Hydraulics lecture note
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Firaol OromoHydraulics lecture note
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Firaol OromoHydraulics Lecture Note
Chapter One
Introduction to open channel flow
When the flow takes place in a channel or pipe such that the water has a free surface exposed to the
atmosphere, we spoke of open channels, curvets, spillways, and similar human made structures are
designed & analyzed by the method of open channel hydraulics.
The primary differences b/n the confined flow in pipes & open channel flow is that the pipe flow is
closed channel, which is the top surface is covered by solid boundary, it is not exposed to atmospheric
pressure but open channel flow is exposed to atmospheric pressure. In open channels the cross-sectional
area of the flow is variable that depends on many parameters of the flow. For this reason hydraulic
computations related to open channel flow are more complicated.
The prime motivating force (the force causing motion) for open channel flow is gravity or the slope
provided at the bottom (bed).
Let’s compare the two flow types using figure.
EL Hf
Hf
Y1 V2
EL
2g
HGL
HGL Y1
Y2
Y2
Z1
Z2 Z1
Z2
Fig. 1(b) Open channel flow
Fig 1(a) Pipe flow
Where HGL - Hydraulic grade line (coincide with water surface)
EGL - Energy grade line
Hf - head loss due to friction
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V2/2g - velocity head
Despite the similarity between these two flows it is much more difficult and complex to solve problems
of the open channel case. This is due to the fact that the flow condition in open channel flow varies as
per time and place. When we say the flow condition it includes depth of flow, cross-sectional area and
slope of the channel. In turn the depth of flow, discharge and slope of the channel and water surface are
related to each other.
In addition the bed roughness varies greatly leading the selection of friction coefficient to uncertainty.
The cause of flow in open channel the gravitational forces and viscous shear forces along the channel
wetted perimeter resists flow.
Types of channels
Natural channels: These channels naturally exist without the influence of human beings. E.g.
Rivers, streams, tidal estuaries, aqueducts.
Aqueducts are under ground conduits which carry water with free surface.
Artificial channels: Such channels are formed by man’s activity for various purposes. E.g.
irrigation channel, navigation channel, sewerage channel, culverts, power canal…… etc.
The above two channels can have either of the following features:
Prismatic channel: - channels with constant shape and slope.
Non-prismatic channels: - channels with varying shape and slope.
Generally the natural channels fall into the non prismatic group. That is why intensive study of the
behavior of flow in natural channels requires other fields of studies like, sediment transport,
geomorphology, hydrology, river engineering.
Types of flow in open channel
According to the characteristics of the flow with respect to time and place, different categories can
be set.
A. Steady flow:- Here the criterion is time. A flow can be said steady if the fluid characteristics like
velocity, pressure density, depth of flow doesn’t change or if it can be assumed constant between the
time of consideration.
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V p y
0 , 0 and 0
t t t
B. Unsteady flow:- Here the fluid characteristics vary with time such that
V p y
0 0 0
t , t and t
C. Uniform flow:- A space as a criterion is used . Open channel flow is said to be uniform if the
depth of flow, velocity remains constant or the same at every section of the channel. Uniform flow
may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes with time.
V y
0 0
s , and s
D. Non uniform flow: - In case when the velocity, depth of flow in a channel changes with space:
V y
0 0
s , and s
E. Steady uniform flow: - The depth of flow does not change during time interval and space under
consideration.
F. Unsteady uniform flow: - This is a rare phenomenon when the depth of flow fluctuates while
remaining parallel to the channel bottom.
G. Unsteady uniform flow: - This is a flow in which the depth is varying time but not with space.
H. Unsteady non uniform flow: - Is the flow in which the depth is varying with space and time.
Geometric elements of open channel section
Geometric elements are properties of a channel section that can be defined entirely by the geometry of the
section and the depth of flow. The most used geometric properties include:
1. Depth of flow(y): it the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel to the free surface.
2. Top width (T): it is the width of channel section at free surface.
3. Stage (h): is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum.
4. Wetted perimeter (p): it is the length of the channel boundary which is in contact with water.
5. Wetted area (A): is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of flow.
6. Hydraulic radius(hydraulic mean depth)(R) : it is the ratio of wetted area to its wetted perimeter
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A
R=
P
7. Hydraulic depth(D): the ratio of wetted area to the top width,
A
D=
T
8. Section factor (Z): is the product of the wetted area and the two-third power of the hydraulic radius
1
A A
2 3 2
Z=A D =A = =A R 3
T T
9. Conveyance (K) :
2 1
1
Q=VA………………………….V= R 3 S 2
n
2 1
1 3 2
Q=A R S
n
2 1
1 2
=A R 3 S
n
1
=K S 2 S= bed slope
2
1
K= A R3 n= Mannings constant
n
= CA R c= Chezy’s constant
X
Hf (Z)
Sw
Y0
S0 Wsinө
0
W
L
Fig. 1.2
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Where S0- bed slope of channel
Sw- Water surface slope
S- Slope of EGL
W – Weight of water
0 – Shear force
L- Length of channel
Uniform flow is the result of exact balance between the gravity and friction force
Wsin = o .P.L…………………………….(1)
A L sin = o .P.L
But sin = hf/L = S, solving for o ,
A
o = .S R.S ………………………………… (2)
P
Where - unit weight of the water
The shear stress is assumed proportional to the square of the mean velocity,
or o= kV2…………………………………..……..(3)
Therefore, kv2=RS
V2= RS ,
k
Let C 2 -constant (b/c &k- are consta
k
V C RS. ……………………………………………….... (4)
This is the Chezy –formula
C= chezy coefficient (chezy’s resistance factor)
V= Average velocity of flow
Manning Formula
1 2 1
V= R 3 S0 2 ………………………………………………(5)
n
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The best as well as most widely used formula for uniformly for uniform flow.
n- is the roughness coefficient.
A relation between the Chezy’s C and Manning’s n may be obtained by comparing eqn (4) & (5)
1
R6
C …………………………………………..(6)
n
The value of n ranges from 0.009 (for smooth straight surfaces) to 0.22 (for very dense
flood plain forests).
1.2 Hydraulic Efficiency channel cross section
A channel section is said to be efficient if it gives the maximum discharge for the given shape, area and
roughness.
The velocity in an open channel is:
V= f(R,S)……………………………………..(a)
Q=A*V=Af(R,S)……………………………..(b)
Equation (b) indicates that for the given area of cross section and slope the discharge Q will be
maximum when R is maximum.
Since, R = A/P, R will be maximum when P is minimum for a given area.
We can conclude that for most efficient and economical channel section the wetted perimeter should be
minimum& also frictional resistance,o is minimum.
For example, a rectangular channel of depth Y and width, B
A=BY………………………….(i)
P=B=2Y……………………….(ii)
From eqn. (i), B=A/Y
Substituting in (ii) P=A/Y+2Y………….(iii)
For maximum Q, P- is minimum.
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dp d
0 ( A / Y 2Y ) 0
dY dY
A 20
Y
A 2Y 2 B * Y
So, B=2Y (or Y=B/2)
Thus the rectangular channel is most efficient and economical when the depth of water is one half of the
width of the channel and the discharge flow will be maximum.
Accordingly, the most efficient channel shape is the semi circle. The usual shape for new channel &
canal is the rectangular or trapezoidal. Such that the inscribed semi circle is tangential to the bed & side.
1.3 Specific Energy
For any cross section, shape, the specific energy ( E) at a particular section is defined as the energy head
to the channel bed as datum. Thus,
V2
E Y ……………………………………………..(1)
2g
( - is kinetic energy correction factor 1)
EGL
ET1
ET2
Z1
Datum
Z2
Fig 1.3 Specific Energy at a particular section
For a rectangular channel, the value of flow per unit width is Q/B=q, and average velocity
qB q
V Q
A BY Y
Therefore eqn (1) becomes:
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2
q y
E y y q …………………………………… (2)
2
2g 2 gy 2
q2
( E y )Y 2 (For the case of constant q)………………………… (3)
2g
A plot of E Vs Y is a hyperbola like with asymptotes (E-Y) =0 i.e. E=Y and y=0. Such a curve is known
as specific energy diagram.
Y2
Sub critical
section
Yc
Super critical
Y1
Ec E0
E
Fig 1.4 Specific Energy diagram
For a particular q, we see there are two possible values of Y for a given value of E. These are known as
Alternative depths (for e.g. Y1 & Y2 on fig. above)
The two alternative depths represent two totally different flow regimes slow & deep on the upper limp
of the curve (sub critical flow) & fast and shallow on the lower limb of the curve.(super critical flow)
1.4 Critical depth
From fig 1.4 above, at point C for a given q the value of E is a minimum and the flow at this point
referred to as critical flow. The depth of flow at that point is the critical depth Yc & the velocity is the
critical velocity Vc.
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For example, a relation for critical depth in a wide rectangular channel can be found by differentiation
E of eqn.2 with respect to Y to find the value of Y for which E is a minimum.
dE q2
1 3 …………………………………………….. (4)
dY gy
And when E is a minimum Y=Yc and dE 0 , so that
dy
q2
0 1 q 2 gy c ………………………………. (5)
3
3
gYc
Substituting q= vy = VC*Yc, gives
Vc gyc
2
q
Vc gy c ……………………………………….. (6)
yc
It may be expressed as:
1
Vc 2 q2 3
yc ……………………………………….. (7)
g g
2
V y
From eqn (7) c c , hence,
2g 2
2
Vc
E c E min y c y c 1 y c 3 y c ……………… (8)
2g 2 2
And yc 2 Emin ……………………………………………………………..(9)
3
From eqn. (7): q max
3
gyc ……………………………………… ………….(10)
For non rectangular cross section the specific energy eqn.
Q2
E y …………………………………………………….. (11)
2gA 2
[V=Q/A]
To find the critical depth,
dE Q 2 dA
1 3 ………………………………………………….. (12)
dy gA dy
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From fig 1.3 (b) dA = dy*T (at Yc, T= Tc)
Therefore the above equation becomes:
2
Qmax Tc
3
1 …………………………………………………………….. (13)
gAc
The critical depth must satisfy this equation
3
gAc
From eqn. (13) Q 2 and substitute in eqn. (11) then
Tc
Ac
Ec yc …………………………………………………………..(14)
2Tc
Q 2T
eqn.(13) can be solved by trial & error for irregular section by plotting f ( y ) and critical depth
gA3
occurs for the value of y which makes f(y)=1
Sub critical, Critical and super critical flow
If specific energy curve for Q- constant is redraw along side a second curve of depth against discharge
for constant E, will show the variation of discharge with depth.
For a given constant discharge fig (1.5a)
i) the specific energy curve has a minimum value Ec at point C with a corresponding depth Yc
known as critical depth.
ii) For any other value of E there are two possible depth of flow known as alternative depth one
of which is termed sub critical (y>Yc) and the other supercritical (Y<Yc).
a) For a given constant specific energy ( fig.1.5(b))
y2
i) the depth discharge curve shows that discharge is a maximum at the critical depth
y
ii) Forc all other discharges there are two possible depth of flow ( sub- & super critical) for
y1
any particular value of E,
From eqn. (13) above if we substitute
Q= AV (continuity equation), we get
Q 2T
1
gA 3
A 2V 2T V 2T
1 1
gA3 gA
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but A/T = D ( Hydraulic depth), then [ D=Y for rectangular section)
V2
1 V gy ……………………………(*)
gy
V
1 Froude number at critical state.
gy
V
F ……………………………………….(**)
gy
Thus, i) F= 1critical flow
ii) F< 1 sub critical flow
iii)F>1 Super critical
1.5 Hydraulic Jump
By far the most important of the local non-uniform flow phenomena is that which occurs when
supercritical flow has its velocity reduced to sub critical. There is sudden rise in water level at the point
where hydraulic jump occurs (Rapidly varied flow). This is an excellent example of the jump serving a
useful purpose, for it dissipates much of the destructive energy of the high –velocity water, there by
reducing downstream erosion. The turbulence with in hydraulic jumps has also been found to be very
useful & effective for mixing fluids, & jumps have been used for this purpose in water treatment plant &
sewage treatment plants.
Y2
V2
V1
Y1
Lj
Fig 1.6 hydraulic jump on horizontal bed following over a spillway
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Purposes of hydraulic jump:-
i) To increase the water level on the d/s of the hydraulic structures
ii) To reduce the net up lift force by increasing the downward force due to the increased depth
of water,
iii) To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing the effective head causing flow,
iv) For aeration of drinking water
v) For removing air pockets in a pipe line
Analysis of hydraulic jump
Assumptions
1) The length of the hydraulic jump is small, consequently, the loss of head due to friction is
negligible,
2) The channel is horizontal as it has a very small longitudinal slope. The weight component in the
direction of flow is negligible.
