42.1.

5 membrone of early cells

RNA every cellhas a membrane barrrer
seperahng the ntorior iromits surtoun
membrane endosed eNA -dings
Fatty acids were likely the prirary
pd mem6rane
Component of ho membrane 6f the earlselh
Fatyacad: hydrocarbon chain with a cortoxyl (On) araup
They are simple amphipathic lipid moloules.
A2. 1.6 RNA 0S a Presumed first qenekc material
rizahon is the process in which relatively small molecules, called
Polymeri
monomers, combine Chemic ally toproduce a large chain l1ke molule,
called a polymer.
molecules
Polymenzahon Is an anabolic reacHon, in which complex
fom from Simpler molecules by condensahon reachons.
Monomer" one part" Polymer: "mony parrs"
Polymerizahon
the first mdecule o pass geneic informaton between qenerahons
15 pre_umed to be RNA.
RNA molecules can act as catalysis for their own replicahons
RNA Mole cules con create copies without using enzymes unlike ONA
RNA hat funchons asa catalyst are called nibozymes. the ibosome contains a
nibozyme that forms the pep hide bond between amino acids during translahon.
build a polypephide from on MRNA code.
RNA- basSd systems " A2.2.6 Eukaryohc cell structure
Prokaryohe (firstevolve 3.gbya)
Rukaryote (Arst evolve 2. bya)
Tiny(s 0.2-1qum)
RNA no membrane bigger (i0- 100m)
bound organeley membrane \bound organelies
. Din'sion by
Nolution OF RNAS that binory hssion Division byb tnary fi'ssion, mitosis and
Can direct protein synthesis · ONA in nucleoid cell wall of cellulose meiosiS
{nonmelean
continue menbrone) DNA in nucleus " 0oes not have plasmids
RNA proten
Similarihe Lager gOs ribosomes .ynicellylar or
mulicellalar
tlagella roa tes Nessenhalproce sses of Nfe
resent daycells DVAis circular Stru ctures common to all cells
and naked
Smaller 10s Ribosomhes , DNA
ONA RNA Potein roosomes Cell menbrgne, ytoplasm
can have plasmids
all unicellular
 Gacteria fungus, animals, plants = I\ying and they are made up of celis.
A2.1.2 ot livna and they Ore not made up of
eis.
VIruses are
perform independent metabolism.
Viruses gaAr Cannof eplicae themselves, cannot
Thes also dont grow.

A2.3.I -spike (s)

nucleocapsid (N) Shucture of a virus !

membrane Viruses vary in size shape, qenehc

materal type genes presentenvelopíng
envelope () RNA viral genome
Sructures common to Viruses: Al| vinuses uses nucleic acic as their geneic
material, some viruses se DNA some use ANA. HOve an outer coahg
" capsid made of protein - Viruses are obligate tntercellular parasites.
Viruses are small most range between o. 02-0.2 um

A2.3.2 Features ommon to viius: All are intercellular parasites, all are small
qll are Foxed insize,no grouwth or developmert, all use nucieic aid os the genehc
all have material.
All have a capsd made of protein. None have cutoplasm
no or fY very few enzymes
Vinuses vanyin: Range of size,ONNor RNA, 000bte or sinqle stranded,citesas
-At.2
A2.3.5 Crigin of viruses : Proaressive hyctess eqressive hyothesis
Prgressive hypothesis states that viruses arose by taking and modifying ell
Components. EVidence: retroviruses
The regressive hypothesis Viruses-arose by lpoPg loss of cellular compon ens.

ocA Rapid evoluhon in Viuses

GenerahOn time is the avernge time between tuo consecuhve qenera hons
in the tineages ofapoputahon. In human opulakon, qeneration ne
Hypially ranges from 20 to 30 years.
Vinigns( single virus gra partide) produces many cffsping viruses.
Viruses, especialy RNA VITUSes, have high rales of mutahons.
A2. 1.4 The apparatus used for miller- urey's oniginol penment
Owaterin afrask (represenhng ocean)is boiled so that it eraporates and
movesinto the larger flask where it corbines with
meshane, ammana and hydrogen gases in alarge Flask (represening atmosphere)
Sparts are Hred between electrodes to shmulate lightrng
9a coobng conden ser turns steam back nto huud water, which drips do wn
miler and urey conluded that avariehy of carbon Compounds including
amino acrts, were frmed from inorg anit compounds.
 A2. 1.7

Earth is over 4.s billion years old.

