
multiplied by coefficients. Polynomial functions can have multiple terms and can exhibit
various behaviors such as oscillations, local maxima and minima, and end behavior
determined by the highest degree term.

9.5 Keywords
 Tracing of curve
 Polynomial Functions
 Logarithmic Functions

9.6 Self – Assessment Questions

1. What is meant by "tracing a curve"?
2. What are some common methods used to trace curves?
3. What role do derivatives play in tracing curves?
4. How does the sign of the derivative help in understanding the behavior of a curve?
5. What information does the first derivative provide about a curve?
6. How do critical points help in tracing curves?
7. What does the second derivative reveal about the curve?
8. What is the significance of inflection points in tracing curves?
9. How do asymptotes affect the tracing of curves?
10. Can technology aid in tracing curves, and if so, how?

9.7 Case Study

1. If the curve depicts the pace at which a heated object cools over time, explain how
the curve varies as the object gets closer to room temperature.

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 2. List the months with the highest and lowest sales figures. How did the curve help
you determine these points?

9.8 References
1. Thomas, G. B., Weir, M. D., Hass, J., & Giordano, F. R. (2017). Thomas' Calculus:
Early Transcendentals (14th ed.). Pearson.
2. Edwards, C. H., & Penney, D. E. (2015). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (7th ed.).
Pearson.

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 CHAPTER -10
Concavity and Convexity

Learning Objectives:
 Recognize the geometric properties of concave and convex functions, including their
shapes and curvature.
 Understand the criteria for determining points of inflection, such as changes in
concavity.
 Apply concavity and convexity to solve optimization problems and analyze the
behaviour of functions in various contexts.

Structure:
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Curve Sketching Definition
10.3 Summary
10.4 Keywords
10.5 Self-Assessment Questions
10.6 Case Study
10.7 References

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10.1 Introduction:
In the realm of Cartesian coordinates, understanding the concavity and convexity of curves
provides essential insights into their overall shape and behaviour.
 Concavity: A curve is said to be concave if it curves downward like the interior of a
bowl. This is characterized by a negative second derivative of the curve with respect
to its independent variable.
 Convexity: Conversely, a curve is termed convex if it curves upward, resembling
the outer surface of a bowl. This is indicated by a positive second derivative of the
curve.
Convex functions appear in many problems in pure and applied mathematics. They play an
extremely important role in the study of both linear and non linear programming problems. It
is very important in the study of optimization. The solutions to these problems lie on their
vertices.
The theory of convex functions is part of the general subject of convexity, since a convex
function is one whose epigraph is a convex set. Nonetheless it is an important theory which
touches almost all branches of mathematics. Graphical analysis is one of the first topics in
mathematics which requires the concept of convexity. Calculus gives us a powerful tool in
recognizing convexity, the second-derivative test. Miraculously, this has a natural
Curve Sketching as its name suggests helps us sketch the approximate graph of any given
function which can further help us visualize the shape and behaviour of a function
graphically. Curve sketching isn‟t any sure-shot algorithm that after application spits out the
graph of any desired function but it is an active role approach for a visual representation of a
function that needs analysis of various features of graphs, such as intercepts, asymptotes,
extreme, and concavity, to gain a better understanding of how the function behaves.
In this article, we will explore all the fundamentals of curve sketching and its solved
examples. Other than that we will also explore all the aspects in detail which will help us
analyze and sketch the function more efficiently.

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 Figure 10.1.1.: Convex Function

Convexity of the curve is a reflection of a diminishing MRS (Marginal Rate of Substitution),

which simply means that, as consumption of any one good increases more and more, the
individual will prefer to sacrifice lesser and lesser amounts of consumption of the other good,
𝑑2𝑦
that is ≥ 0. This implies that slope of the tangent to the curve declines as we move down
𝑑𝑥 2

the indifference curve. This implies that slope of the tangent to the curve declines as we move
down the indifference curve

Figure 10.1.2 Slope of an Indifference Curve

Figure 10.1.3 Diminishing MRS

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10.2 Curve Sketching Definition
Curve Sketching is a collection of various techniques which can be used to create the
approximate graph of any given function. That can help us analyze different features and
behaviour of the graph. Curve Sketching involves analysis of many aspects of a given
function such as changes in function as input changes, maximum and minimum values,
intercepts, domain, range, asymptotes, etc. Curve Sketching is used to visualize and
understand the shape and behaviour of any given function.

Figure 10.2.1 Curve Sketching

Figure 10.2.2 Curve Sketching

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Graphing Basics
To create a graph of any given function, we need to plot some points such as intercepts,
critical points, and some regular points which can help us trace the graph on the cartesian
plane. Let‟s further understand these basics in detail as follows:

Plotting Points
We can easily plot various different points of any function on the graph by just using random
input and their outputs as the coordinates. This random plot of points helps us connect the
final graph after all the necessary calculations are done. For example, we need to graph the
function f(x) = ex, so just putting x = loge3 we get the output f(loge3) = 3. Now, we can
(loge3, 3) as a point on the graph.

Domain and Range

First, analyze the function (f) to check for its domain and obtained points where the
function's value becomes undefined or is discontinuous. For example: 1/x is not defined at
x = 0. Log(x) is defined only at positive values of x.