3) The portion of channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs is taken as a control volume & it is
assumed the just before & after the control volume, the flow is uniform & pressure distribution is
hydrostatic.
Let us consider a small reach of a channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs.
The momentum of water passing through section (1) per unit time is given as:
p1 rQV1
QV1 ……………………………………….(i)
t g
Momentum at section (2) per unit time is:
p2 rQV2
QV2 ………………………………………….(ii)
t g
Rate of change of momentum b/n section 1 & 2
P
Q (V2 V1 ) ……………………………………….(iii)
t
The net force in the direction of flow = F1-F2 ………………..(iv)
F1 A1Y1 , F2 A2 Y2
Y 1 & Y 2 are the center of pressure at section (1) & (2)
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Therefore F1-F2 =M =Q (V2-V1)
Q
A1Y 1 A2 Y 2 (V2 V1 ) ……………………………………(v)
g
From continuity eqn. Q= A*V, V= Q/A, so
Q Q Q
A1Y 1 A2 Y 2
g A2 A1
2
Q 1
A1Y 1 A2 Y2 A 1 A .................................................(iv)
g 2 1
Rearranging this eqn.:
Q2 Q2
A1 Y 1 A2 Y 2
gA1 gA2 = Constant. …………… (vii)
M1 M2
M1and M2 are the specific forces at section (1) & (2) indicates that these forces are equal before & after
the jump.
Y1= initial depth
Y2 = sequent depth
Hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel
A1=By1 the section has uniform width (B)
A2= By2
Y1 Y
Y 1 ,Y 2 2
2 2
Now from eqn. (Vii) above:
Q2 y
By2 * y2
Q
By1 1
gBy1
2 gBy2 2
Q2 By 2 Q2 By 2
1 2 ..............................................................(viii)
gBy1 2 Bgy2 2
Flow per unit width of q= Q/B Q=qB, then eqn. (viii) becomes
q 2 B 2 By12 q 2 B 2 By22
Bgy1 2 Bgy2 2
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q2 1 1 y22 y12
………………………………… (.ix)
g y1 y2 2
2q 2
y1 y2
y 2
2 y12
g y2 y1
2q 2
y1 y2 ( y1 y2 )...................................................................( x)
g
2q 2
y2 y12 y1 y22 0...........................................................( xi)
g
This is quadratic eqn. & the solution is given as
y2
2
y 2q
2
y1 2 ...................................................( xii)(a)
2 2 gy2
y1 2
2q 2
y2 y1 ................................................(b)
2 2 gy2
8q 2
y1 y2 (1 1 )...................................................(c)
2 gy23
8q 2
y2 y1 (1 1 3 .....................................................( xii)(d )
2 gy1
The ratio of conjugate depths;
y1 8q 2
1 (1 1 3 ...............................................( xii)(e)
y2 2 gy2
y2 8q 2
1 (1 1 3 ..................................................( f )
y1 2 gy1
q
V1 V2 y2 q
F1 , F2
gy1 gy2 gy2 gy23
y1 1
Therefore (1 1 8F22 )........................( g )
y2 2
y2 1
(1 1 8F12 ..........................................(h)
y1 2
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Energy dissipation in a Hydraulic Jump
The head loss hl.f caused by the jump is the drop in energy from section (1) to (2) or:
hlf= E = E1 - E2
V12 V22
y1
y2 2 g .......................................(1)a
2 g
q2 q2
y1 y ....................................(b)
2 gy12 2 gy22
2
q 2 y22 y12
( y2 y1 ).......................(c)
2 g y12 y22
2q 2
From eqn. (x) substituting: y1 y2 ( y1 y2 ) in to this eqn. & by rearranging:
g
hlf E
y2 y1 3 ..............................................(2)
4 y1 y2
Therefore power lost = Q hlf (kw)…………………(3)
Types of Hydraulic jump
Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the upstream Froude number and depth ratio.
F1 Y2/y1 Classification
<1 1 Jump impossible
1-1.7 1-2 Undular jump (standing wave)
1.7-2.5 2-3.1 Weak jump
2.5-4.5 3.1-5.9 Oscillating jump
4.5-9.0 5.9-12 Steady jump (45-70% energy loss)
>9.0 >12 Strong or chopping jump (=85% energy loss)
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CHAPTER TWO
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, SIMILITUDE &HYDRAULIC MODELS
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics is an experimental science & is also a complex subject. Most phenomena involving the
movement of water are known to be dependent on many variables- geometric characteristics, fluid
properties and flow characteristics. Much of raw experimental data were incomplete, ambiguous, &
incorrectly taken.
It is usually impossible to determine all the essential facts for a given fluid flow by pure theory, &hence,
dependence must often be placed up on experimental investigations.
The number of tests to be made can be greatly reduced by the systematic use of Dimensional Analysis
and the laws of similitude or similarity. Dimensional Analysis is a mathematical technique, which makes
use of the study of dimension as an aid to the solution of several engineering problems
Dimension less grouping reduces the number of variables that have to be processed.
Dimension analysis can be used to obtain functional relation ship among the variables in terms of non-
dimensional parameter. It helps in obtaining a systematic form of the variables involved in the problem.
However, dimensional analysis doesn’t give complete relation ship; it gives only a general relation ship.
Some of the uses of dimensional analysis are narrated as follows: -
i. Testing the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion
ii Deriving equations expressed in terms of non- dimensional parameters to show the
significance of each parameter.
iii planning model tests & presenting experimental results in a systematic manner in terms of non-
dimensional parameters; thus making it possible to analyses the complex fluid flow
phenomena.
Hydraulic structures or machines can be designed using:
(i) Pure theory,
(ii) Empirical methods,
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(iii) Semi-empirical methods which are mathematical formulations based on theoretical concepts
supported by suitably designed experiments,
(iv) Physical models,
(v) Mathematical models.
i) The purely theoretical approach in hydraulic engineering is limited to a few cases of laminar flow,
for example the Hagen Poisseuille equation for the hydraulic gradient in the laminar flow of an
incompressible fluid in a circular pipeline.
ii) Empirical methods are based on correlations between observed variables affecting a particular
physical system. Such relationships should only be used under similar circumstances to those under
which the data were collected. Due to the inability to express the physical interaction of the parameters
involved in mathematical terms some such methods are still in use. One well-known example is in the
relationship between wave heights, wind speed and duration for the forecasting of ocean wave
characteristics.
iii) A good example of a semi-empirical relationship is the Colebrook white equation for the friction
factors in turbulent flow in pipes (We will see it in chapter 4). This was obtained from theoretical
concepts and experiments designed on the basis of dimensional analysis; it is universally applicable to
all Newtonian fluids.
iV) Dimensional analysis also forms the basis for the design and operation of physical scale models,
which are used to predict the behavior of their full –sized counterparts called ‘prototypes’. Such models,
which are generally geometrically similar to the prototype, are used in the design of aircraft, ships,
submarines, pumps, turbines, harbors, breakwaters, river and estuary engineering works, spillways, etc.
V) The mathematical modeling techniques have progressed rapidly due to the advance of high-speed
digital computers, enabling the equations of motion coupled with semi-empirical relationships to be
solved for complex flow situations such as pipe network analysis, pressure transients in pipelines,
unsteady flows in rivers and estuaries, etc., there are many cases, particularly where localized flow
patterns can not be mathematically modeled, when physical models are still needed.
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With out the technique of dimensional analysis experimental and computational progress in fluid
mechanics would have been considerably retarded.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis is a method, which describes a natural phenomenon by dimensionally correct
equation among certain variables which affect the phenomenon. It is a mathematical method, which is of
considerable value in problems that occur in fluid mechanics.
In dimensional analysis, from a general understanding of fluid phenomenon, one first predicts the
physical parameters that will influence the flow, and then by grouping these parameters in dimension
combinations, a better understanding of the flow phenomena is made possible.
Application of dimensional analysis:
Developing equations –reducing number of variables in an experiment.
Producing dimensionless parameters – establish the principle of model design.
FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS
In an equation expressing physical relationship between quantities, absolute numerical and dimension
equality must exist. The magnitude of such quantities as mass, length, force, acceleration etc are
expressed differently in different units of measurement.
The mass, length, and time are independent of each other and their units of measurement are prescribed
by international standards and called fundamental quantities. The units of all other quantities may be
determined either from their definitions or from the physical laws describing them.
In place of mass, the force is also sometimes considered as fundamental quantity. The force and the
mass are related by the Newton's second law as follows
F = m .a
F=m*a = (M) (LT-2)
DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES USED IN FLUID MECHANICS
Number Quantity Symbol Dimensions
(MLT)
1 Length L L
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2 Time T T
3 Mass m M
4 Force F M L T -2
5 Velocity V L T -1
6 Acceleration a L T -2
7 Area A L2
8 Discharge Q L3 T -1
9 Pressure P M L-1 T-2
10 Power P ML2T-3
11 Density M L-3
12 Unit gravity force γ ML-2 T -2
13 Dynamic viscosity M L-1T-1
14 Kinematic viscosity L2 T-1
15 Surface Tension MT-2
16 Bulk modulus of elasticity K ML-1 T-2
17 Shear stress ﺥ ML-1T-2
Dimensional Homogeneity
Any equation describing a physical situation will only be true if both sides have the same dimensions.
That is it must be dimensionally homogenous. For example the equation which gives for over a
rectangular weir (derived earlier in this module) is, The SI units of the left hand side
are m3s-1. The units of the right hand side must be the same. Writing the equation with only the SI units
gives i.e. the units are consistent. To be more strict, it is the dimensions which
must be consistent (any set of units can be used and simply converted using a constant). Writing the
equation again in terms of dimensions, Notice how the powers of the individual
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dimensions are equal, (for L they are both 3, for T both -1). This property of dimensional homogeneity
can be useful for:
1. Checking units of equations;
2. Converting between two sets of units;
3. Defining dimensionless relationships (see below). k
METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
The dimensional analysis is a power full tool in formulating problems of physical phenomenon. It must
be solved experimentally. The dimensional analysis accomplishes this by formation of dimension-less
groups containing relevant variables. There are several approaches for the dimensional analysis.
However, all the methods are absolutely dependent on the correct identification of all the factors, which
govern the physical event being analyzed.
The application of dimensional analysis to any practical problem is based on the assumption that certain
variable, which affect the phenomenon are independent variables, and all variables other than these and
the dependent variable, are irrelevant and have no bearing on the phenomenon.
Steps in dimensional analysis
☺ To decide which variables enter the problem
☺ Formation of dimensionless groups of the variables
☺ Requires thorough understanding
☺ Judgment and experience
1. RAYLEIGH'S METHOD
It gives a special form of relationship among the dimensionless group, and has an inherent draw back
that it doesn't provide any information regarding the number of dimensionless groups to be obtained as a
result of dimensional analysis.
Procedure:
i. The functional r/s can be written as:
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Y= f(X1 X2, X3, …,Xn)
ii. Any function can be expressed as a series of terms –each being made up of product of variables
brought to exponent.
Y = K[X1a,X2b,X3c,…Xnz]
iii. The exponents a, b, c… can be determined by dimensional homogeneity.
iv. Since there are three fundamental dimensions, only three simultaneous equations can be formed.
v. The non-dimensional parameters are obtained by grouping variables with like exponent.
Example
A scale model test have been carried out on a new hydraulic machine, the experiment team has been
presented the following data
Thrust force F M1L1 T -2
The flow velocity V L1 T -1
Viscosity M L-1 T -1
Density ML-3
Size of system L L, are given
Produce meaning full dimensionless ratios
Solution:
The dimension less ratio should work equally for both model and prototype
i. F = ƒ (v, , , L,)
ii. F = K (VX µY Z L w ) K is a dimension less constant
iii. (M1 L1 T -2) = [(LT-1)X (M1 L-1 T-1) Y (M L-3 )Z ( L) W ]
Using the principles of dimensional homogeneity
x 2 y,
z 1 y,
w 2 y
There fore, F=K (V2-y, µy, 1-y,L2-y)
y
VL
iv. F = V L C
2 2
= V 2 L2
V L
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F VL
v. = Φ (Re)
V L
2 2
F
On the basis of dimensional analysis is dependent only on the Reynolds number.
V 2 L2
2. BUCKINGHAM -π THEOREM
The Buckingham - pi method is widely used in the dimensional analysis of a problem and expresses the
resulting equation in terms of dimensionless groups ( terms).