EvIderce thaws that life existed on Earth b atleast 3.8billon years aqo.
Only one of these life forms gave nse to all of the species existing
since and today.
Last universal common ancesto(luca)

|Archaea Complex cels Eukaryoes Bacteia

All ormansMS are inclyding all plants
classified intb 3domains. Ond animas

bacteria, archaea All OF these together fomm wcA

and eukara
uca uwould have been Small, single- celled prokaryotic cell.
Implications of cels being formed from pre-aistng cells:
Implication 44: Can trace the oniginOf all the cells in our bodu;
back to the ficst cell.
A2.1.3

noganic compounds oganic monamers polymer » self-replicakon

Condiions on early formahan of
Single celled. earth led to the cell

orqanisms called formaton of carbon

Cyanobacteria Compounds such as
amino acids, nitrogenous bases etc.
A2.1.1 Earth acquired water Rom extraplanetary ohjects
Prebiotic earth: frequent volcanic eruphonS, high temperatures
Hydrogen and helium gases H0, co NHg etc
Atmosphere with higher proportion of reachive qases such as
ammonia, and hydrogen, very iHe ovygen Tempera ture: significanty warmer
than today due to hoat from asteroid collisions. WRadiahon, no ozorne
 Beneits oF elecrron micoscoes
magnificaHon of Oo, coox to 30400ox
A2^2 Micoscopy skils Hgh resoving power (0.00\;m)
magnificahon: size of image Gmitahons: Expensive to use
achial size ofspeamen Requires cells to be cotted killed
and chemically, ro movem ent an
Dmage size magniflcahon x dchual síze of specimen be een, withaut stan or
dyerno cdor can te seen
ACtualSi2e of specimen : Size of image
magnica tion
imagesize
Mognit Qchualsize

magniticakon ila Pracice Problem O

54mm: IOC0 = 54,000um
using he formula: 54,000ym 230 (magnificahon)
200 un
2?0X 300X

Pracice Problem 3
Amoeba drawn at 200x life si2e. Find the actual size of
Tmage Size: 19.S-lcm = IG.Scm the amoeba
cOnyert to mm= G.S 0 ISS mm
IGSmm 0.82SMm
200X

A2.2.3Develspments in microSCoy
Magnification i how much largor an object appears comed
to its real size.
Genetits of a compourd light microscope
E05e of use,less expensive to buy, con otb serve dead or livig
cells in color, Cell movement con be studied , quick specinen
preparation (minutes o haurs no need for high volkgo de chicity.
Umitahions: maximum magnificahion of ahout is00x
(ow resolying power (o.2Ssm to 0.3 um)
 Indirect active transport or cotransport, where the Movement of one solue
down is concentra hon arodient dr yes the movement of thesecand solute
against is concenira hon gradrent.
Processes of We in unicellslar organisms: MRHMGREN
metobolism : chemical reacHOns that toke ploce within a cel.
-response to shmui i reaChng to hanges in the externalen iron ment
homeostasis: the maintanence of Constant inteInal cond1hons, desp1te
Chang es to their external environmenis.
movement living things have some control over their place and posihon
9rowhi cells can inctease in size Over a period of hme
reproduchbn i heproduchon ofofspring
excrehon i removal of metabolic waste produc
nutihoh : intake or produchon of nutiens

A2.1.0 the term primordialSoup to desciibe the early oceans.

Oxída Hon and Reduchon
Oxidaion: loss of electrons or an increase in the oxIda hon Slake.
Reduchon : gain of electrons or a cdecrea se in the oxida hòn state
WCA 1S a simple síngle celled Qutotrophic rpoleule micobe with probably an RNA
qenome that existed betuween 2and 3 million years ago.
The exchange ofqenetic material between individuals that does noH involve
reproduchòn: harízontal gene transfer.
character iscs ofluCA: existed deep in the ocean in allkaline hydrothermal ven ts
was anaerobic was autotrophic
Phylagenelkt analysis studying genomes and characer1shcs of organvsms
to infer genehc relatedness and evol uhonary history.
celitheorY States ihat all living things are made up of indivdual units,
cells, which are the basic units of ie and hat all cells anse from the othercel s.
eYepiece garcule: atranspar ent ruler hat is plaçecd in the eyepiece tens.
Compartmen talisakon: theahility to create higher concentrahons of cerkain
substances within organeles. the ability to seperate toxins and potenhally
damaqing Su6stances fron the rest of the cell. control over condihons
in ssde he organelles to mQintain the ophimal condtions for the enzymes
that fun chon in those parts of the cell
 Evamplesof unicellular organsms
Paromecium is o 9enus (9roup) of unicellular pro toz oa, Porame cia are
usually less thon 0.2smm in size an dare wdespread in aqgty
acquaht environmens, parhcularly in Stagn ant ponds.
They are keterotrophs and con move in all direchons using ther oha,
Small hair- like StruChåres

