UNIT 2

CETM1A1
2025

Lecturer : Dr L. Malepe
Email : [email protected]
Office no : 4153
Tel. no : 011 559 6221
 Lecture Presentation

Chapter 6

Electronic
Structure of Atoms

James F. Kirby
Quinnipiac University
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Hamden, CT
 Electronic Structure

• This chapter is all about electronic

structure—the arrangement and energy of
electrons.
• It may seem odd to start by talking about
waves. However, extremely small particles
have properties that can only be explained
in this manner!

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Waves

• To understand the electronic structure of atoms, one must

understand the nature of electromagnetic radiation.
• Electromagnetic radiation moves as waves through
space at the speed of light.
• The distance between corresponding points on adjacent
waves is the wavelength (λ). Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Waves
• The number of waves
passing a given point per unit
of time is the frequency (ν).
• For waves traveling at the
same velocity, the longer the
wavelength, the smaller the
frequency.
• If the time associated with
the lines to the left is one
second, then the frequencies
would be 2 s–1 and 4 s–1,
respectively. Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Electromagnetic Radiation

• All electromagnetic radiation travels at the same

velocity: The speed of light (c) is 3.00 × 108 m/s.
c = λν Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Electromagnetic Radiation

• There are many types of electromagnetic radiation.

• They have different wavelengths and energies from
each other.
• The typical wavelength unit used vary based on
the lengths.
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Electronic Properties NOT
Explained by Waves
• Three observed properties associated with
how atoms interact with electromagnetic
radiation can NOT be explained by waves:
1) the emission of light from hot objects (blackbody
radiation)
2) the emission of electrons from metal surfaces on
which light is shone (the photoelectric effect)
3) emission of light from electronically excited gas
atoms (emission spectra)

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Nature of Energy

The wave nature of light

does not explain how
an object can glow
when its temperature
increases.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Nature of Energy—Quanta

Max Planck explained

it by assuming that
energy comes in
packets called quanta
(singular: quantum).

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Photoelectric Effect
• Einstein used quanta to explain
the photoelectric effect.
• Each metal has a different
energy at which it ejects
electrons. At lower energy,
electrons are not emitted.
• He concluded that energy is
proportional to frequency:
E = hν
where h is Planck’s constant,
6.626 × 10−34 J∙s. Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Atomic Emissions
Another mystery in the early twentieth century
involved the emission spectra observed from
energy emitted by atoms and molecules.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Continuous vs. Line Spectra

• For atoms and molecules,

one does not observe a
continuous spectrum
(the “rainbow”), as one
gets from a white light
source.
• Only a line spectrum of
discrete wavelengths is
observed. Each element
has a unique line
spectrum.
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Hydrogen Spectrum

• Johann Balmer (1885) discovered a simple

formula relating the four lines to integers.
• Johannes Rydberg advanced this formula.
(RH is called the Rydberg constant.)

• Neils Bohr explained why this mathematical

relationship works. Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Bohr Model

• Niels Bohr adopted

Planck’s assumption
and explained these
phenomena in this way:
1) Only orbits of certain
radii, corresponding to
specific energies, are
permitted for the
electron in a hydrogen
atom.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Bohr Model
2) An electron in a permitted
orbit is in an “allowed” energy
state. An electron in an
allowed energy state does
not radiate energy, and,
therefore, does not spiral into
the nucleus.
3) Energy is emitted or
absorbed by the electron only
as the electron changes from
one energy state to another.
This energy is is emitter of
absorbed as a photon that
has energy E = h. Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Bohr Model
• Electrons in the lowest
energy state are in the
ground state.
• Any energy higher is called
an excited state.
• Since each orbit has a
specific value compared to
RH, transitions from one
energy level to another can
be calculated:
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Values of Transitions

• What do the values mean

using the Bohr Model?
• A positive ΔE means energy
is absorbed. A photon is
absorbed in this instance.
This happens if nf > ni.
• A negative ΔE means energy
is released. A photon is
emitted in this instance. This
happens if nf < ni.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Limitations of the Bohr Model

• It only works for hydrogen!