The domain of a function f is the set of all values x for which f(x) is defined.
The range of a function f is the set of all values that f(x) takes on as a runs through the
domain of f. That is, it is the set of all y values for which there is an a value such that
y = f(x).
For many functions, the domain is easy to determine. Often, all we have to do is look for
which z cause a problem when evaluating f(x); those x are not in the domain of f, and the
domain is everything else.
For example, suppose f(x)= 5/x(x-1). To compute f(x) we have to multiply x times x-1. This
part causes no trouble: we can multiply any two number together. Then, we divide 5 by the
product just calculated. This goes well, unless that product is zero. That is, the only z values
that cause trouble are those for which
x(x-1)=0.
Since the left hand side of this equation is factored, we see that the only for which x(x-1) = 0
are x = 0 and 1. Thus, those are the only two values not in the domain of f, and so the domain
of f is everything else. We might say: the domain of ƒ is all x≠0, x≠1.

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10.3 Summary
Concavity and convexity are concepts used to describe the shape of curves and surfaces.
They are fundamental in calculus and mathematical analysis for understanding the behavior
of functions and optimizing problems. Curve sketching is the process of visualizing and
understanding the behavior of a function by examining its graph. The main objective of curve
sketching is to identify key features of the graph such as intercepts, asymptotes, symmetry,
intervals of increase/decrease, local extrema, concavity, and points of inflection.

10.4 Keywords
 Concavity
 Convexity
 Domain and Range

10.5 Self – Assessment Questions

1. Define concavity and convexity in terms of curves.
2. What is a concave-up (convex) curve?
3. What is a concave-down (concave) curve?
4. How can you determine concavity or convexity using the second derivative test?
5. What does it mean for a function to be concave or convex on an interval?
6. Can a function be both concave and convex on the same interval?
7. How do inflection points relate to concavity and convexity?
8. What is the significance of the sign of the second derivative in determining concavity
or convexity?
9. How can you sketch a curve based on its concavity and convexity?

10.6 Case Study

1. Discuss how the concavity of the function helps in solving this optimization problem.
2. Consider a consumer deciding how much of two goods, 𝑥 and 𝑦, to purchase with a
fixed income. The consumer's utility function is given by 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑦), which is concave.

10.7 References
1. Anton, H., Bivens, I., & Davis, S. (2010). Calculus Early Transcendentals (9th ed.).
John Wiley & Sons.

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2. Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2017). Calculus of a Single Variable (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.

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 CHAPTER -11
Asymptotes
Learning Objectives:
 Recognize the different types of asymptotes, including vertical, horizontal, and
oblique asymptotes.
 Identify the equations and properties of vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes.
 Apply knowledge of asymptotes to analyze the behaviour of functions near points of
discontinuity or singularity.

Structure:
11.1 Finding Intercepts and Asymptotes
11.2 Local Extrema and Inflection Points
11.3 Calculating Slope and Concavity
11.4 Summary
11.5 Keywords
11.6 Self-Assessment Questions
11.7 Case Study
11.8 References

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11.1 Finding Intercepts and Asymptotes
Intercepts are the points where the graph cuts the coordinate axis and to find the x-intercept,
we put y = 0 and solve for x. Similarly, to find the y-intercept, we put x = 0 and solve for y.
Asymptotes are lines that the graph approaches but do not intersect. There are three types of
asymptotes which are as follows:
 Horizontal Asymptote
 Vertical Asymptote
 Slant Asymptote
Horizontal asymptotes occur when the function approaches a constant value as x approaches
infinity or negative infinity. Vertical asymptotes occur when the function approaches infinity
or negative infinity as x approaches a specific value. Slant asymptotes occur when the degree
of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator.
To calculate Horizontal Asymptote, we need to calculate the limit of a function at infinity,
and vertical asymptotes are those points for which functions become not defined i.e., the
denominator becomes 0.

Example 11.1.1
Find Intercept and Asymptote for f(x) = (2x + 1) / (x – 3).
Solution:
To find the x-intercept, we set f(x) = 0 and solve for x:
⇒ (2x + 1) / (x – 3) = 0
⇒ 2x + 1 = 0 (x ≠ 3)
⇒ x = -1/2
Therefore, the x-intercept of the function is at (-1/2, 0).
To find the y-intercept, we set x = 0 and solve for f(x):
⇒f(0) = (2(0) + 1) / (0 – 3) = -1/3
Therefore, the y-intercept of the function is at (0, -1/3).
The vertical asymptote occurs at x = 3, since the denominator of the function becomes zero at
that point.
To find the horizontal asymptote, we need to examine the behaviour of the function as x
approaches infinity or negative infinity. We can do this by dividing the numerator and
denominator by the highest power of x in the function:
f(x) = (2x + 1) / (x – 3) = (2 + 1/x) / (1 – 3/x)

103
As x becomes very large or very small, the term 1/x becomes insignificant compared to the
other terms in the numerator and denominator, so we can ignore it:
f(x) ≈ 2 / 1 = 2 (as x → ±∞)
Therefore, the horizontal asymptote of the function is y = 2.