Funqal celis: heir cell wolls made of a poysaccharide clled chiho.

oifferenhation C to become a spec ialized cell)

Tn expressiorn of neuron
speuit genGme
neuron
|Single Tdenhcal
ceil daugher cell
Oepi thelial cell

expressio of epithelial- spehe gene

Possible evidence for ongin of viruses

Progresive hypotheses ist theory: viruses mayhave originated
from ancient oNA or RNA moleules.
Znd theory: viruses may have evolved from vioids, which are small in fechous
agents.
3rd theory: Viruses may hayo Oniginated Prom Ironsposons, which are gonehe
elemerns that can mnove qround
wilhin an crganism's genome
Regressive hypothesis: anuientcells
 cytoplasm

ellwall
plant cel
erdoplasmc rehculum
Vacuole

mitochondia
nucleus
plasma mernbrane
chlarop last
qogbody
nbosomes
cytoplaSm.
endoplasmic
rehculum
animal cell
ve
sicle

mtochondria

nbosomes

innermenbrane
nudeus.
Mitochondria Ouermembrane
Lerdplamic
refedum

hscfear
membrane
Cristae pofe double

matri
chromahin
,doutkemembrane
Chloroplast
20srihosome
-DNA Snoath
thytalkoid (grenndm s Mde ty) tndaplae
grannum rehialyn
stromamellu
Vacaole

tonopl<t

nbosomes
cel
sap
Roughendoplasmie
rehialen
 aotgi appora us

vesicles

Flagela Cha

Ales

nuedeus

VE
Unele
cyfopteasn iw

Feature Gainal Poat Plants

Cel wall
Vacusle
L(eatidles
A2.2.6 Eukaryotic cell Structure common suchures
nucleus, free and bound 8os nbosomes, Rough erdoplasrmic rehculum
Smooth endoplasmic rehculum, golgi apparakus, vesicles,luposome,
mitochondria chloro plast vacuole microtubules and centrioles cytoskelton
cilia and flagella.
cutoplosm

Golgi
bodies
y sosome !! Struchured diagom
of an eukanyotic cer
Srooth ER
Vacuole
Plasma membrane Prokaryotes : Archaea, Bactesia
Ouclear Eukaryofes : animal plants, Rungi
membrae ucleod A2.2.5
centriole Structuces of a prokaryotC cell
CellCplasmo membrane)
cytoplasm ibosome, cell wall, pli
Prokaryohc cell ONA íS naked,which means capsule , fla gellum
that the DNA is not asso cíated with proteins

Plqshds :onlyin plant cel! Vacuoles: animal cell,fungi celland plant cell
Centrioles: aniMat ceI and Plant cel
cell wall : Plant and Pungi cell
cilia and Plaqetta : animal and plont cell
"Encdo symbiosi's
42.2.12 Origin of eukaryohc cels by endosym brosis symbiosis is an interacton
O infolding cf the prokaryotic cel membrane between to different organisms
living in close physical associahon
cndosymbiosís typically to the advantage in both.
.în endosymbiosis, one cell ived
within the other and 6ecame increa singly interdependent
until the unt could only exist as a whole.
A2.2.4 Aypical cellstruckure in eukaryotes
Red blood cel : no nucleus, tes Aseptate Fungal Hyphae: many nucler
Skeletal muscles: multinucleated
Phloem sieve tube elementi lOses heir nucleus, anucleated
ReVSion village: state hue main Outline why viruses ore nof regarded
as Iwing organ1sm: lack cellular struchureS,unable to carry cut meta boliz
reachns
eh
 MicroscopY metre, milhinetre, mIcroMeenanometre
SI units: lm = lo00Mn (lo) 00:IOo (I0 I00: IO00 loOo(109)
m > mm (multiply by lo0o) 4nanometre (nm) to one
micronetre
m> pm (muliply by l000:2 times)
m nm (mulhiply by l0003 times ) 1nm to one mm I00 O.000OoI
+ l000
Anm to 1m =
(io79)
= O.00O0000I
m
C101)
IO0cm= (0Omm
X\00o x\000