• Classical physics would result in an electron
falling into the positively charged nucleus.
Bohr simply assumed it would not!
• Circular motion is not wave-like in nature.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Important Ideas from the
Bohr Model
• Points that are incorporated into the current
atomic model include the following:
1) Electrons exist only in certain discrete energy
levels, which are described by quantum
numbers.
2) Energy is involved in the transition of an
electron from one level to another.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Wave Nature of Matter

• Louis de Broglie theorized

that if light can have
material properties, matter
should exhibit wave
properties.
• He demonstrated that the
relationship between mass
and wavelength was:
The wave nature of light h
is used to produce this λ = mv
electron micrograph. Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Uncertainty Principle

Heisenberg showed
that the more precisely
the momentum of a
particle is known, the
less precisely its
position is known:

h
(Δx) (Δmv) 
4π
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Quantum Mechanics

• Erwin Schrödinger
developed a mathematical
treatment into which both
the wave and particle
nature of matter could be
incorporated.
• This is known as
quantum mechanics.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Quantum Mechanics

• The solution of
Schrödinger’s wave
equation for hydrogen
yields wave functions for
the electron.
• The square of the wave
function gives the
electron density, or
probability of where an
electron is likely to be at
any given time. Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Quantum Numbers

• Solving the wave equation gives a set of

wave functions, or orbitals, and their
corresponding energies.
• Each orbital describes a spatial
distribution of electron density.
• An orbital is described by a set of three
quantum numbers.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Principal Quantum Number (n)

• The principal quantum number, n,

describes the energy level on which the
orbital resides.
• The values of n are integers ≥ 1.
• These correspond to the values in the
Bohr model.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)

• This quantum number defines the shape

of the orbital.
• Allowed values of l are integers ranging
from 0 to n − 1.
• Letter designate the different values of l.
This defines the shape of the orbitals.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)

• The magnetic quantum number describes

the three-dimensional orientation of the
orbital.
• Allowed values of ml are integers ranging
from −l to l including 0:
−l ≤ ml ≤ l
• Therefore, on any given energy level,
there can be up to 1 s orbital, 3 p orbitals,
5 d orbitals, 7 f orbitals, and so forth. Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
• Orbitals with the same value of n form an
electron shell.
• Different orbital types within a shell are subshells.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 s Orbitals

• The value of l for s orbitals is 0.

• They are spherical in shape.
• The radius of the sphere increases with the
value of n.
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 s Orbitals
• For an ns orbital, the
number of peaks is n.
• For an ns orbital, the
number of nodes (where
there is zero probability
of finding an electron) is
n – 1.
• As n increases, the
electron density is more
spread out and there is
a greater probability of
finding an electron
further from the nucleus.
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 p Orbitals

• The value of l for p orbitals is 1.

• They have two lobes with a node between them.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 d Orbitals

• The value of l for a

d orbital is 2.
• Four of the five d
orbitals have four
lobes; the other
resembles a p
orbital with a
doughnut around
the center.
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 f Orbitals

• Very complicated shapes (not shown

in text)
• Seven equivalent orbitals in a sublevel
• l=3

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Energies of Orbitals—Hydrogen

• For a one-electron
hydrogen atom,
orbitals on the same
energy level have
the same energy.
• Chemists call them
degenerate orbitals.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Energies of Orbitals—
Many-electron Atoms
• As the number of electrons
increases, so does the repulsion
between them.
• Therefore, in atoms with more
than one electron, not all orbitals
on the same energy level are
degenerate.
• Orbital sets in the same sublevel
are still degenerate.
• Energy levels start to overlap in
energy (e.g., 4s is lower
in energy than 3d.)
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Spin Quantum Number, ms

• In the 1920s, it was discovered that

two electrons in the same orbital do
not have exactly the same energy.
• The “spin” of an electron describes
its magnetic field, which affects its
energy.
• This led to the spin quantum
number, ms.
• The spin quantum number has only
two allowed values, +½ and –½.
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

• No two electrons in the same atom can have the

same set of four quantum numbers.
• Therefore, no two electrons in the same atom can
have the exact same energy.
• This means that every electron in an atom must
differ by at least one of the four quantum number
values: n, l, ml, and ms.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Electron Configurations