11.2 Local Extrema and Inflection Points

Local extrema are those points of the function or graph for which there is no such value of
function greater or smaller than the local extrema i.e., no other point in the neighbourhood of
the local extrema has a more extreme value than it.
To find out the maxima and minima in any function, we need to find the critical points.
Critical points of the function are defined as the points where either slope of the function is
not defined or the slope is 0 i.e., f'(x) = 0.
After getting the values of critical points, check the second derivative of the function at those
critical points. If f”(x) > 0 for some critical point x=k, then f(k) is the local minima of the
function, and if f”(x) < 0 for some critical point x = k, then f(k) is the local maxima of the
function.
If f”(x) = 0 for some critical point x = k then x = k is the Point of Inflection or Inflection
Point of the function.

11.3 Calculating Slope and Concavity

The slope is the measure of inclination from the positive x-axis and it tells us whether the
graph is increasing (Slope>0) or decreasing (Slope<0). To find the slope of any given
function, we differentiate the given function w.r.t to the dependent variable and substitute the
value for which we need to calculate the slope.
Concavity is the measure of the curve which tells us whether the graph is concave up or
concave down i.e., the direction of curvature of the graph. To calculate the concavity, we use
the second derivative w.r.t dependent variable of the function. If the second derivative is
positive, then the function is concave up, and if the second derivative is negative, then the
function is concave down.

Example 11.3.1
Find the slope and concavity of f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 2x.
Solution:
f(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 2x
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⇒ f'(x) = 3x2 – 6x + 2
To find the slope of the function at a specific point, we substitute the value of x in the
derivative:
f'(-1) = 3(-1)^2 – 6(-1) + 2 = 11
Therefore, the slope of the function at x = -1 is 11.
Obtain. the. function's concavity,
f.”(x.) = 6x – 6
To find the points where the concavity changes, we set f”(x) = 0 and solve for x:
⇒f”(x) = 6x – 6 = 0
⇒x=1
Therefore, the function changes from concave down to concave up at x = 1.
Here, (1, 0) is the inflection point.
Inflection Point: Inflection point is the point where the concavity changes i.e., the second
derivative of function = 0.

11.4 Summary
An asymptote is a line or curve that a function approaches but never reaches as the
independent variable approaches a certain value or infinity. Vertical asymptotes occur when
the function approaches positive or negative infinity as the independent variable approaches a
certain value. Horizontal asymptotes occur when the function approaches a constant value as
the independent variable approaches positive or negative infinity. Oblique (or slant)
asymptotes occur when the function approaches a straight line as the independent variable
approaches positive or negative infinity. To find asymptotes, analyze the behavior of the
function as approaches certain values or infinity. For vertical asymptotes, look for values of a
that make the denominator of a rational function zero but not the numerator. For horizontal
and oblique asymptotes, analyze the end behavior of the function. Symmetry refers to a
property where one part of an object mirrors or reflects the other part.

11.5 Keywords
 Asymptotes
 Local Extrema
 Inflection Points

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11.6 Self – Assessment Questions
1. What is an asymptote?
2. How can you identify vertical asymptotes?
3. What is the significance of a horizontal asymptote?
4. Can a curve have more than one horizontal asymptote?
5. How are oblique (slant) asymptotes different from horizontal and vertical
asymptotes?
6. Can a curve intersect its asymptotes?
7. What are the conditions for a rational function to have an oblique asymptote?
8. Can exponential or logarithmic functions have asymptotes?
9. How do you find the equations of asymptotes?

11.7 Case Study

1. In factories, the quantity, x, of an item produced determines its cost of production.
The formula C(x) = 125x + 2000 provides the cost for a specific factory. This shows
that there is an initial setup cost of $2000 for the production floor and that each item
costs $125. The cost function is divided by the quantity, x, to determine the average
cost of producing x products. In this instance, the typical cost function is
𝑓 𝑥 = (125𝑥 + 2000)/𝑥
Many other applications require finding averages in a similar way. Written without a
variable in the denominator, this function will contain a negative integer power.
2. A manufacturer needs to be paid $50,000 to set up a production line before a
company can make the next big toy. In addition, they must pay labor and raw
materials costs of $5 per item. For the average cost to create x things, write a
function. After that, explain what happens to the average cost when the firm
produces a big quantity of toys.

11.8 References
1. Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
2. Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2017). Calculus of a Single Variable (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.

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 CHAPTER -12
Parametric Equations
Learning Objectives:
 Understand the advantages of using parametric equations to represent curves and
trajectories in various contexts.
 Recognize the graphical representation of parametric curves and their geometric
properties.
 Apply knowledge of parametric equations to analyze the behaviour of curves
represented parametrically.
Structure:
12.1 Introduction to Parametric Equations
12.2 Parameterizing a Curve
12.3 Length of Parametric Curves
12.4 Summary
12.5 Keywords
12.6 Self-Assessment Questions
12.7 Case Study
12.8 References
12.1 Introduction to Parametric Equations:
Parametric equations are a way of representing curves or surfaces using one or more
independent parameters. Rather than expressing the relationship between variables directly,
parametric equations describe how each coordinate of a point on the curve varies as a
function of one or more parameters. The motivation behind parametric equations often arises
from situations where describing a curve or surface solely in terms of one variable isn't
sufficient. For example, consider the motion of a particle in space, where both the x, y, and z
coordinates change over time. Parametric equations allow us to track each coordinate's
motion independently by introducing parameters that represent time or other variables.
Examples of Curves Represented Parametrically:
1. The Unit Circle:
Parametric equations for the unit circle (a circle with radius 1 centered at the origin)
are given by:
x = cos(t)
y = sin(t)