ResoluHon of tHhe eye, light miCrOSope and the electron micro[cope

The waveleng th of vsible liqht: 400-tOOnm. Pm = Picometer
|Techniques used in microscope
Freze frocures : process invoves freezing a sample ’ then usng a
speialized oets tool to break the sample into smatl pieces.
cryoqenic elecron microscopy: I involves freezing asample as wel
but to -180 degree cesus or colder tomake them more firm or stable.
immunofluorescence : a technique used in light micro scopy to see certain
Structures.
Process: a fluorestent tag called a fluorophore is atached to anibodies
spaifically for anhgens oOh a StruCture or celi. when the anhbo dy binds
to he antgens, the structure is then tagged with iMmuno fluorescence.
Fluore scent dyes : tt is used in ight microscopy. when he dye is
added o the s ample it wnll atach to ceate certain strctuies.

Faciliated diffusion: ifusion is the movement Of solutes down their concentrahon

gradient. Technicalls i. diffusion using channel proteins
The moement of those molecules is mediated by pro teins which could be either
carrier o channelproteins. chonnelproteins ’ transmembrane proteins
Porin s: an exomple of chonnel protein.
Acive tonsport: when molecules ned to be transported from a region of
their lower Concentra tòn to aregion of heir higher Concentra han,
Active trans port helps to : take up essen Hal nutrients remove secretory or
waste materials from he cell into the exfracetlular Pluid, maintain the
right con centra tions of ions in he cells; for example, acHve transport
helos red biood cells (RBc) maintain their internal Sudiun and
petasium levels. ·Types of acHive transport
Oirect achive transport: energy is released by an exergonic
reachon like the break down of Arf is used to direcly transport moleule
4ross the cell membrane.
 ubter
A
2o Sugar
4% ugar
96lo water
q% water
IO%water highest solute
highest con.of water COoncentraHon.

lowest solute
Concentraion 8: Hypotonic 2% suqar
c Hypertonic 4o sugar

|2%sugar soluhion B and D is isotoníc, same solu ton

low
con
of Same 8olute concentratHon.
waterhypertonic
io salt
high con of waer hypotonic

(O% salt soluton hypertonic

water oo% (low concentraion of
Raisin (nigh con) water)
endosmosis hypotonic water is movingout
exoSIM osis

Csmosis: high cOn: of water. ’ ow con: of water (in terms Of waler)

low Solute con. high Conof water (in term_ of solute)

1% 3ugar
Hypotonic ’ Hypertonic
1o 6uqar i0o suar turgerpressurs

Plant celexample -o.s%salt

watermoves
out: xOSMOsis turgid
Plasmolyzed! hypotonic 0.s%salt
Cytoplasn
high con H,0 -water MOVes in to cell

hupertonic : l0% Salt

ma king cytoplasm big
|ow con Hz0
Consequerce of animal cells:
 32.1.:Protein Pump
Mitochondria
Food ’ Releases eneray membranes are elecHvaly permeable
ArP,Chemical energy specihyonlysome move
Substances through
Glycolipids they are the covalent bonding of carbohydrate s
to lipids resultig'n qlycolipids.

A2.3.3
Gocteriophgqe Lamda they are obligate intercellular viruses
hat speiticalls infect bacteria,.
Bacteniophage lamda con utlise both lyic and lysogenic cycles.
A2.3.9 Lysogenic cycle: the vinUs assimilates its qenome within he host
cel's genome to achieve eplicahion without killing the host.
Lytic cyde: The vicus reproduces and bursts out of the host cel, killing it
ysogenic cycde: O Phage atachmernt to host cel:the phage must atach
itself to a eceptor proten.
Phage oNA entry into hcst cell genehic
many phages
matenial.
haye atube for delivering
S Phage DNA Ís integrated iato hoat qenome After integrakon the virus only
exisis as alength of ONA within a kacterial qenome.
@ONA roplicaton In this stage the virus iS called a prophogs.
cell dËvision
utic cycle: if a, bachenium containing prophage ís exposed to strssors
Such as Uy light low nutrient Conditions Or chemicals, prophage
extract themselves from the host qenome and enter Hhe lytc cycle.
Lyic cycie: Phage atachment to host cell Assembly of new phage
viruses
ha ge DNA erntry into host cell ysis andspread.
a Phage ONA eplicahon
@hage prokein syn thesis The host cl's RNA polymerase is used to trarscribe
Phage ONA into phage RNA
the host cell's nbosomes are used to translate phaqe RNA into phage proteins.