• The way electrons are distributed in an atom is

called its electron configuration.
• The most stable organization is the lowest
possible energy, called the ground state.
• Each component consists of
– a number denoting the energy level;

4p 5 Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Electron Configurations

• The way electrons are distributed in an atom is

called its electron configuration.
• The most stable organization is the lowest
possible energy, called the ground state.
• Each component consists of
– a number denoting the energy level;
– a letter denoting the type of orbital;

4p 5 Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Electron Configurations

• The way electrons are distributed in an atom is

called its electron configuration.
• The most stable organization is the lowest
possible energy, called the ground state.
• Each component consists of
– a number denoting the energy level;
– a letter denoting the type of orbital;
– a superscript denoting the number of electrons in those
orbitals.

4p 5 Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Orbital Diagrams

• Each box in the

diagram represents
one orbital.
• Half-arrows represent
the electrons.
• The direction of the
arrow represents the
relative spin of the
electron.
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Hund’s Rule
“When filling
degenerate orbitals
the lowest energy is
attained when the
number of electrons
having the same
spin is maximized.”

• This means that, for a set of orbitals in the same

sublevel, there must be one electron in each
orbital before pairing and the electrons have the
Electronic
same spin, as much as possible. Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Condensed Electron Configurations
• Elements in the same group of the
periodic table have the same number
of electrons in the outer most shell.
These are the valence electrons.
• The filled inner shell electrons are
called core electrons. These include
completely filled d or f sublevels.
• We write a shortened version of an
electron configuration using brackets
around a noble gas symbol and listing
only valence electrons. Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Transition Metals

• Argon (atomic number 18)

ends period 3. Its electron
configuration is
1s22s22p63s23p6.
• Potassium (atomic number 19)
might be expected to have
electrons in 3d. BUT 4s
fills next.
• Transition metals follow the
filling of 4s by filling 3d in the
4th period.
Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Lanthanides and Actinides

• The elements which fill the f orbitals have special

names as a portion of a period, not as a group.
• The lanthanide elements (atomic numbers
57 to 70) have electrons entering the 4f sublevel.
• The actinide elements (including Uranium, at.
no. 92, and Plutonium, at. no. 94) have electrons
entering the 5f sublevel.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Periodic Table
• We fill orbitals in increasing order of energy.
• Different blocks on the periodic table correspond to
different types of orbitals: s = blue, p = pink (s and p are
representative elements); d = orange (transition elements);
f = tan (lanthanides and actinides, or inner transition
elements)
• The s and p blocks are called the main-group elements.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Periodic Table and
Electron Configuration
• The periodic table is followed directly when
determining the electron configuration for MOST
elements.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Some Anomalies

• Some irregularities
occur when there
are enough
electrons to half-fill
s and d orbitals on
a given row.

Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Chromium as an Anomaly

• For instance, the electron configuration

for chromium is
[Ar] 4s1 3d5
rather than the expected
[Ar] 4s2 3d4.
• This occurs because the 4s and 3d
orbitals are very close in energy.
• These anomalies occur in f-block atoms
with f and d orbitals, as well. Electronic
Structure
of Atoms
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Lecture Presentation

Chapter 7

Periodic Properties
of the Elements

James F. Kirby
Quinnipiac University
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Hamden, CT
 Development of the Periodic Table

Dmitri
Mendeleev and
Lothar Meyer
independently
came to the
same conclusion
about how
elements should
be grouped.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Mendeleev and the Periodic Table

Chemists mostly credit Mendeleev because he

also used chemical properties to organize the
table and predicted some missing elements and Periodic
Properties
their expected properties, including germanium. of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Atomic Number

• Mendeleev’s table was based on atomic masses.