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Here, t ranges from 0 to 2π. As t varies, the x and y coordinates trace out the points
along the circumference of the circle. This representation provides a clear
understanding of how the coordinates change as the angle t varies.
2. The Ellipse:
The parametric equations for an ellipse centered at the origin with semi-major axis a along
the x-axis and semi-minor axis b along the y-axis are:
x = a cos(t)
y = b sin(t)
Here, t again ranges from 0 to 2π. These equations describe how the coordinates of points on
the ellipse change as the parameter t varies. By adjusting the values of a and b, we can
generate ellipses of different sizes and eccentricities.
These examples illustrate how parametric equations offer a powerful way to describe
geometric shapes and trajectories by breaking them down into simpler, more manageable
components. They allow us to study and manipulate complex curves and surfaces with
greater precision and flexibility than traditional Cartesian equations.
12.2 Parameterizing a Curve
Parameterizing a curve essentially means representing it in terms of one or more parameters.
This allows us to describe each point on the curve using the parameter(s), enabling us to
analyze and manipulate the curve more easily. There are various techniques for
parameterization, including using trigonometric functions, polynomials, or a combination of
both.
1. Trigonometric Functions:
• Trigonometric functions like sine and cosine are commonly used for
parameterization, especially for circular or periodic curves. For example, consider the unit
circle x2 + y2 = 1. It can be parameterized as x = cos(t) and y = sin(t), where t ranges from 0
to 2π. This parameterization traces out the circle as t varies.
2. Polynomials:
Polynomials are used to parameterize curves with more complex shapes. For instance, a line
segment between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can be parameterized as y = x1 + (x2 − x1)t
and y = y1 + (y2 - y1)t, where t (y2-y1)t, ranges from 0 to 1.
• Higher degree polynomials can be used for more intricate curves. For example, a parabola y
= ax2 + bx + c can be parameterized by letting a = t and y = at2 + bt + c.

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3. Combination of Trigonometric Functions and Polynomials:
Sometimes, a combination of trigonometric functions and polynomials is used for
parameterization. For example, the path of a projectile can be parameterized using both linear
and quadratic functions to account for both horizontal and vertical motions.
4. Examples:
Circular Helix: Parameterized as x = cos(t), y = sin(t), and z = t. This traces out a helix in 3D
space.
Bezier Curves: Parameterized using Bernstein polynomials. For example, a quadratic Bezier
curve between points P0 and P2 with control point P1 can be parameterized as B(t) = (1− t)2 P0
+ 2t(1 − t)P1 + t2 P2.
• Elliptic Curve: Parameterized as x = a a cos(t) and y = b sin(t), where a and b are constants
determining the shape of the ellipse.
These examples demonstrate how different parameterizations can be used to describe various
types of curves, from simple lines to complex geometric shapes. The choice of
parameterization depends on the specific characteristics of the curve and the requirements of
the problem at hand.
12.3 Length of Parametric Curves
The arc length formula for parametric curves allows us to calculate the length of a curve
defined by parametric equations. Parametric curves are defined by two functions, typically
denoted as (𝑡) and (𝑡), where 𝑡 is the parameter that traces out the curve.
The arc length formula for a parametric curve is given by:

Where:
S represents the arc length of the curve.
a and b are the limits of the parameter t over which the curve is traced.
dx/xt and dy/dt are the derivatives of x(t) and y(t) respectively with respect to t.
Derivation:
To understand the significance of this formula, let's briefly derive it.
Consider a small arc length ds on the curve defined by the parametric equations x(t) and y(t).
By the Pythagorean theorem, we have:
ds2 = dx2 + dy2
Where dx and dy are infinitesimal changes in x and y respectively.

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Dividing both sides by dt2 and taking the square root, we get:

Integrating both sides over the interval [a, b], we obtain the arc length formula.
Applications:
1. Engineering and Design: In architecture, civil engineering, and design,
understanding the length of curves is crucial for tasks such as designing roadways,
pipelines, and bridges.
2. Physics and Mechanics: In physics, the trajectory of a particle in space can be
described parametrically, and calculating its arc length helps in understanding its
motion.
3. Computer Graphics and Animation: In computer graphics, parametric curves are
used to define paths for animations and simulations. Calculating arc lengths helps in
creating realistic motion.
4. Robotics and Motion Planning: In robotics, understanding the length of curves is
essential for motion planning, obstacle avoidance, and path optimization.
5. Biology and Medicine: In biological studies, parametric curves can represent
biological structures such as blood vessels or organ surfaces, and calculating arc
lengths aids in analyzing their shapes and properties.
In essence, the arc length formula for parametric curves is a powerful tool with wide-ranging
applications in various fields where understanding the length of curves is essential.
12.4 Summary
1. Definition:
 Parametric equations are a set of equations that express the coordinates of a point as
functions of one or more independent variables, called parameters.
 Each coordinate (such as x and y in two dimensions or x, y, and z in three
dimensions) is given as a function of the parameter(s).
 Parametric equations are often used to describe curves, trajectories, and motion in
both mathematics and physics.
2. Form:
In two dimensions, parametric equations are typically written as:
x = f(t)
y = g(t)