☺ It arranges variables in dimensionless groups.
☺ It reduces the number of variable.
Rules:
(a) If a phenomenon involves n variables and these variables are described by m fundamental
dimensions, they will produce n - m groups
f1 (1, 2, 3... n-m) =constant;
(b) Each - group should be a function of maximum of m+1 variable
(c) m repeating variables are selected from amongst the n - variables so that in combination contain m
fundamental dimensions
Selection of repeating variables
Repeating variables are those which will appear in all or most of the groups, and have an influence in
the problem. Before commencing the analysis of a problem, one must choose the repeating variables.
There is considerable freedom allowed in the choice.
Some rules which should be followed are:
1. From the 2nd theorem there can be m (= 3) repeating variables.
2. When combined, these repeating variables must contain all of the dimensions (M, L, T)
(That is not to say that each must contain M, L and T).
3. A combination of the repeating variables must not form a dimensionless group.
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4. The repeating variables do not have to appear in all groups.
5. The repeating variables should be chosen to be measurable in an experimental investigation.
They should be of major interest to the designer. For example, pipe diameter (dimension L) is
more useful and measurable than roughness height (also dimension L).
In fluids it is usually possible to take , and d as the three repeating variables.
That is describing geometry of flow, flow characteristics, and fluid property.
(d) The governing quantities must not combine among themselves to form dimensionless groups. And
each -term is dimensionless; the final function must be dimensionless, and therefore dimensionally
homogeneous.
1 , 2 , 3 , , n m M 0 L0 T 0
f
From the above example F, v,,, L
n = 5, m= 3 so n-m=2 groups ( 2 π-groups)
The repeating variables are , L and v.
L x1 M y1 z1 ML
1 =Vx1 y1 Lz1 F M 0 L0T 0 , 3 , L , 2
T L T
L x2 M y2 z2 M
2 =V L M L T , 3 , L
x2 y2 z2 0 0 0
T L LT
After equating both equations:
F
1 =
V 2 L2
2 =
VL
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F
, 0
V L VL
2 2
F VL
or
V L
2 2
VL
OR F= V 2 L2
Example-
1) Using the variables, Q, D, ΔH/L, ρ, μ, g as pertinent to smooth pipe flow, arrange them in to
dimension less parameters by the Buckingham’s π theorem.
Solution:
- The pertinent variables are
Q, D, ΔH/L, ρ, μ, and g
- Functional relation
ƒ (Q, D, ΔH/L, ρ, μ, g)
- Select the repeating variables
D, ρ, Q
- Write the pi – parameters
2.3. SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC MODELS
Hydraulic Models
The design of a major hydraulic system may be approached
☺ By theoretical reasoning and use of numerical models Q =V*A.
☺ On the basis of previous experience of similar system.
☺ By scale model experiments true distorted.
It is known that even with modern computing facilities, many complex problems still challenge
complete theoretical analysis. A combination of past experience, theory and dimensional analysis will
provide partial or complete solution to a number of problems. However, there still remain many
problems, which are tractable only through experimentation. This will be done through model studies of
proposed hydraulic structures and machines.
Models permit visual observation of the flow and make it possible to obtain numerical data.
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E.g. Calibrations of weirs and gates, depth of flow, velocity distributions, forces on gates, efficiencies
and capacities of pumps and turbines, pressure distribution and losses.
The main objectives achieved through dimensional analysis and subsequent model testing may be:
To obtain a relation ship amongst variables influencing a problem in terms of dimensionless
parameters. The knowledge of this relation ship is essential for planning and conducting the model
tests and there after in presenting the test results.
To obtain experimental data from model tests for predicting the performance of its prototype under
different conditions of flow it may be subjected to during its operation.
To check the validity of assumptions made in the design of certain hydraulic structures. The design
of many of hydraulic structure is usually based on certain assumptions, which may not be fully
satisfied. It is always in the best interest, to find out whether the assumptions made are on the safer
side and also to ascertain whether the structures so designed will serve the desired purpose.
The model may be larger, smaller or even of the same size as the prototype depending on type of fluid
used. The choice of the fluid and the geometrical scale will depend only by the practical considerations.
If complete similarity is to exist between the flow in the prototype and the flow in its model, every
dimensionless parameter referring to the conditions in the models must have the same numerical value
as the corresponding parameters referring to the prototype.
Hydraulic models may be either true or distorted. True models have all significant characteristic of the
prototype reproduced to scale (geometrically similar) and satisfy discharge restrictions (kinematically
and dynamically similar).
The models in which it is not possible to maintain geometric similarity is known as distorted models
TYPES OF SIMILARITY
For complete similarity to exist between the model and prototype, they must be geometrically,
kinematically and dynamically similar.
GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY
It is the similarity of the shape (scale factor). It is obtained when the solid boundaries that control the
follow of fluid are geometrically similar. The model is a geometric reduction of the prototype and is
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accomplished by maintaining a fixed ratio of all homologous lengths between the model and prototype.
These physical quantities are length, area, diameter, volume, etc.
HP
Bp MODEL
LP
PROTOTYPE
Model scale ratio:
Lp Bp Hp
Lr = (1)
Lm Bm Hm
Area Ratio:
Ap Lp* * B p
Ar = L2r
Am Lm * Bm
Volume ratio:
Lp * Bp * H p
Vr = =Lr3
Lm * Bm * H m
KINEMATIC SIMILARITY
It is the similarity of motion. For kinematic similarity to exist, the streamline pattern in the model must
be the same as in its prototype. The ratios of kinematic quantities representing the flow characteristics
such as, time, velocity, acceleration, and discharge must be the same at all corresponding points.
The velocity ratio is:
Vp
Vr =
Vm
Time scale ratio:
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Tp Lr
Tr = {b/c T= L/V}
Tm Vr
Acceleration scale ratio:
ap Lr Vr2
ar {b/c a=[L/T2] }
am Tr2 Lr
Discharge scale ratio:
L3 p
Qp Tp L3r
Qr =
Qm L3m Tr
Tm
DYNAMIC SIMILARITY
It is the Similarity of forces involved in motion. Dynamic Similarity is attained if the ratio of
homologous forces in the model and prototype are kept constant.
Fp
i.e. = Fr
Fm
The conditions required for complete similarity are developed form the Newton 2nd law of motion
F x ma x
The forces acting may be any one or a combination of several of the following: viscous, pressure,
gravity, elasticity, surface tension, inertia forces etc.
Forces (viscous pressure gravity elasticity surface tension)p m p a p
Forces (viscous pressure gravity elasticity surface tension)m mm am
F Fv Fg Fs Fp Fe RESULTANT Fi m. a
NOTE: Newton’s Law: Inertia force (Fi) is equal and opposite to the resultant forces.
F m.a p Fi p
p
F
(1)
m
m.a m Fi m
However, in practice, a mode is designed to study the effects of only a few dominant forces. Dynamic
similarity requires that the ratios of these forces be kept the same between the model and prototype.
v2
Inertia force, Fi= m *a = 3 p2 v 2
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du v
Viscous force, Fv = حA = A * 2 . .
dy
Gravity force, Fg = m. g = .3 g
Pressure force, Fp = p. A = .2
Elastic force, Fe = Ev.A= Ev. 2
Surface tension force, Fs = l
In problems of fluid flow, the inertia force will always exist and hence it is customary to find out the
force ratios with respect to the inertia forces, thus:
Inertia- to- viscous forces ratio
Fi F
i (2)
Fv m Fv p
Inertia-to gravity forces ratio
Fi
Fi (3)
F
g m Fg p
Inertia to elastic forces ratio
Fi F
i (4)
Fe m Fe p
Inertia- to surface tension forces ratio
Fi F
i (5
Fs m Fs p
Inertia -to pressure forces ratio
Fi
Fi (6)
F
p m Fp p
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☺ When the two systems are geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar, then they are said
to be completely similar or complete similitude exists b/n the two systems.
The above six equations are dimensionless groups. The significance of the dimensionless ratios is
discussed below:
(a) REYNOLDS NUMBER (phenomenon governed by viscous force)
A fluid in motion always involves inertia forces. If the inertial forces and viscous forces (example pipe
flow) can be considered to be the only forces that govern the motion, the ratio of these forces acting on
homologous particles in a model and its prototype is defined by the Reynolds number.
Fi
Re = = (Inertial force)/(Viscous force)
Fv
L2V 2 VL
= LV (Non dimensional ratio)
VL
This is for flow of fluid in pipe. And also for airplane traveling at speed below that at which
compressibility of the air is appreciable. Further, for a submarine submerged far enough so as not
to produce waves on the surfaces.
This states that when the inertial force and the viscous force are considered to be the only forces
governing the motion, the Reynolds number of the model and of the prototype or of two pipelines of
different fluids, must be kept constant. Thus:
LV LV
Re m Re p
m p
NOTE: D is taken as L for pipe flow.
(b) FROUDE NUMBER: (phenomenon governed by gravity force)
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When inertial forces and gravity forces are considered to be the only dominant forces in the fluid
motion, the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces acting on the homologous elements of the fluid in the
model and prototype are considered as follows:
Fi L2V 2 V 2
F gL3
g gL
V
The square root of this ratio is known as Froude number.
gL
V
Therefore, Fr =
gL
This is used for the wave action setup by a ship, the flow of water in open channels, the forces of
a stream on a bridge pier, the flow of jet from an orifice, and so on.
In open hydraulic structures
Spill way
Weirs
Channel transitions.
Sluices etc
For dynamically similitude model and prototype:
V
Fr (mod el ) Fr ( proto ) V
gL gL
m p
N.B For open channel case L is the depth of the channel.
For a ship, L is taken as the length at water line.
In some flow situations fluid friction is a factor of gravity as well as Inertia. Hence, Reynolds
number & Froude number must both be satisfied simultaneously. To satisfy this, we have to
use fluids of different viscosity for both model and prototype. Thus:
3
m Lm
2
p Lp
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The scale number for Froude number similarity will be:
Vp
Vr = Lr (for the same Fr and g).
Vm
Tp Lr
Time ratio: Tr Lr
Tm Vr
Vr
Acceleration ratio: ar 1
Tr
5
Discharge ratio: Qr Vr Ar Lr 2
(c) WEBER NUMBER (phenomenon governed by surface tension)
The surface tension is a measure of energy level on the surface of a liquid body. The force is of primary
importance in hydraulic engineering practice in the study of small surface waves or control of
evaporation from a large body of water, such as water storage tank / reservoir.
In river and harbor models reduction of scale often leads to appreciable viscous and capillary effects in
the shallow regions of flow. The depth of flow in such cases should be sufficiently large so that capillary
effects are negligible.
The ratio of Inertia to Surface tension forces in prototype and model is:
Fi V 2 L2 V2
Fs L
L
The square root of this dimensionless ratio is known as WEBER NUMBE (We):
V
We=
L
It is applied at the leading edge of a very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface. Like:
Capillary movement of water in solids.
Flow of liquid at a very small depth over a surface.
Flow over weir at very small heads.
Spray of liquid from the exit of discharging tube resulting in the formation of drops of
liquids.
(d) MACH NUMBER (phenomenon governed by elastic forces)
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The Mach number can be regarded as the ratio of inertia and elastic forces. In problems where the
compressibility of the fluid becomes important, the elastic force must be considered. The high-speed
motion through air causes compressibility effect (elastic force). The Mach number is therefore,
measures of the effects of compressibility.
Aerodynamic testing.
Flow gases exceeding the velocity of sound.
Water hammer problems. (Design of surge tanks).
The ratio of Inertia forces& elastic forces in prototype and model is:
Fi L2V 2 V 2
Fe EL2 E
The square root of this dimensionless number is known as
MACH NUMBER (M). Thus:
V V
M
E C
This is for fluid velocity (or velocity of the body through a stationary fluid) to that of a sound
wave in the same medium.
C is the sonic velocity (or celerity) in the given medium.
(e) EULER NUMBER (Phenomenon governed by pressure forces.)
The ratio of Inertia forces to pressure forces for both prototype and model is given by:
Fi V 2 L2 V 2
Fp PL2 P
The square root of this dimensionless number is known as EULER NUMBER (Eu). Thus:
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V V V
Eu
2P
2 g P
P
Examples
1) A 1:10 scale model of water supply piping system is to be tested at 200C to determine the total head
loss in the prototype that carries water at 850C. The prototype is designed to carry 5.0m3/s discharge
with 1m diameter pipes. Determine the model discharge and model velocity. Discuss how losses
determined from the model are converted to proto type loss.