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In three dimensions, parametric equations can be written as:
x = f(t)
y = g(t)
z = h(t)
Here, t is the parameter, and f(t), g(t), and h(t) are functions that describe the motion or
trajectory of the point.
3. Advantages:
 Parametric equations are particularly useful for describing complex curves and motion
that cannot be easily expressed by a single function y = f(x).
 They allow for a more flexible representation of curves, including curves with
multiple branches, loops, and cusps.
12.5 Keywords
 Parametric Equations
 Parameterizing a Curve
12.6 Self – Assessment Questions
1. What are parametric equations?
2. How do parametric equations represent curves?
3. What is the purpose of introducing parameters in equations?
4. Can parametric equations describe curves that cannot be expressed by Cartesian equations?
5. How do you eliminate the parameter to express a curve in Cartesian form?
6. What is the significance of the parameter in parametric equations?
7. How are parametric equations used to describe motion in physics?
8. Can parametric equations represent curves in higher dimensions?
9. What are the advantages of using parametric equations over Cartesian equations in certain
situations?
10. How are parametric equations graphed or plotted?
12.7 Case Study
1. Find the position, point (x, y), of a projectile
A golf ball is hit on level ground with an initial velocity of 55 m/s at an angle
of 40∘ with respect to the horizontal. Where will the ball be 2 seconds later?
2. Find the maximum height of a projectile.
A golf ball is hit on level ground with an initial velocity of 55 𝑚/𝑠 at an angle
of 40∘ with respect to the horizontal. What is the maximum height of the golf ball?

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12.8 References
1. Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
2. Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2017). Calculus of a Single Variable (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.

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 CHAPTER -13
Multiple Integrals and Change of Order of Integration

Learning Objectives:
 Define what multiple integrals are and their significance in calculus and
mathematical analysis.
 Learn techniques for evaluating multiple integrals, including iterated integration and
using appropriate coordinate systems (rectangular, polar, cylindrical, spherical).
 Understand the concept of changing the order of integration in double and triple
integrals.
Structure:
13.1 Introduction to Multiple Integrals
13.2 Change of Order of Integration
13.3 Applications of Multiple Integrals
13.4 Summary
13.5 Keywords
13.6 Self-Assessment Questions
13.7 Case Study
13.8 References
13.1 Introduction to Multiple Integrals:
Integration is the inverse process of differentiation. In the differential calculus, we are given a
function and we have to find the derivative or differential of this function, but in the integral
calculus, we are to find a function whose differential is given. Thus, integration is a process
𝑑
which is the inverse of differentiation. Let 𝐹 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥). Then we write 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥

𝐹 𝑥 + 𝐶. These integrals are called indefinite integrals or general integrals; C is called

constant of integration. All these integrals differ by a constant.
From the geometric point of view, an indefinite integral is collection of family of curves,
each of which is obtained by translating one of the curves parallel to itself upwards or
downwards along the y-axis.
Some properties of indefinite integrals are as follows:

1.
2. 𝑘. 𝑓 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘. 𝑓. (𝑥. )𝑑𝑥

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More generally, if 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … … . , 𝑓𝑛 are functions and 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , … . . , 𝑘𝑛 are real numbers. Then

Some standard integrals:

(i) Particularly,

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

(vii)

(viii)

(ix)

(x)

(xi)

(xii)

(xiii)

(xiv)

(xv)

(xvi)

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 𝑃(𝑥)
Integration by Partial Fraction: A rational fraction is the ratio of the form where P(x)
𝑄(𝑥)

and Q(x) are polynomials in x and Q(x) 0. If the degree of the polynomial P(x) is greater
𝑃(𝑥)
than the degree of the polynomial Q(x), then we may divide P(x) by Q(x) so that =
𝑄(𝑥)
𝑃1 (𝑥)
𝑇 𝑥 + where T(x) is a polynomial in x and degree of P1(x) is less than Q(x). T(x) is a
𝑄(𝑥)

polynomial can be easily integrated.

𝑃1 (𝑥) 𝑃1 (𝑥)
can be integrated by expressing as the sum of partial fractions of the following
𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)

types:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
where cannot be factorize further into linear fraction.

Integration by Substitution: In this method we change the variable to some other variable.
When the integrand involves some trigonometric functions, we shall be using some well-
known identities to find the integrals. Using substitution technique, we obtain the following
standard integrals:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

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Integrals of Some Special Functions:

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

Integration by Parts: For the given function f(x) and g(x),

We must take proper care to choose the first function and second function clearly. We must
choose that function as the second function whose integral is well-known to us.

Some Special Type of Integrals:

(a)

(b)

(c)

Integrals of the types or

(a) These type of integrals are transformed into standard form by expressing

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(b) Integrals of the types or are transformed into

standard form by expressing

where A and B are determined by comparing coefficients on both sides.

 We have already defined as the area of the region bounded by the

curve , the x-axis and the ordinates x = a and x = b. Let x be a

given point in [a, b], then represents the area function A(x).
 First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus: Let the area function be defined

by for all where f. be assumed to. be continuous on.

[a,.b], then for all .
 Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus: Let f be a continuous function
of x defined on the closed interval ]a, b] and let F be another function such

that for all x in the domain of f,

then
This is called the definite integral of f over the range [a, b] were a and b are called the limits
of integration, being the lower limit and the upper limit.
Multiple integrals extend the concept of integration from one dimension to multiple
dimensions. While single integrals deal with functions of one variable over a one-
dimensional interval, multiple integrals handle functions of multiple variables over regions in
two or more dimensions.
Definition and Concept of Multiple Integrals: A multiple integral is an extension of a
single integral to functions of more than one variable. In essence, it represents the process of
finding the signed volume (for double integrals) or the signed volume or hypervolume (for
triple integrals) of a region in space bounded by a surface or surfaces.

For a double integral over a region R in the xy-plane of a function f(x, y), it's represented as:

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Here, dA represents the infinitesimal area element in the xy-plane. Similarly, for a triple
integral over a region E in three-dimensional space of a function f(x, y, z), it's represented as:

Where dV represents the infinitesimal volume element in three-dimensional space.

Comparison with Single Integrals:
Single integrals compute the area under a curve in one dimension, while multiple integrals
compute the volume under a surface or hyper volume under a hyper surface in two or more
dimensions. Just as single integrals have definite and indefinite forms, multiple integrals can
also be definite or indefinite.
In essence, single integrals are like slicing a shape into infinitely thin slices along one
direction and summing up the areas of these slices, whereas multiple integrals involve slicing
a shape into infinitesimally small pieces in multiple directions and summing up the volumes
of these pieces.

Examples of double and triple integrals

Double Integrals:
1. Area under a Curve:
Consider the region bounded by the curves y = x2 and y = 4 − x2, for 0 ≤ x ≤1. The area of
this region can be calculated using a double integral:

where R represents the region bounded by the curves.

2. Volume Between Surfaces:
Given two functions z = f(x, y) and z = g(x, y) over a region R in the xy-plane, the volume
between the surfaces and under the region can be computed as:

Triple Integrals:
1. Volume of a Solid Region:

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Let's say we have a solid region bounded below by the plane z = 0, above by the plane z = 4 -
x - 2y, and on the sides by the planes x = 0, y = 0, and a + 2y= 2. The volume of this solid can
be calculated using a triple integral:

where V represents the solid region.

2. Mass of a Three-Dimensional Object:

If we have a three-dimensional object with variable density p(x, y, z), the total mass M of the
object can be calculated using:

where V represents the volume of the object.

These are just a few examples, but double and triple integrals have a wide range of
applications in physics, engineering, economics, and various other fields for computing
various properties of multivariable functions and regions in space.

13.2 Change of Order of Integration

Changing the order of integration is a crucial technique in multivariable calculus that allows
for simplification and more efficient computation of double and triple integrals. The
motivation behind changing the order of integration primarily stems from the desire to
convert the given integral into a form that is easier to evaluate. This can involve converting
from an integral with respect to one variable first to one with respect to another variable first,
or from an iterated integral in one order to another order.

Techniques for changing the order of integration in double and triple integrals
In double and triple integrals, there are several techniques for changing the order of
integration:
1. Fubini's Theorem: This theorem states that if the function being integrated is
continuous on a rectangle (or a rectangular solid in the case of triple integrals), then
the order of integration can be changed without affecting the value of the integral.

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 2. Geometric Considerations: Understanding the geometric interpretation of the
integral and the region of integration can guide the choice of the order of integration.
For example, if the region of integration is more naturally described in terms of one
variable before another, it may be beneficial to change the order accordingly.
3. Symmetry: Exploiting symmetry can often simplify the integration process.
Sometimes, changing the order of integration can make symmetry more apparent and
lead to easier evaluations.
4. Polar, Cylindrical, or Spherical Coordinates: For integrals involving circular,
cylindrical, or spherical symmetry, it is often advantageous to switch to polar,
cylindrical, or spherical coordinates, respectively. This change of variables can
simplify the integral and make changing the order of integration more straightforward.

Geometric interpretation of changing the order of integration

The geometric interpretation of changing the order of integration involves visualizing how
the region of integration is projected onto different coordinate planes or dimensions. By
changing the order of integration, you essentially rearrange the process of slicing and
summing over the region, which can lead to a more manageable integral. Geometrically, this
corresponds to reorienting the axes or changing the direction of integration to better align
with the shape and symmetry of the region being integrated over.

13.3 Applications of Multiple Integrals

Multiple integrals have various applications in mathematics and physics, as you've listed, but
they are also widely used in engineering, economics, and even biology.
Finding volume, mass, and center of mass using multiple integrals, Calculation of moments
of inertia
Here are some additional applications:
1. Engineering Design and Analysis: Engineers often use multiple integrals to calculate
various properties of objects and systems. For example, they might use double
integrals to find the area of irregularly shaped regions or triple integrals to determine
the volume of complex three-dimensional structures. In structural engineering,
multiple integrals are used to analyze stress distributions in materials.
2. Electromagnetism: In physics, multiple integrals are used extensively in the study of
electromagnetism. For instance, in calculating electric and magnetic fields generated