2) An over flow spillway is designed to be 100m high and 120mlong, carrying a discharge of 1200 m3/5
under an approaching head of 2.75m. The spillway operation is to be analyzed by a 1:50 model in a
hydraulic laboratory. Determine
The model discharge,
If the discharge coefficient at the model crests measures 2.12, what is the prototype crest
discharge coefficient?
If the velocity at the outlet of the model spill way measures 25m/s, what is the prototype
velocity?
3) A 1:50 scale model is constructed to a study a gate prototype that is designed to drain a reservoir. If
the model reservoir is drained in 5.2 min, how long should if take to drain the reservoir?
4) A 1 m long 1:50 model is used to study the wave force on a prototype of a sea wall structure. If the
total wave force measured on the model is 2.27 N and the velocity scale is 1: 10, determine the force
per unit length of the prototype.
Similarity Laws or Model laws
The results obtained from the model tests may be transferred to the prototype by the use of model
laws, which may be developed, from the principle of dynamic similarity.
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a) Reynold’s Model laws: inertia & viscous forces are the only predominant forces. The similarity of
flow in the model & its prototype can be established if the Reynold’s number is the same for both
systems.
(Re) model = (Re) prototype.
m vm Lm p V p Lp p Vp Lp m
. . . 1
m p m Vm Lm p
r .Vr .Lr V .L
1 r r
r r
b) Froude Model Law: when gravitational force is added to the inertia force, the only
predominant force which controls the motion, the similarity of flow in any two such systems (model
&prototype) can be established if the Froude number for both the system is the same.
F r mod el F r prototype.
Vm Vp
g m Lm g p .Lp
Vr
1 or Vr g r L r Lr
g r Lr
(For most of the case gr = gp /gm =1)
c) Euler Model Law
(Eu) model =(Eu) proto
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Vm Vp Vr
1
1
1
1
Pm 2
Pp 2
Pr 2
m p r
Vr Pr
r
TYPES OF MODELS
In general hydraulic models can be classified under two broad categories
I) Undistorted models
II) Distorted models
I) Undistorted Models: - if a model is geometrically similar to its prototype, it is known as undistorted
models. i e., the scale ratios for the corresponding linear dimension are the
same.
II) Distorted models: - if one or more terms of the models are not identical with the prototype it is
known as distorted models. The distortion may be geometrical, or material or
hydraulic quantities or a combination of these.
In geometrical distortion, the distortion can be either of dimension or that of configuration.
When different scale ratios are adopted for the longitudinal, transverse, & vertical dimensions; then it is
known as distortion of dimensions.
It is adopted in river models where a different slope ratio for depth is adopted.
The distortion of configuration results when the general configuration of the model doesn’t have
resemblance with its prototype. If a river model has different bed slope ratio, this is distortion of
configuration.
The material distortion is occurred when the physical properties of the material used in the model and
prototype are different.
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The distortion of hydraulic quantities is occurred for certain uncontrollable hydraulic quantities such as
time, discharge etc
Distorted models are required to be prepared for rivers, dams across very wide rivers, harbors, and
estuaries etc. for which the horizontal dimensions are large in proportion to the vertical ones.
The following are some of the reasons fro adopting distorted models:
a) to maintain accuracy in vertical measurements;
b) to maintain turbulent flow;
c) to obtain suitable bed material & its adequate movement;
d) to obtain suitable roughness condition;
e) to accommodate the available facilities such as space, money, water supply & time.
3 Boundary Layer Theory
INTRODUCTION
In 1904 prandtl developed the concept of the boundary layer. It provides an important link between ideal
fluid flow and real-fluid flow. For fluids having relatively small viscosity, the effect of internal
friction in a fluid is appreciable only in a narrow region surrounding the fluid boundaries. From this
hypothesis, the flow outside the narrow region near the solid boundaries can be considered as ideal
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flow or potential flow. Relation with the boundary- layer region can be computed from the general
equations for viscous fluids, but use of the momentum equation permits the developing of
approximate equation for boundary- layer growth.
Description of the Boundary Layer
It was assumed that the shearing action was occurring in a fluid sandwiched between a moving belt and
a stationary solid surface. The fluid was thus bounded on two sides. It may have occurred to the reader
that such a situation is not common in Hydraulic engineering. Some flow (e.g. the flow of air around a
building) are bounded on one side only, while others (e.g. the flow through a pipe are completely
surrounded by a stationary solid surface To develop the boundary layer concept, it is helpful to begin
with a flow bounded on one side only consider, therefore, a rectilinear flow passing over a stationary flat
plate which lies parallel to the flow (Fig 3.1 a)
Transition
Laminar Critical Turbulent
Fig 3- 1 Development of a boundary layer
The incident flow (i.e. the flow just up stream of the plate) has a uniform velocity U∞. As the flow
comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid immediately adjacent to the plate decelerates (due to
viscous friction) and comes to rest. This follows from the postulate that in viscous fluids a thin layer of
fluid actually ‘adheres’ to a solid surface. There is then a considerable shearing action between the layer
of fluid on the plate surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is therefore forced to
decelerate (though it is not quite brought to rest) creating a shearing action with the third layer of fluid,
and so on. As the fluid passes further along the plate, the zone in which shearing action occurs tends to
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spread further out words (Fig 3-1b). This zone is known as a ‘boundary layer’ out side the boundary
layer the flow remains effectively free of shear, so the fluid here is not subjected to viscosity- related
forces. The fluid flow out side a boundary layer may therefore be assumed to act like an ideal fluid
Boundary layer equations
Although the basic structure of a boundary layer is clear, the engineer usually needs a precise numerical
description for each particular problem. The basic parameters and equations required will now be
developed. In the interests of simplicity, this treatment will be restricted to a two- dimensional
incompressible flow with constant pressure.
A. the boundary layer thickness, δ, is the distance in the y-direction from the solid surface to the outer
edge of the boundary layer. Since the velocity distribution in the boundary layer is asymptotic to U∞, it
is difficult to measure an exact value for δ. The usual convention is to assume that the edge of the
boundary layer occurs where
u
0.99
U
B. The displacement thickness, δ*, is the distance by which a streamline is displaced due to the
boundary layer. Consider the velocity distribution at a section in the boundary layer (Fig 3.2). In side
boundary layer, the velocity is everywhere less than in the free stream. The discharge through this cross
section is correspondingly less than the discharge through the same cross-sectional area in the free
stream. This deficit in discharge can be quantified for unit width and an equation may then be developed
for δ*.
Deficit of discharge through an element = u y
Defect through whole boundary layer section u dy
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Fig 3-2 Velocity distribution in a boundary layer
In the free stream an equivalent discharge would pass through a layer of depth δ*, so
U u dy
0
u
Therfore 1 dy
0 U
C. The momentum thickness is analogous to the displacement thickness. It may be defined as the
depth of a layer in the free stream, which would pass a momentum flux equivalent to the deficit due to
the boundary layer.
Mass flow through element = uy
Deficit of momentum flux uy U u
Deficit through whole boundary layer section = udy U
0
u
In the free stream, an equivalent momentum flux would pass through a layer of depth, θ, and unit
width, so that
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U2 u U
o
u dy
u u
U
0
1 U
dy
D. The definition of kinetic energy thickness follows the same pattern, leading to the equation
u
2
1 u dy
0 U
U
E. The momentum integral equation is used to relate certain boundary layer parameters so that
numerical estimates may be made. Consider the longitudinal section through a boundary layer (Fig
3.3), the section is bounded on it outer side by a streamline, BC, and is l m wide. The discharge across
CD is
QCD 0
udy
U B C
o
A D
Fig 3-3 Longitudinal Section through a boundary layer.
The momentum flux (= ρ Q x velocity) is there fore
dM CD
dt
0
u 2 dy
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As BC is a streamline, the discharge across AB must be the same are that across CD
Q AB udy
0
The incident velocity at AB is U∞, so the momentum flux is
dM AB
dt
0
uU dy
Boundary layers are actually very thin, so it is reasonable to assume the velocities are in the X –
direction. The loss of momentum flux is due to the frictional shear force (FS) at the solid surface.
Therefore
- FS = 0
u 2 dy 0
uU dy
The negative sing follows from the fact that the frictional resistance acts in the opposite sense to the
velocity. The equation may be rearranged to give
U u u 2 dy
FS = 0
u u
U 1 dy
2
0 U U
U
2
The frictional shear at the solid surface is not a constant, but varies with X, due to the growth of the
boundary layer. The shear force may therefore be expressed as
L
FS = 0
0 dx
Where: - is the shear stress between the fluid and the solid surface.
The momentum integral equation is therefore.
L
0
0 U2
3.1 BOUNDARY LAYER ALONG A LONG THIN PLATE AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
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Consider a long thin plate held stationary in the direction parallel to the flow in a stream of velocity U∞
are shown in Fig 3.4 The plate is said to be held at zero incidence to the velocity of flow and the
velocity of flow is known as ‘free stream velocity’ or ‘ambient velocity’ or ‘potential velocity’ .At the
leading edge of the plate the thickness of the boundary layer is zero, but on down stream, for the fluid in
contact with the boundary the velocity of flow is reduced to zero and at some distance δ from the
boundary the velocity is nearly U∞. Hence a velocity gradient is set up which develops shear resistance
to the flow and retards the motion of the fluid. Near the leading edge of the plate the fluid is retarded in
thin layer. In other words, the boundary layer near the leading edge is relatively thin. As this retarded
layer of fluid moves downstream, due to continued action of shear resistance more and more fluid is
retarded. Thus the thickness of the boundary layer δ goes on increasing in the down stream direction as
shown in Fig 3.4 .The various factors which influence the thickness of the boundary layer forming along
a flat smooth plate are noted below
1 The boundary layer thickness increases are the distance from the leading edge increases
2 The boundary layer thickness decreases with the increase in the velocity of flow of the
approaching stream of fluid
3 Greater is the kinematics viscosity of the fluid greater is the boundary layer thickness.
4 The boundary layer thickness is considerably affected by the pressure gradient (∂p/∂x) in the
direction of flow. In the cese of a flat plate placed in a stream of uniform Velocity U∞ the
pressure may also be assumed to be uniform i.e. (∂p/∂x) = 0 However, if the pressure gradient is
negative as in the case of a converging flow and it accelerates the retarded fluid in the boundary
layer. As Such the boundary layer growth is retarded in the presence of negative pressure
gradient. On the other hand if the pressure gradient is positive as in the case of divergent flow the
fluid in the boundary layer is further decelerated and hence assists in thickening of the boundary
layer.
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Fig 3.4 Boundary layer and velocity distribution at
Successive points along a flat plate.
As the boundary layer develops, up to a certain portion of the plate from the leading edge, the flow in
the boundary layer exhibits all the characteristics of laminar flow. This is so irrespective of whether the
flow of the incoming stream is laminar or turbulent. This is known as laminar boundary layer. If the
plate is sufficiently long, then beyond some distance from the leading edge the laminar boundary layer
becomes unstable and the flow in the boundary layer exhibits the characteristics between theses of
laminar and turbulent flow. This region of the boundary layer is usually small and is known are
transition region. After the transition region the flow in the boundary layer becomes turbulent. In this
portion of the boundary layer there is a rapid increase in its thickness and it is known as turbulent
boundary layer. If the plate is very smooth, even in the region of turbulent boundary layer, there is a
very thin layer just adjacent to the boundary in which the flow is laminar. This thin layer is commonly
known as laminar sub layer, and its thickness in represented by 1
The velocity distribution in a laminar boundary layer is parabolic (U∞-u) ~ ( y ; and for turbulent
2
boundary layer the velocity distribution has been found to follow approximately either the one-seventh
power law U∞2~y 1/7
or it is logarithmic U∞~ logy .For laminar sub layer the velocity distribution is
parabolic, but since its thickness 1 is usually very small, a linear distribution can be assumed.
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The change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent mainly depend on the velocity of flow U∞ of
the approaching stream of fluid, the length X measured along the plate from the lending edge, the mass
density ρ of fluid and its dynamic viscosity μ. As such the Reynolds number R ex (ρU∞ X/μ) (the suffix
X indicating that it is calculated with the distance x are the characteristic length) becomes a significant
parameter in indicating the change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent. The value of R ex at
which the boundary layer may change from laminar to turbulent vainer from 3 x 105 to 6 x105.
However, change of boundary layer from laminar to turbulent is also affected by several other factors
such as roughness of the plate curvature, pressure, pressure gradient and intensity and scale of
turbulence
I. LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER
For the laminar boundary layer prandtl assumed that (trinomial velocity distribution
u 3
F 3 / 2 0 y and F 1, Y
U 2
For an assumed distribution which satisfiers the boundary conditions u = 0, y =0 and u = U∞, Y = ,
the boundary – layer thickness as well as the shear at the boundary can be determined. The velocity
distribution is assumed to have the same for at each value of X,
Y
F F
u
y
U
When is unknown.
The prandtl assumption satisfy the boundary condition shear stress equation can be written
u u
0 2
x 1 U
0
U
d
3 3 3 3
1
0 2
x0 2
1
2 2
d
2
2
0.139 U
x
At the boundary
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u U F U 3 3
0 Y 0 0
2
o
y 2
3 U
2
Then equate the two expressions fro 0 yield
3 U 2
0.139 U
2 x
and rearranging gives
dx
ds 10.78
U
Since is a function of X only in this equation integrating gives
2
10.78 X Conr tan t
2 U
If =0 for x = 0, the constant of integration is zero Solving for
leads to
4.65
x U x
4.65
Rex
in which Rex U∞x / ν is a Reynolds number based on the distance X from the leading edge of the plate.
This equation from boundary – layer thickness in laminar flow shows that increases as the squire root
of the distance from the leading edge.
Substituting the value in to
3 U
0
2
U 3
0 0.322
x
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The shear stress varies inversely as the square root of x and directly as the three halves power of the
velocity. The drag on one side of the plate of unit with is
L
Fs=F Drag= dx
0
0
L U 3
0.322 dx
0 x
0.644 U L
3
→Laminar boundary layer occur
(NR)L < 5 x 105
And drag coefficient
1.328 1.328
CD = =
Re x NRL
The drag can be expressed in terms of a drag coefficient CD Times the stagnation pressure ρ U∞2 /2 and
the area of plate l (per unit breath)
U 2
Drag = CD Drag F D FS
2
II. Turbulent Boundary Layer
The momentum equation can be used to determine turbulent boundary- layer growth and shear stress
along a smooth plate in a manner analogous to the treatment of the laminar boundary layer. The
universal velocity- distribution law for smooth pipes provides the best basis, but the calculations are
involved. A simpler approach is used prandtl one- seventh- power law .it is u/U∞ = (y/r) 1/7, in which y is
measured from the wall of the pipe and ro is the pipe radios. Applying it to flat plates produces
1/ 7
u y
F 1 / 7
U
and
1/ 4
o 0.0228 2
U
The method used to calculate the laminar boundary layer gives
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d d
0 U 2
dx
1
0
1 11/ 7
/ 7 d
7
72
U
2
dx
By equating the expressions for shear stress, the differential equation for boundary layer thickness is
obtained as
1/ 4
1/ 4
d 0.234 dx
U
After integrating and then assuming that the boundary layer is turbulent over the whole length of the
plate so that the initial conditions x = 0, = 0 can be used.
1/ 4
0.292
5/4
U x
Solving for gives
1/ 5
0.37
x 4/6
U
0.37 x
1
U x 5
0.37 x
1/ 5
R ex
The thickness increases more rapidly in the turbulent boundary layer. In it the thickness increases as x
4/5
, but in the laminar boundary layer vainer are x1/2
To determine the drag on a smooth, flat plate is eliminated in equation
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1/ 4
0 0 0228U 2
U
0.37 x
and 1/ 5
R ex
then
1/ 4
0 0.022 U 2 0.37 x
U
R ex
1/ 5
1/ 5
0.029 U 2
U x
The drag per unit width on one side of the plate is
1/ 5
L
D rag 0 dx 0.036 U
2
0
U l
0.036 U
2
R ex 1 / 5
Interurof thedrug ceeficient
C D 0.074 R ex
1/ 5
0.074
CD 1/ 5
R ex
Assumed a logarithmic velocity distribution for the flow in the boundary layer and obtained the semi-
empirical relation as noted below
0.455
CD
log ReL 2.58
3.3 SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER
A long a flat plate the boundary layer continues to grow in the down stream direction, regardless of the
length of the plate, when the pressure gradient remains zero. With the pressure decreasing in the down
stream direction, as in the conical reducing section the boundary layer tends to be reducing in thickness.
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For adverse pressure gradients, that are which pressure increasing in the down stream direction, the
boundary layer thickens rapidly .The adverse gradient and the boundary shear decrease the momentum
in the boundary layer, and if both act over a sufficient distance, they cause the boundary layer to come to
rest. They cause the boundary layer to come to rest. Their phenomenon is called separation.
Fig. Boundary separation point
Drag and lift on a sphere and cylinder
Take an airfoil immersed in a fluid moving with velocity V
Fig. Airfoil immersed in water
F = f (A, μ, V, ρ, K)
K = Bulls modules of elasticity of the fluid
Analyzing the above equation then dimensional analyses established the following relation ship
Then,
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v 2
F A N R , N M
2
I. Drag force
v2
F D C D A
2
II. Lift force
42
FL C L A
2
Where CD =Dreg coefficient
CL =Lift coefficient
F F 2 D F L
2
F is the resultant force
FL FL
tan tan 1 θ= the angle between the two forces
FD D
F
I. Drag on a sphere
At very low Reynolds number, Re≤1 there is no flow separation from a sphere, the wave is laminar and
the drag is predominantly friction drag. Stokes has shown analytically, for very low remolds number
flows where inertia forces may be neglected, that drag force on a sphere of dynamometer, D, moving at
speed, V, through a fluid of Viscosity, is given by
FD = 3 πμVD
And
v 2
F D C D A FD
2 CD
Av 2
2
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3 , VD
CD
v2
D2 x
4 2
24
24
CD C D
vd vD
24
cD
Re L
Cylinder
Two type of flow condition prevail when the fluid move around on stationary cylindrical members
I
a) Irrotating uniform flow around a cylinder b) Irotating flow of constant
Circulation around a cylinder.
rO = Raider of cylinder
V = Uniform flow of fluid
V1 =Velocity at angle
V2 = velocity when the circulation is there a round cylinder
Then
V1 = 2 V sin V2 =
2 r0
V=V1+V2 Assume U=V
For stagnation points
V V 1 V 2 2 V sin 0
2r0
sin
4 V r0
The magnitude of the lift exerted on the cylinder due to the composite flow pattern may be determined
by integrating over the entire surface of the cylinder, the components of the pressure forces on
elementary surface areas normal to the direction of uniform flow. Applying Bernoulli’s equation
between any point in the unaffected flow and any point on the surface of the cylinder, the pressure at any
point on the cylinder is obtained as
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P P 0 1 2 V 2 1 2 U 2
in which P0 is the pressure in the uniform flow at some distance a head of the cylinder by substituting
the value U from the above expediting
2
P P0 1
V 2
2 V S sin
2
2 r0
The lift d FL acting on an elementary surface area of the cylinder (Lr0dθ) as shown in the figure.
dFL Lr0d p sin
In which L is the length of the cylinder. The negative sine has been introduced because the pressure
force is always directed to wards the surface, and hence for sin θ being positive its component is
negative being in the vertical down ward direction the total FL exerted on the cylinder is obtained by
integration are
2
FL Lr
O
0 d P sin
2 1 2 T
Lr 0 P0 V 2V sin sin d
0
2 2 r0
Which is reduces to a simple relationship
FL VL
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CHAPTER- FOUR
4.0 LAMLNAR & TURBULENT FLOW
4.1. Introduction
Fluid flow may be either viscous (laminar or streamline) or turbulent, the type of flow depending on the
VL
value of Reynolds number (Re= ]
Laminar flow: is defined as flow in which the fluid moves in layers, or laminas, one layer gliding
smoothly over an adjacent layer with only a molecular interchange of momentum. Instability &
disturbances of flow is controlled by viscous shear forces that resist relative motion of adjacent fluid
layers.
Turbulent flow- has very erratic motion of fluid particles, with a violent transverse interchange of
momentum & it had completely disrupted the orderly movement of laminar flow.
Starting with turbulent flow in the glass tube, Reynolds found that it always become laminar when the
velocity is reduced to make Re less than 2000. This is the Reynolds Lower critical numbers for pipe
flow & is practical importance. With usual piping installation, the flow will change from laminar to
turbulent in the range of Re from 2000 to 4000.
In the laminar flow the losses are directly proportional to the average velocity, while in turbulent flow
the losses are proportional to the velocity to a power varying from 1.7 to 2.0.
4.1. Analysis of Laminar flow through pipes & porous media.
I. Laminar flow
The Laminar flow occurs at low velocity, so that the viscous forces predominate over the inertial forces.
The viscosity of fluid induces relative motion with in the fluids as the fluid layers slide over one another,
which in turn gives rise to shear stresses.
The magnitude of shear stress varies from point to point maximum at the boundary & gradually
decreasing with increase in distance from the boundary.
The shear stress so produced result in developing a resistance to flow. In order to overcome the shear
resistance to flow the pressure drops from section to section in the direction of flow so that a pressure
gradient exists.
a) LAMNAR FLOW BETWEEN PRARALLE PLATES
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For steady flow b/n parallel inclined plates; the bottom plate fixed, the upper plate has a constant
velocity U.
Fig.1 Analyzing the flow by taking a thin lamina of unit width as a free body, the equation of
motion yields:
For both plates fixed U=0 and the velocity distribution is parabolic with maximum velocity at the mid
plane.
a2 d
Vmax = U = ( p h) - ---------------------------------------------------4 (a)
8 dl
The discharge of the laminar flow per unit width of the plate can be obtained by integrating eqn. (4) w. r.
t. y, Yielding:
a
ua 1 d
q vdy ( p h)a 3 (5)
o
2 12 dl
Averagy velocity , v
q u
d d
p h a 2 (6)
a 2 12 dl
For the both plate stationary, U= 0, then
1 d
v
2 dl
p h aY Y 2 4 (b)
1 d
q p h a 3 (6a )
12 dl
The mean velocity of flow:
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1 d
V
q
p h a 2 4(c)
a 12 dl
( for both plates stationary)
From eqn. 4 (a)& (4 c),
V = 2/3 Vmax ---------------- ------------------------------------------------------------ 4 (d)
Shear stress Distribution
It is given by:
d UY
du
1 d
p h ay y 2
dy dy a 2 d
U 1 d
p h a 2 y (7)
a 2 d
Point of Maximum velocity
Derive V in terms of y
dv U
1 d
p h a 2Y 0
dy a 2 d
U
a a
Y (8)
2 1 d p h
d
Head loss (Energy losses):
From the equation (6)
d
p h 12 U V2 6U
d a
12 V 6U
2 x2
d p h
1 a2 dl
x1
p 2 p1 h 2 h1 62
a
L 2V U
hlf
p
6 L
a 2
2V U ( for upper plate moving) (9)
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p 12 V L
hlf = (9a)
a 2
(For both plate stationary)
(b)-Laminar Flow in circular pipe (Hagen – poiseuile law)
Fig.2
For steady, fully developed laminar flow there are normal forces (pressure forces) acting on the
left & right ends of the control volume, and that there are tangential forces (shear forces) on the
inner & outer cylindrical surfaces.
It the pressure at the centre of the annular control volume is p, then the force on the left end is:
p dx
p 2r dr (i )
x 2
The forceon the ritht end is
p dx ii
p 2 rdr
x 2
If the shear stress at the crater of the annular control volume is then the shear force on the inner
cylindrical surfaces is:
d dr dr The shear force on the
. 2 r dx (iii)
dr 2 2 outer cylindrical
surface is:
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d dr dr
( 2 r dx iv
dr 2 2
The summation of the x- components of forces acting on the control volume must be zero. Thus:
p dx p dx d dr dr
p . 2 rdr p 2 rdr 2 r dx
x 2 x 2 dr 2 2
d dr dr
r 2 dx 0
dr 2 2
p d
2 dr dx dr .2 dx r . dr 2dx 0 (v)
x dr
Dividing this eqn. by 2 rdr dx gives
p d 1 d
r (vi)
x r dr r dr
d
r r . p Integrating this eqn
dr x
r p
2
r . C1 via
2 x
dv
Substituting
dr
dv r 2 p C
. 1 (vi)(b)
dr 2 2 x r
r 2 p C1
V ln r C 2
4 x
At the centre for r = o, V= Vmax is finite, hence C1 =0 other wise
V (r=o) will be infinite.
r 2 p
V C2
4 x
The boundary condition, at the pipe wall r = R ,v =0 therefore:
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R2 p
C2
4 x
r 2 p R 2 p
and hence, V
4 x 4 x
p 2
V
1
4
r R (vii)
2
x
The velocity distribution is paraboloiod of revolution, & the max. velocity occurs at the centre of the
pipe & ( i.e. r = 0)
1 p 2
Thus: Vmax = R (viii)
4 x
From eqn. (Viii) & (vii) , we have
V = Vmax . 1 r / R 2
(ix)
Volume flow Rate
dQ V .dA V .2r dr
1 p 2
r R
4 x
2
2r dr
By integrating both sides:
p
r
R
Q
2
R 2 r dr
2 x 0
2 P
Q R ( x)
8 x
The mean velocity of flow ( V )
From eqn. (x) & (xii (a), mean Velocity occurs at:
R
r 0.707 R
2
The Shear stress Distribution
dv r p
From eqn via above C1 0
dr 2 x
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Head loss:
p 32 V
( from eg ( xii)
x D2
p 1 p 2 32V
or
L D2
32V L QL
P1 P 2 2
128 ( Hagen poiseuilleeqn.)