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 by charged or current-carrying objects, engineers and physicists rely on multiple
integrals over space to model and predict these fields accurately.
3. Fluid Dynamics: Multiple integrals are crucial in fluid dynamics for determining
properties such as fluid flow rate, pressure distribution, and fluid forces acting on
solid surfaces. Engineers use these principles in designing aerodynamic shapes for
aircraft, optimizing hydraulic systems, and understanding natural phenomena like
ocean currents.
4. Economics and Finance: In economics, multiple integrals are used in analyzing
consumer and producer surplus, calculating total revenue and profit functions, and
determining equilibrium prices and quantities in complex market models. In finance,
they are employed in option pricing models and risk management techniques.
5. Geography and GIS: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) utilize multiple
integrals for spatial analysis, such as calculating the area covered by a particular land-
use type, estimating population density within specific regions, or determining
optimal routes for transportation networks.
6. Quantum Mechanics: In quantum mechanics, multiple integrals appear in the
calculation of probabilities of various outcomes of particle interactions, the
determination of energy eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions of quantum systems, and the
calculation of expectation values of physical observables.
7. Biology and Medicine: Multiple integrals are used in modeling biological systems,
such as the distribution of substances within tissues, the flow of fluids within blood
vessels, and the diffusion of chemicals in cellular environments. In medical imaging,
they play a crucial role in reconstructing three-dimensional images from two-
dimensional scans.
8. Computer Graphics and Animation: In computer graphics, multiple integrals are
used for rendering three-dimensional scenes, calculating lighting and shading effects,
and simulating realistic physical phenomena like fluid dynamics and cloth motion.

These are just a few examples of the broad range of applications of multiple integrals across
various fields. They provide powerful mathematical tools for modeling and solving complex
real-world problems.

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13.4 Summary
1. Multiple Integrals:
Definition: Multiple integrals extend the concept of integration to functions of multiple
variables. Instead of integrating over a single interval, region, or volume, multiple integrals
involve integrating over higher-dimensional regions, such as surfaces or volumes in two or
three dimensions.
• Types:
• Double Integrals: Integrals over a region in the plane, where the integrand is a function of
two variables.
Triple Integrals: Integrals over a region in three-dimensional space, where the integrand is a
function of three variables.
• Higher-order Integrals: Integrals over regions in higher-dimensional spaces, extending the
concept to functions of four or more variables.
Applications: Multiple integrals are used extensively in physics, engineering, economics, and
other fields to calculate quantities such as mass, volume, density, moment of inertia,
probability, and more.
2. Change of Order of Integration:
Definition: Change of order of integration refers to the process of rearranging the order in
which integrals are evaluated when performing multiple integrals.
• Benefits: Changing the order of integration can simplify the evaluation of multiple integrals,
making them easier to compute or leading to alternative representations.
Conditions: Changing the order of integration is valid under certain conditions, such as when
the region of integration is simple or when the integrand is well-behaved.
• Techniques:
For double integrals, changing the order often involves converting from Cartesian coordinates
to polar coordinates or vice versa.
For triple integrals, changing the order may involve rearranging the order of integration with
respect to the three variables or using cylindrical or spherical coordinates.

13.5 Keywords
 Integration

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  Integration by Parts
 Multiple Integrals
 Change of Order of Integration

13.6 Self – Assessment Questions

1. What is a multiple integral?

2. How is a double integral different from a single integral?
3. What is the interpretation of a triple integral?
4. When do we use iterated integrals for multiple integrals?
5. What does the order of integration refer to?
6. Under what conditions can you change the order of integration?
7. What is Fubini's theorem?
8. How does changing the order of integration affect the limits of integration?
9. Can you interchange the limits of integration in multiple integrals?
10. What are some common applications of multiple integrals and changing the order of
integration in real-world problems?

13.7 Case Study

1. Assume that the charge density ρ(x,y) in a two-dimensional region is changeable.
This is known as the electric charge distribution. The entire region must be
integrated over ρ(x,y) in order to determine the overall charge within the region.
Explain the double integral setup for this calculation, as well as any situations in
which reversing the integration order could make the work easier.
2. Heat Distribution in a Plate: Let us consider a thin metal plate that has an uneven
distribution of heat. T(x,y) gives the temperature of the plate at any given point
(x,y). Integrating T(x,y) throughout the whole plate yields the total heat content. In
order to determine the total heat content, explain how the double integral would be
built up and talk about the possible advantages of varying the sequence of
integration.
13.8 References
1. Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
2. Larson, R., & Edwards, B. (2017). Calculus of a Single Variable (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.

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 CHAPTER -14

Beta and Gamma Functions

Learning Objectives:
 Define what Beta and Gamma functions are and their significance in mathematics,
particularly in calculus, analysis, and probability.
 Understand how to derive and apply various integral representations and series
expansions for Beta and Gamma functions.
 Apply Beta and Gamma functions to solve problems in calculus, probability,
statistics, and physics.
Structure:
14.1 Introduction to Beta and Gamma Functions
14.2 Evaluating Integrals with Beta and Gamma Functions
14.3 Summary
14.4 Keywords
14.5 Self-Assessment Questions
14.6 Case Study
14.7 References
14.1 Introduction to Beta and Gamma Functions
Definition and properties of the gamma function:
The gamma function, denoted by Γ(x), is defined for all complex numbers except non-
positive integers. It extends the factorial function to non-integer arguments.
Its properties include:

Definition and properties of the beta function:

The beta function, denoted by B(p, q), is defined for positive real numbers p and q. It is
closely related to the gamma function and is expressed as:

Relationship between the gamma and beta functions:

The relationship between the gamma and beta functions is fundamental in mathematical
analysis and arises from their definitions and properties. The beta function, denoted as B(p,q),

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is defined in terms of the gamma function (x), and this interconnection provides a deeper
understanding of both functions.
1. Beta Function in Terms of Gamma Function:
The beta function is expressed in terms of the gamma function as follows:

2. Reciprocal Relation:
There exists a reciprocal relation between the gamma function and the beta function:

3. Symmetry Property:
The beta function exhibits a symmetry property:
B(p,q) = B(q,p)
This property implies that the beta function is symmetric with respect to its parameters p and
q.

4. Relation to Integral Representation:

The beta function can be represented as an integral involving the gamma function:

This representation highlights the integral nature of the beta function and its connection to the
gamma function.
5. Product Representation:
The beta function can be represented as a product of two gamma functions:

This product representation emphasizes the relationship between the beta and gamma
functions and facilitates various mathematical manipulations.

14.2 Evaluating Integrals with Beta and Gamma Functions

Integrals involving gamma and beta functions often arise in various areas of mathematics and
physics, particularly in the context of probability theory, statistics, and mathematical physics.
These functions have properties that make them particularly useful for evaluating certain

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types of integrals. Here's a brief overview of the gamma and beta functions and some
techniques for using them to evaluate integrals:
1. Gamma Function ( (x)): The gamma function is defined for all complex numbers except
for the non-positive integers. It is denoted by (x) and is defined as:

Some key properties of the gamma function include:

2. Beta Function (B(x, y)): The beta function is also defined for positive real numbers x
and y. It is denoted by B(x, y) and is defined as:

Some properties of the beta function include:

Techniques for Evaluating Integrals using Gamma and Beta Functions:

1. Substitution: Sometimes, a clever substitution involving gamma or beta functions
can transform an integral into a form where these functions can be directly applied.
For example, using substitution to rewrite the integral in terms of the gamma or beta
function.
2. Integration by Parts: Integration by parts can be used in combination with properties
of gamma and beta functions to simplify integrals. This technique often involves
choosing appropriate functions to differentiate and integrate.
3. Using Known Results: Sometimes, it's possible to express the integrand in terms of
known functions, and then use properties of those functions to evaluate the integral.
For instance, expressing the integrand in terms of trigonometric or exponential
functions.
4. Special Functions: Gamma and beta functions are special functions that have well-
defined properties, which can be exploited to simplify integrals. For example, using
properties like the duplication formula or Euler's reflection formula.

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Applications to Various Problems:
1. Probability Distributions: Many probability distributions, such as the gamma
distribution, beta distribution, and chi-square distribution, involve gamma and beta
functions in their probability density functions and cumulative distribution functions.
2. Mathematical Physics: Integrals involving gamma and beta functions often arise in
problems related to quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and electromagnetic
theory.
3. Engineering Applications: These functions find applications in various engineering
fields, including signal processing, control theory, and communication theory.
4. Number Theory: Gamma and beta functions also have connections to number theory,
particularly through their relation to combinatorial coefficients and special sequences.

Application in Solving Differential Equations:

Beta and gamma functions often appear in the solutions of differential equations, particularly
in problems involving integral transforms, such as Laplace transforms and Fourier
transforms. For instance, when solving differential equations involving linear operators,
gamma and beta functions can serve as building blocks for finding solutions through integral
representations.

14.3 Summary
Both the Beta and Gamma functions have widespread applications in various branches of
mathematics, including calculus, probability theory, statistics, and mathematical physics.
They are foundational tools for solving complex problems involving integration,
combinatorics, and continuous distributions.

14.4 Keywords
 Beta and Gamma Functions
 Differential Equations

14.5 Self – Assessment Questions

1. What is the Beta function?
2. What is the Gamma function?
3. How are the Beta and Gamma functions related?

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4. What is the definition of the Beta function in terms of an integral?
5. How is the Gamma function defined for positive real numbers?
6. What are the properties of the Beta function?
7. What are the properties of the Gamma function?
8. Can you express the factorial function using the Gamma function?
9. How are the Beta and Gamma functions used in calculus and mathematical analysis?
10. What are some applications of the Beta and Gamma functions in various fields of science
and engineering?

14.6 Case Study

Goods with a chance x of defects are produced at a production plant. The plant manager
anticipates that this likelihood will be 4% even if she is unsure about x based on prior
experience. She also adds a standard deviation of 2% to her estimate of 4% in order to
quantify her uncertainty regarding x. The manager, after conferring with a statistician,
determines to model her uncertainty about x using a Beta distribution. In order to match her
priors regarding the anticipated value and the standard deviation of x, how should she adjust
the two distribution parameters?

14.7 References
1. Abramowitz, M., &Stegun, I. A. (1972). Handbook of Mathematical Functions with
Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. Dover Publications.
2. Arfken, G. B., Weber, H. J., & Harris, F. E. (2013). Mathematical Methods for
Physicists: A Comprehensive Guide (7th ed.). Academic Press.

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