D UD 4
p1 p 2 32 VL
hlf ( xiiii)
D 2
64 LV 2 128QL
( xiii(a)
Re 2 gD D 4
From Darcy- weisbach eqn. the head loss due to frictional resistance in a long straight pipe of length L
diameter, D & mean velocity V is given as:
2
L V
hf f
D 2g
From these two head losses eqn.
L V 2 32VL
f
D 2g D 2
64 64
f ( xiiii(b))
Re V D
where f is the friction factor of a pipe.
Note: - The above equations are derived for horizontal pipes, but for inclined pipe it is given as:
V
1 d
p h ( r 2 R 2 )
4 dl
b) Fully Developed Turbulent flow in pipe Shearing in turbulent flows is both difficult to Visualize &
less amenable to mathematical treatment. As consequence, the solutions of problems involving
turbulent flows tendtoinvoke experimental data.
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In turbulent flow,a streamline broken into an eddy formation, that its success passage leads to a
measurable fluctuation in the velocity at a given point. The eddies are generally irregular in size &
shape, so the fluctuation of velocity with time is correspondingly irregular. For convenience, this
fluctuating velocity is broken down into two components: average velocity at a point u and
fluctuating components U’ (in the x-direction),v’ ( in y-direction) & w’ ( in z-direction).
Fig.3 Turbulent fluctuations in direction of flow
U U U' (in the x direction)
1 t To
To t
U udt.
1 t To 1 t To 1 t To
U'
To
t
(U U )dt
To
t
Udt
To t
U dt
U U 0
(The mean value of fluctuation)
In turbulent flow, no simple relation exists between the shear stress field & the momentum velocity
field. Velocity fluctuations in turbulent flow exchange momentum between adjacent layers of fluid,
thereby causing apparent shear stress that must be added to the stress caused by the mean velocity
gradients. For folly developed turbulent channel flow, the total shear stress given by:
du
U 'V ' ………………………………………………….(A)
dy
y-is the distance from the pipe;
U -is the mean velocity;
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U’,V’- fluctuating components of velocity in the x & y directions;
U 'V ' - is referred as the Reynolds stress
The apparent shear stress in turbulent flow is expressed in a form similar to Newton’s viscosity law, that
is,
U
U 'V ' t ………………………………………(B)
y
Where, - is an empirical coefficient called the eddy viscosity.
Prandtl’s Mixing Length
In prandtl’s theory, expressions for U’ & V’ are obtained in terms of a mixing-length distance ‘l’ & the
velocity gradient du/dy.
Prandtl assumed that a particle of fluid is displaced a distance ‘l’ before its momentum is changed by the
new Environment. The fluctuation U’&V’ is then related to ‘l’ by
du
U' V' ……………………………………………(C)
dy
Fig.4 Notation for mixing length theory.
By substituting for U’ &V’
2
du
xyt t U 'V ' ………………………………………(D)
2
dy
Comparing eqn. (B) & eqn. (D), the eddy viscosity is:
du
2 ………………………………………………….(E)
dy
In turbulent flow there is a violent change of parcels of fluid except at a boundary, or very near to it,
where this inter change is reduced to zero; hence l must approach zero or a fluid boundary.
The particular relation ship of to wall distance y is suggested by Von Korman as:
du / dy
k …………………………………(F)
d 2 u / dy 2
Where, k = is universal constant in turbulent flow, known as Von Korman is coefficient (= 0.4)
Velocity Distribution in Turbulent shear flows:
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In turbulent flow there is no universal relation ship b/n the stress field & the mean velocity field. It is
convenient to visualize the turbulent-shear layer near a smooth wall to be divided in to three layers: (see
fig). Fig.5 Schematic of shear stress
In the region very close to the wall, where viscous shear is dominant, the mean velocity profile follows
the linear viscous (laminar) relation, within region y ' , Thus:
o u u
. , y '
y y
' = is laminar height &
o
= has dimension of velocity & is called the shear stress or friction
velocity u*. Hence
u u .y
, y ' (G )
U*
y- is the distance measured from the wall (Y=R -r, pipe radius)
u - is the mean velocity.
ν –is kinematics viscosity
u* Y
Equation (G) is valid for 0 5, that is,
v
v
' 5 -------------------------------------------------(H)
u*
(Viscous sub layer)
In the overlap layer it is assumed that the shear stress is approximately equal to the shear stress at the
wall, but turbulent dominates:
2
Hence, o du dy
2
( from eqn. ( D)
o du
dy
From dimensional consideration is proportional to y, therefore, take =ky
du dy 1 dy
Hence, ……………………………..…..(I)
u* ky k y
and Integrating:
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u 1
ln y cons tan t ( k 0.4) …………………(J)
u* k
u= umax=U, at y =R,
u max
2.5 nR c
u*
c u max 2.5 u n( R),
Therefore, u u max 2.5 u* n y …………………………………(K)
R
The velocity profile for turbulent flow through a smooth pipe can be represented by the empirical “
Power-law” eqn,
1 1
u u y n
r n
1
umax um R R
Where n- varies with the Reynolds number
The power-low profile is not applicable close to the wall y 0.04 ; the variation of the exponent, n,
R
in the power law profile with Reynolds number (based on pipe diameter, D, & centerline velocity, umax)
is shown in fig below:
Fig.6 Centerline Reynolds number, Re
A value of n=7 often used for the exponent; this gives rise to the term “a one-seventh power profile” for
fully developed turbulent flow.
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5. Flow through pipes
5.1 Introduction
Pipes were introduced in the earliest days of the practice of hydraulics. Their common place use to day
makes it of great importance that the laws governing the flow in them should be fully understood.
Water is conveyed from its source, normally in pressure pipelines, to water treatment plants where it
enters the distribution system & finally arrives at the consumer. In addition oil, gas, irrigation water,
sewerage can be conveyed by pipeline system.
Some loss of energy is inevitable in the flow of any real fluid. In the case of flow in a horizontal uniform
pipeline, this is evidenced by the fall of pressure in the direction of flow. Predicting the energy loss per
unit length is essential to efficient pipeline design.
The prime concern in the analysis of real flows is to account for the effect of friction. The effect of
friction is to decrease the pressure, causing a pressure ‘loss’ compared to the ideal, frictionless flow
case. The loss will be divided into major losses (due to friction in fully developed flow in constant area
portions of the system) & minor losses (due to flow through valves, elbow fittings & frictional effects in
other non-constant –area portions of the system).
Figure 5.1 Flow in the pipes (circular pipe)
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P1 V12 P V2
z1 z2 2 2 hL ……………………………………….5.1
2g 2g
hL = Head loss (major + minor)
5.2 Major Losses (Head loss in conduits of constant cross-section)
Referring to Figure 5.1 and for equilibrium in steady flow, the summation of forces acting on any fluid
element must be equal to zero, i.e. F 0,
p1 A p2 A W sin o ( pL) 0
( z1 z2 )
sin
L
o - average shear stress (average shear force per unit area) at the conduit wall, is defined by:
P
1
o o dP ……………..………………………… (5.2)
P0
o - is the local shear stress1 acting over a small incremental portion dP of the wetted perimeter.
p1 A p2 A AL
z2 z1 PL 0
o
L
p1 p2 PL
( z2 z1 ) o 0
A
p1 p2 PL
z1 z2 o …………………………………… (5.3)
A
Form the above equations (5.1) and (5.3)
PL p1 p
hL o z1 2 z2
A
L
hL o ………………………………………… (5.4)
Rh
This equation is applicable to any shape of uniform cross-sections, regardless of whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent. For smooth-walled conduits, where wall roughness may be neglected, it may be
1 The local shear stress varies from point to point around the perimeter of all conduits (irrespective of whether the wall is smooth or
rough), except for the case of a circular pipe flowing full where the shear stress at the wall is the same at all points of the perimeter.
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assumed that the average shear stress o is a function of , , & some characteristic linear dimension,
which will here be taken as hydraulic radius R. Thus:
o = (, , , R)
By dimensional analysis:
RhV
o V 2 V 2 (Re) and let (Re) = ½ Cf (dimensionless term)
V2
o Cf ………………………………………………. (5.5)
2
L V2
From equation (4.4): hL C f ..…………………………….. (5.6)
Rh 2 g
(Applied for any shape of smooth walled conduits).
For circular conduits (pipe) flowing full, R= ¼ D, Therefore,
L V2 L V2
hL C f 4 f ………………………………… (5.7)
D 2g D 2g
Where, f 4C f 8 Re …………………………..…………… (5.8)
Equation (5.7) is applicable for both smooth-walled and rough walled conduits. It is known as pipe –
friction equation, and commonly referred to as the Darcy-Weisbach equation. Friction factor, f, is
dimensionless and is also some function of Reynolds number. The exact form of Re and numerical
values for Cf and f must be determined by experiments or other means.
For laminar flow (Recall chapter three)
v 64
f 64 ( for la min ar flow) ………………….. (5.9))
DV Re
64 L V
2
Head loss: hf …………………………………… (5.10)
Re D 2 g
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Experimental Investigation on friction losses in Turbulent flow
In fully developed turbulent flow, the pressure drop, p, due to friction in a horizontal constant area pipe
depends upon the diameter, D, the pipe length, L, the pipe roughness,, the average velocity, V , the
fluid density, ρ, and the fluid viscosity, .
By dimensional analysis p (V , D, , , )
P L
, ,
V 2
vD D D
hL L
Re,
V 2
g D D
hL L
1 Re,
V 2g D
2
D
f 1 Re, ……………………………………… (5.11)
D
Blasius had concluded that there were two types of pipe friction in turbulent flow. The first is the
smooth pipes where the viscosity effects predominate so that the friction factor is dependent solely on
the Reynolds number (f= (Re). He deduced the following expression for the friction in smooth pipes:
0.316
f 4
………………………………………... (5.12)
Re
The second type was relevant to rough pipes where the viscosity & roughness effects influence the flow
& the friction factor (f) is dependent both on the Reynolds number & a parameter of relative roughness
(/D).L.F Moody prepared a chart for determining friction factor for rough pipes experimentally by
plotting f versus Re curve for each value of . (See Moody Chart)
D
The moody chart, the various flows it represents, may be divided into four zones: the laminar flow zone;
a critical zone where values are uncertain because the flow might be either laminar or turbulent; a
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transition zone. where f is a function of both Reynolds number and relative pipe roughness; and a zone
of complete turbulence (fully rough pipe flow), where the value of f is independent of Reynolds number
and depends solely upon the relative roughness.
There is no sharp line of demarcation between the transition zone and the zone of complete turbulence.
The dashed line that separates the two zone was suggested by R. J. S. Pigott; the equation of this line is
Re= 3500 . On the other hand side of the equation of this line is corresponding to the curve and
( D)
not the grid.
The Colebrook has developed the formula:
0.809 ln D …………………………………… (5.13)
1 2.523
f 3.7 Re f
A simplified form of this equation is provided with restriction placed on it:
6 12
1.325 10 10
f D …………………………… (5.14)
2
5.74 8
n( 3.7 D R 0.9 5000 Re 10
(For Rough pipes)
Head loss in pipes is given by:
L V2
hL f (For all pipes rough, smooth, laminar, & turbulent)
D 2g
5.3 Minor losses in the pipes
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Loss due to the local disturbances of the flow conduits such as changes in cross-section; bend, elbows,
valves, joints, etc are called minor losses. In case of a very long pipe, these losses may be insignificant
in comparison with the fluid friction in the length considered.
Whenever, the velocity of a flowing stream is altered either in direction or in magnitude in turbulent
flow, eddy currents are set up and a loss of energy in excess of the pipe friction in that same length is
created2. Head losses in decelerating (i.e., diverging) flow is much larger than that in accelerating (i.e.,
converging) flow.
The most common minor losses can be represented in one of two ways. It may be expressed as kv2/2g,
where the loss coefficient k must be determined for each case. Or it may be expressed as an equivalent
length of a straight pipe, usually in terms of the number of pipe diameters, N. Since,
V2 f ND V 2
k , it follows that k Nf .
2g D 2g
i. Loss of head at entrance
A poorly designed inlet to a pipe can cause an appreciable head loss. Referring to Figure 5.2 it may be
seen that, a cross section with maximum velocity and minimum pressure at B. This minimum flow area
is known as the vena contraction.
Figure 5.2 Condition at
entrance
It is seen that the loss of energy at entrance is distributed along the length AC, a distance of several
diameters. The increased turbulence and vortex motion in this portion of the pipe cause the friction loss
to be much greater than in a corresponding length where the flow is normal, as it is shown by the drop of
the total-energy line. Of this total loss, a small portion hf would be due to the normal pipe friction (See
2
In laminar flow these losses are insignificant, because irregularities in the flow boundary create a minimal disturbance to the flow and
separation is essentially nonexistent.
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Figure 5.2). Hence, the difference between this and that total, or he' is the true value of the extra loss
caused at entrance.
The loss of head at entrance may be expressed as
2
h'
e k V
e …………………………………….. (5.15)
2g
Where V is the mean velocity in the pipe, and k e is the loss coefficient
Figure
Figure 5.4 Entrance Loss
5.3 Entrance Loss Coefficients
Coefficients
ii. Loss of head at submerged discharges: (leave of pipe), (hd’)
When the fluid with a velocity V is discharged from the end of a pipe in to a large reservoir, (v = 0), the
entire kinetic energy of the coming flow is dissipated.
This may be shown by writing an energy equation between (a) and (b) in Figure 5.4 Taking the datum
plane through (a) and recognizing that the pressure head of the fluid at (a) is y, its depth below the
surface, H a y 0 V 2 2 g and H c 0 y 0 . Therefore,
V2
hd' H a H c ……………………………….. (5.16)
2g
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Figure 5.4 Submerged
Discharge Loss
iii. Loss due to contraction (hc)
a) Sudden contraction
There is a marked drop in pressure due to increase in velocity and to the loss of energy in turbulence.
The loss of head for sudden contraction may be represented by
V22
hc' kC …………………………………. (5.17)
2g
Figure 5.5 Loss due to
sudden contraction
Table 5.1 Loss coefficients for sudden contraction
D2 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
D1
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KC 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00
b) Gradual contraction
In order to reduces high losses, abrupt changes of cross section should be avoided. This is accomplished
by changing from one diameter to the other by means of a smoothly curved transition or by employing
the frustum of a cone. With a smoothly curved transition a loss coefficient kc as small as 0.05 is
possible. For conical reducers, a minimum kc of about 0.10 is obtained, with a total cone angle of 20-
400. Smaller or larger total cone angle results in higher values of kc.
A nozzle at the end of a pipe line is a special case of gradual contraction. The head loss through a nozzle
at the end of a pipeline is given by equation (5.17), where kc is the nozzle loss coefficient whose value
commonly ranges from 0.04 to 0.20 and vj is the jet velocity. The head loss through a nozzle cannot be
regarded as a minor loss because the jet velocity head is usually quite large.
iv. Loss due to Expansion (he)
a) Sudden Expansion
Both the figures in Figure 5.6, drawn to scale from test measurements for the same diameter ratios and
the same velocities, and show that the loss due to sudden expansion is greater than the loss due to a
corresponding contraction. This is so because of the inherent instability of flow in an expansion where
the diverging paths of the flow tend to encourage the formation of eddies within the flow. Moreover,
separation of the flow from the wall of the conduit induces pockets of eddying turbulence outside the
flow region. In converging flow, there is a dampening effect on eddy formation, and the conversion
from pressure energy to kinetic energy is quite efficient.
After the flow enters expanded pipe, there is excessive turbulence and formation of eddies which causes
loss of energy. The loss due to sudden enlargement in a pipe line system can be calculated with the
application of energy and momentum equations by neglecting the small shear force exerted on the walls
of between sections 1 and 2 (figure5.6) for steady incompressible turbulent flow.
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Figure 5.6 Loss due to sudden enlargement
Rate of momentum between section (1) & (2)
p1 A2 p2 A2 ( A2V22 A1V12 )
g
Energy relation between section (1) & (2)
p1 v12 p v2
2 2 he
2g 2g
p1 p2
Solving for in each equation and equating the results
v22 v2v1 v22 v12
he
g 2g
And noting that from continuity equation A1V1 = A2V2 and that
A1V21 = (A1V1) V1 = (A2V2)V1
Substituting in the above equation
2 2
(V V ) 2 D 2 V 2 D 2 V 2
h 1 2 1 12 1 22 1 2 …………………………….. (5.18)
'
x
2g D2 2 g D1 2g
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b) Gradual Expansion
To minimize the loss accompanying a reduction in velocity a diffuser may be used. Diffuser is a curved
outline, or it may be a frustum of cone. In figure (5.8) the head loss will be some function of the angle of
divergence and also of the ratio of two areas, the length of the diffuser being determined by these two
variables.
Figure 5.7 Loss due to gradual enlargement
In flow through a diffuser, the total loss may be considered as made up of two components. One is the
ordinary pipe-friction loss, which may be represented by
f V2
he . dL .
D 2g
In order to integrate, it is necessary to express the variables f, D, and V as functions of L. For our present
purpose, it is sufficient, however, merely to note that the friction loss increases with the length of the
cone. Hence, for given values of D1 and D2, the larger the angle of the cone, the less its length and the
less the pipe friction.
The other is turbulence loss due to divergence. Turbulence loss increase with the degree of divergence,
if the rate of divergence is great enough then there may be a separation at the wall and eddies flowing
backward along the walls.
The total loss for gradual expansion pipe is the sum of these two losses, marked k ' . It has been seen that
the loss due to a sudden enlargement is very nearly represented by V1 V2 2 g . The loss due to a
2
gradual enlargement is expressed as
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h k
' ' V1 V2 2 ……………………………………..(5.19)
2g
.
Where K’ loss coefficient which is a function of cone angle
Table 5.2 Loss coefficients for gradual expansion
K’ 0.4 0.6 0.95 1.1 1.18 1.09 1.0 1.0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
20 30 40 50 60 90 120 180
v. Loss in pipe fittings
V2
The loss of head in pipefittings is expressed as hf k f where v is the velocity in a pipe of the
2g
nominal size of the fitting. Typical values are given below.
Table 5.3 Values of “Kf” based on the type of fittings.
Table 5.3 values of k f loss for pipe fittings
Fitting K
Globe valve, wide open 10
Angle valve, wide open 5
Close –return bend 2.2
T-through side outlet 1.8
Short-radius elbow 0.9
Medium radius elbow 0.75
Long radius elbow 0.60
Gate valve, wide open 0.19
Half open 2.06
Pump foot value 5.60
Standard branch flow 1.80
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vi. Losses in bend & Elbow
In flow around a bend or elbow, because of centrifugal effects, there is an increase in pressure along the
outer wall and a decrease in pressure along the inner wall. Most of the loss of head in a sharp bend may
be eliminated by the use of a vaned elbow. The vane tends to impede the formation of the secondary
flow that would other wise occur.
The head loss produced by a bend or elbow is:
V2
hb k b . ………………………….(5.19i)
2g
kb - depends on the ratio of curvature r to pipe diameter D.
Figure 5.8 secondary flows in bend
Figure 5.9 Vaned elbow
5.4 Solution of single-pipe flow problems
The fundamental fluid mechanics associated with frictional loss of energy in single pipe flow, caused by
both the wall roughness of the pipes and by pipe fittings that disturb the flow (minor losses).
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It is generally conceded that for pipes of length greater than 1000 diameters, the error incurred by
neglecting minor losses is less than that inherent in selecting a value for the friction
factor f , n, or CHW .
When minor losses are negligible, as they often are, pipe flow problems may be solved by the methods,
which are available are Hazen-Williams equation, the Manning equation or the Darcy-Weisbach
equation. The Darcy-Weisbach equation is to be preferred, since it will provide greater accuracy
because its application utilizes the basic parameters that influence pipe friction, namely, Reynolds
Number Re and the relative roughness D . To get good results with the Hazen-Williams and
Manning’s equations, the user must selected proper values for CHW and n, respectively.
The total head losses between two points is the sum of the pipe friction loss plus the minor losses, or
hL h Lf h' ………………………………… (5.20)
Where h L = total head loss h Lf = major head loss h = total minor losses
'
In problem where f is given, equation (5.18) still has only one unknown, namely, hL or V or Q or D. In
most cases, this equation is explicit in the unknown, and so it is easy to solve. However, for sizing
problems, the resulting equation in D is of the fifth degree, requiring trial and error or an equation
solver.
The universal turbulent flow equation for use in an equation solver, including minor losses, eliminating
h Lf and equation (5.19) with the help of equation (5.7) and (5.11), and by replacing V by 4Q D 2 .
Expressing minor losses h in terms of kV
' 2
2g ,
L D D 2.51 LD
2 log …………………. (5.21)
gD hL
2 4
3.7 4Q gD hL
2 4
2
k k
8Q 8Q 2
An important reminder when using these equations is to use Reynolds equation to check the Reynolds
number and confirm that the flow is turbulent. If Re < 2000 the flow is laminar and the problem must
instead be solved with equation (5.16).
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5.5 Pipe Line with Pump or Turbine
If a pump lifts a fluid from one reservoir to another, as in Figure 5.12, not only does it do work in lifting
the fluid the height z , but also it has to overcome the frictional loss in the suction and discharge piping.
This friction head is equivalent to some added lift, so that the effect is the same as if the pump lifted the
fluid a height z hL . Hence the power delivered to the liquid by the pump is Q z hL . The
power required to run the pump is greater than this, depending on the efficiency of the pump. The total
pumping head h p for this case is
h p z hL ………………….…………………. (5.22)
If the pump discharges a stream through a nozzle, as shown in Figure 5.13, not only has the liquid been
lifted a height z , but also it has received a kinetic energy head of V 2 2 g , where V 2 is the velocity of
the jet. Thus, the total pumping head is now
V22
hp z hL ………………….…………………. (5.23)
2g
In any case the total pumping head may be determined by writing the energy equation between any point
upstream from the pump and any other point downstream.
Figure 5.10 Pipeline with
pump between two Figure 5.11 Pipeline with
reservoirs
5.6 Pipeline system pump and nozzle
5.6.1 Pipes in Series
When two pipes of different sizes or roughness are so connected that the fluid flows through one pipe&
then through the other, they are said to be connected in series. A typical series pipe problem, in which
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head H may be wanted for a given discharge or the discharge wanted for a given H, is illustrated in
figure 5.12 and the continuity equations establish the following two simple relations that must be
satisfied.
Q Q1 Q2 Q3 ... Qn .
hL hL1 hL 2 hL 3 ...
Figure 5.12 Pipes Connected in Series
Applying the energy equation from A to B, including all losses, gives:
2
PA VA p B VB2
ZA Z B hi h f 1 he' h f 2 hd '
2g 2g
H 0 0 0 0 0 ki
V12 L V V V2
f1 1 1 1
2
2
L V
2
V
f2 2 2 2
2
2g D1 2 g 2g D2 2 g 2 g
V1 D1 V2 D2
2 2
From continuty equation. :
2 4 4
V2 L f L2 D1
2
D1
H 1 ki f1 1 1 D1
D1 D2 D2 D2
2
2g D2
5.6.2 Equivalent pipes
Series pipes can be solved by the method of equivalent lengths. Two pipe systems are said to be
equivalent when the same head loss produces the same discharge in both systems. From Equation (5.7)
2
L 1 8Q1 f 2 L 2 8Q 2 2
hf 1 f 1 5
for a second pipe hf2 = 5
D1 2 g D2 2g
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For two pipes to be equivalent,
hf1 = hf2, Q1 = Q2
f 1 L1 f L
5
2 52
D1 D2
5 ……………………………..(5.24)
f D2
L 2 L1 1
D
f2 1
5.6.3 Pipes in Parallel
A combination of two or more pipes connected as in figure 5.13 so that the flow is divided among the
pipes and then is joined again, is a parallel – pipe system. In series pipe system the same fluid flows
through all the pipes and the head losses are cumulative, but in parallel pipe – system the head losses are
the same in each of the lines the discharge are cumulative.
Fig 5.13 Parallel Pipes system
PA P
hf1 = hf2 = hf3 = Z A B Z B
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Two types of problems occur:
1) If the head loss b/n A & B is given, Q is determined.
2) If the total flow Q is given, then the head loss & distribution of flow are determined.
Size of pipes, properties, and roughness are assumed to be known. Since this type of problem is more
complex, as neither the head loss nor the discharge for any one pipe is known. The procedure is:
1) Assume discharge Q’1 through pipe 1,
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2) Solve for h’f1, using assumed discharge,
3) Using h’f1, find Q’2 & Q’3
4) With the three discharges for a common head loss, now assume that the given Q is split up
among the pipes in the same proportion as Q’1, Q’2 & Q’3, Thus,
Q1 ' Q2' Q3 '
Q1 = Q, Q2 Q, Q3 Q
Q' Q' Q'
5) Check the correctness of these discharges by computing hf1, hf2, & hf3 for the computed Q1 , Q2
& Q3
→ Q –Q1 – Q2 – Q3 = 0
5.7 Branching pipes
Let us consider three pipes connected to three reservoirs as in fig. below & connected together or
branching at the common junction point J. We shall assume that all the pipes are sufficiently long that
minor losses & velocity heads may be neglected. The continuity & energy eqn. requires that the flow
entering the junction equal the flow leaving it& that the pressure head at J (with open piezometer tube
water at elevation P) be common to all pipes.
There being no pumps, the elevation of p must lay b/n the surfaces of reservoirs A& C. If p is level with
the surface of reservoir B then water must flow in to B & Q1 = Q2 + Q3
If P is below the surface of reservoir B then the flow must be out of B & Q1 +Q2 = Q3
Fig 5.14 Three interconnected reservoirs
Therefore, for the situation of the above figure, we have the following governing conditions:
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1) Q1 = Q2 + Q3 or Q1 + Q2 = Q3
2) Elevation of p is common to all.
a. Length, diameter, & friction factors are required.
b. The flow is steady & minor losses neglected
c. Three basic equations to solve these problems are:-
i. Continuity equations
ii. Bernoulli’s equation
iii. Darcy- Weisbech equation
Total rate of in flow at junction = total rate of out flow (continuity equation)
Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3
D1, L1, V1, Q1 hf1 D2, L2, V2, Q2, hf2 D3, L3, V3, Q3, hf3
Elevation, Z1, Reserv, A Z2, Reserv, B Z3, Reserv. C
Junction of elevation
pj pj
Zj, pressure head = total head at junction = + Zj
Applying Bernoulli’s eqn b/n the junction point & each of reservoirs,
pj
if + Zj > Z2 & Z3
pj
Z1 = ( + Zj) + hf1 - - - - - - - - -- -- ----------------- (*) (1)
=>
pj
Z2 + hf2 = ( + Zj ) -------------------------- (**) (2)
pj
Z3 + hf3 = ( + Zj) --------------------------- (***) (3)
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=> If the head of reservoir A is greater than head at junction, the flow is in to the junction from A
& out of the junction to B&C
=> Q1 = Q2 + Q3 -------------------------- * (4)
D12 V1 = D22 V2 + D32 V3 ------------- (5)
4 4 4
=> D12 V1 = D22 V2 + D32 V3 ---------------------- (6)
There are three types of problem fouling of branching pipes :-
Case 1: Given all pipes data (L, D, f, Z1, Z2 & Q1), find Z3, Q2 & Q3?
2
L v
=> Solution: first hf1 can be calculated directly (hf1 = f1 1 1 )
D1 2 g
pj
Then ( + Zj ) piezometric head at junction can be determine
From eqn ( 2 ) hf2 & Q2 can be determined
Q3 can be detrained from eqn (4) continuity eqn
Then from eqn (3) hf3 and finally Z3 can be determined
Case 2: Given a pipe data, the surface elevation of two reservoirs (A& C) and the flow the second pipe,
Q2, find Z2 and Q1, Q3?
From eqn (1) & iii) (hf1 + hf3) = (Z1 - Z3) (hf1 + hf3) is known & (Q1 - Q3) or (Q3 – Q1) is known.
Assume trail values of hf1 & hf3 & from these compute the discharge Q1 + Q3 & compare with
(Q1 - Q3)
Repeat the procedure until the two values are equal.
From they, piezometric head at junction can be determined
pj
From hf2 & ( + Zj) Z2 can be determined.
Case:3 Given a pipe lengths , diameters, and the elevation of all the three reservoirs , find Q1 Q2, Q3,
In this case, the direction of the flow is not known clearly.
Assume the elevation of B (Z2) is equal to the piezometric head (Zp) & (i.e. no flow into and out of
pipe 2)
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From Zp the head losses hf1 & hf3 determined, and then Q1 & Q3 can be obtained
If Q1 > Q3, then Zp must be increased to satisfy continuity eqn at J, causing water to flow into
reservoir B, and we will have Q1= Q2 + Q3
If Q1<Q3, then Zp must be lowered, causing water to flow out of reservoir B, & we will have Q 1 + Q2
= Q3
5.8 Pipe Networks
A group of interconnected pipes forming several loops or circuits as shown in fig 5.15 is called a
network of pipes. Such network of pipes are commonly used for municipal water distribution systems in
cities. The main problem in pipe network is to determine the distribution of flow through the various
pipes of the network such that all the conditions of flow are satisfied and all the circuits are then
balanced.
Fig 5.15 Pipe Network
The following conditions of basic relation of continuity and energy should be satisfied in network of
pipes:
1) The flow in to any junction must equal the flow out of it (continuity principle).
2) In any loop, the loss of head due to flow in clockwise direction must be equal to the loss of head
due to flow in anticlockwise direction. (∑hf = 0)
3) The Darcy-Weisbach eqn of pipe-friction laws must be satisfied, (i.e. proper relation b/n the
head loss and discharge must be maintained for each pipe). Minor losses may be neglected if the
pipe lengths are large. However, if the minor losses are large, they may be taken into account by
considering them in terms of the head loss due to friction in equivalent pipe lengths. According
to Darcy-Weisbach eqn the loss of head hf through any pipe discharging at the rate Q can be
expressed as:
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h f rQ n
Where r is proportionality factor, which can be determined for each pipe knowing the friction factors f,
the length L and the diameter D of the pipe.
fL fL
r , and n is an exponent having a numerical value
2 g ( / 4) D
2 5
12.1D 5
ranging from 1.72 to 2.
The pipe network problems are in general complicated and can’t be solved analytically. As such,
methods of successive approximations are used.
The Hardy-Cross Method is one of the commonly used methods that is used for solving flows in a pipe
network.
Steps:
1. Assume a most suitable distribution of flow that satisfies continuity equation at each junction.
2. With the assumed values of Q, compute the head losses for each pipe using h f rQ n equation.
3. Consider different loops and compute the net head loss around each circuit considering the head
loss in clockwise flows as positive and in anti-clockwise flows as negative. For a correct
distribution of flow, the net head loss around each loop should be equal to zero, so that the circuit
will be balanced. However, in most of the cases, for the assumed distribution of flow the head
loss around the circuit will not be equal to zero. The assumed flows are then corrected by
introducing a correction Q for the flows, until the circuit is balanced. The value of the
correction Q to be applied to the assumed flows of the circuit may be obtained as follows:
For any pipe if Q0 is the assumed discharge and Q is the correct discharge, then,
Q = Q0 + Q
and the head loss for the pipe is
h f rQ n r (Qo Q) n
Thus, for a complete circuit,
h f rQ n r (Qo Q) n 0
By expanding the terms in the brackets by binomial theorem
rQ r[(Qo nQo
n 1
Q .....] 0
n n
For small Q compared with Q0, all the series after the second can be dropped. Therefore,
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rQ rQo rnQo
n 1
Q 0
n n
rQ Q rn Q
n 1 n 1
0 Q 0
For each loop, solve for Q in the networks as:
rQ0 Q0 rQ0n hf
n 1
Q
rn Q 0
n 1
rn Q 0
n 1
nhf
Q0
This is the correction to the assumed discharge (Q0).
4. Corrections are now applied to each pipe & to all loopy. For pipes common to two loops or
circuits, a correction from both the loops will be required to be applied. Clockwise direction is
considered as positive & anticlockwise as negative direction.
5. With the corrected flows in all the pipes, a second trial calculation is made for all the loops and
process is repeated until the corrections Q become negligible.
5.9 Unsteady Flow (Water Hammer Analysis)
Water hammer may occur in a closed conduit flowing full when there is a retardation or acceleration of
flow, such as with the change in opening of a value in the line. Gradual closure, the calculation is carried
out by considering the liquid in compressible & the conduit rigid. However, for sudden closure of a
value, the flow through the value is stopped. This increases the head on the u/s of the value & causes are
wale of height pressure to be propagated as at the sonic wave speed. This decreases the velocity of flow.
On the d/s of the value the pressure is reduced, which also reduces the velocity. Eventually as the
pressure d/s dispersed much, a vapor pocket formed downstream of the valve. When this occurs, the
cavity will finally collapse and produces a high-pressure wave downstream. This rise in pressure in
some cases may be so large that the pipe may even burst & there fore it is essential to consider this case
in the design of line system.
The magnitude of the pressure rise depends on the speed at which the value is closed, the velocity of
flow, the pipe, the elastic properties of pipe material & flowing fluid.
WRIE Dep’t/CoET/GMU Hydraulics Lecture note
Page 86
Hydraulics Lecture Note
(i) Gradual closure of value: -
Along pipe of length cross sectional area (Ap) charring liquid flowing with a velocity, vi, due to the
closure of valve, the fled comes to rest in time t seconds. Let the liquid column in the pipe comes to rest
ov
with a uniform retardation, thus rate of retardation – a = t => a = v/t Axial fore inertial force of the
pi Lv
fluid (Inertia pressure) * Ap = (mass of fwid) * retardation (a) r tp (Inertia head)
ii) Instantaneous closure of value
If the instantaneous closure of value, t approaches o, then the pressure head will be very large (infinite)
for this case if instant time is ‘dt’ in length ‘de’ then
pi dl.v
r .dt
Since these egn have omitted some essential factors such as the compressibility of the liquid (k), the
elasticity of the pipe material (E), wall thickness of pipe (T) and poisons ratio (1/m) then the equation of
inertia pressure is given by:
v
D 1
r 1 k 1
TE 2m
pi =
For neglecting the elasticity of pipe material, the egn becomes:
rk
pi v v k /// :
The time taken by the pressure wave to travel from the valve to reservoir is given as :
tLC
k s
Where C = (velocity of sound in the liquid)
WRIE Dep’t/CoET/GMU Hydraulics Lecture note
Page 87
Hydraulics Lecture Note
Example:- A seal penstock 0.60 m die has a shell thickness of 12mm. The modulus of elasticity of the
pipe material is 2.1*105N/mm2 with possessors ratio of ¼ & the modulus of elasticity of water is 2-
1*103 N/mm2 – The mean velocity of the water is the pipe is 2-1m/s. Determine water hammer pressure
rise caused by sudden closure of the value at the d/s end .
(i) Neglecting the elasticity of pipe material
(ii) Considering elasticity of pipe material
Unsteady flow (Establishment of flow)
The flow form large reservoir through a pipe is considered as unsteady, if the sluice is suddenly opened
in a pipeline. The time of emptying is determined by taking in to account friction &minor losses. In the
fig, the head (Hg) the reservoir curailable to accelerate the flow at initial time is reduced by friction &
minor losses. During this the velocity increases form o to Vo (final velocity).
If le is the equivalent length of the pipe system, the final velocity Vo is given by application of energy
as:
H=f LeV2
D2g
The eqn of motion is :
dv
F=ma=g V = gALdv/dt
dt
V 2 rAL dv
Le
) .......(*)(*)
ra (H-f
D 2g dt
v L dv
2v 2
0
)
fle (
2g g dt
WRIE Dep’t/CoET/GMU Hydraulics Lecture note
Page 88
Hydraulics Lecture Note
Lvo 2 dv dv
) .
gH vo2v 2 dt
(
dt=
t
Lv 02 dv L
v
dv v0 2
dt gH
v
o 0 (vo v )
2 2
gH 0 vo v v0 v
Lo vo v
t = 2 gH L2 vo v
The velocity v riches vo at fite time, but practically the time (f) taken for v reaches 0.99vo ,
Lv o 1 1.99 Lv o
Ln
t= gH 2 0.10 = 2.646 gH //.
WRIE Dep’t/CoET/GMU Hydraulics Lecture note
Page 89
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