It was the most fundamental property of elements
known at the time.
• About 35 years later, the nuclear atom was
discovered by Ernest Rutherford.
• Henry Moseley developed the concept of atomic
number experimentally. The number of protons
was considered the basis for the periodic property
of elements.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Periodicity
• Periodicity is the repetitive pattern of a property for
elements based on atomic number.
• The following properties are discussed in this
chapter:
– Sizes of atoms and ions
– Ionization energy
– Electron affinity
– Some group chemical property trends
• First, we will discuss a fundamental property that
leads to may of the trends, effective
nuclear charge. Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Effective Nuclear Charge
• Many properties depend
on attractions between
valence electrons and
the nucleus.
• Electrons are both
attracted to the nucleus
and repelled by other
electrons.
• The forces an electron
experiences depend on
both factors. Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Effective Nuclear Charge
• The effective nuclear charge,
Zeff, is found this way:
Zeff = Z − S
where Z is the atomic
number and S is a screening
constant, usually close to the
number of inner electrons.
• Effective nuclear charge is a
periodic property:
– It increases across a period.
– It increases slightly down
a group. Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 What Is the Size of an Atom?

• The nonbonding atomic

radius, or van der Waals
radius, is half of the
shortest distance
separating two nuclei
during a collision of atoms.
• The bonding atomic
radius, or covalent radius,
is half the distance
between nuclei in a bond.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Sizes of Atoms
• This figure shows the trend in bonding
atomic radius.
• The bonding atomic radius tends to
– decrease from left to right across a period (Zeff ↑).
– increase from top to bottom of a group (n ↑).

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Sizes of Ions
• Determined by
interatomic distances in
ionic compounds
• Ionic size depends on
– the nuclear charge.
– the number of electrons.
– the orbitals in which
electrons reside.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Sizes of Ions
• Cations are smaller than
their parent atoms:
– The outermost electron is
removed and repulsions
between electrons are
reduced.
• Anions are larger than
their parent atoms:
– Electrons are added and
repulsions between
electrons are increased.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Size of Ions—
Isoelectronic Series
• In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same
number of electrons.
• Ionic size decreases with an increasing nuclear
charge.
– An isoelectronic series (10 electrons)
• Note increasing nuclear charge with decreasing
ionic radius as atomic number increases

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Ionization Energy (I)

• The ionization energy is the minimum energy

required to remove an electron from the ground
state of a gaseous atom or ion.
– The first ionization energy is that energy required to
remove the first electron.
– The second ionization energy is that energy required to
remove the second electron.
• Note: The higher the ionization energy, the more
difficult it is to remove an electron!

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Ionization Energy
• It requires more energy to remove each successive
electron.
• When all valence electrons have been removed, it
takes a great deal more energy to remove the next
electron (a core electron).

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Periodic Trends in
First Ionization Energy (I1)

1) I1 generally increases across a period.

2) I1 generally decreases down a group.
3) The s- and p-block elements show a larger
range of values for I1. (The d-block
generally increases slowly across the
period; the f-block elements show only
small variations.)
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Factors that Influence Ionization Energy

• Smaller atoms have higher I values.

• I values depend on effective nuclear charge and
average distance of the electron from the nucleus.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Irregularities in the General Trend

• The trend is not followed when the added

valence electron in the next element
– enters a new sublevel (higher energy sublevel);
– is the first electron to pair in one orbital of the
sublevel (electron repulsions lower energy).

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Electron Configurations of Ions

• Cations: The electrons are lost from the

highest energy level (n value).
– Li+ is 1s2 (losing a 2s electron).
– Fe2+ is 1s22s22p63s23p63d6 (losing two 4s
electrons).
• Anions: The electron configurations are
filled to ns2np6; for example, F– is
1s22s22p6 (gaining one electron in 2p).
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Electron Affinity

• Electron affinity is the energy change

accompanying the addition of an electron to a
gaseous atom:
Cl + e– Cl–

• It is typically exothermic, so, for most elements,

it is negative!

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 General Trend in Electron Affinity
• Not much change in a group.
• Across a period, it generally
increases. Three notable
exceptions include the
following:
1) Group 2A: s sublevel is full!
2) Group 5A: p sublevel is
half-full!
3) Group 8A: p sublevel is full!

*Note: The electron affinity for

many of these elements is Periodic
positive (X– is unstable). Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Metal, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Metals Differ from Nonmetals

• Metals tend to form cations.

• Nonmetals tend to form anions.
• Note the special property of hydrogen.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Metals
• Most of the elements in nature are metals.
• Properties of metals:
– Shiny luster
– Conduct heat and electricity
– Malleable and ductile
– Solids at room temperature (except mercury)
– Low ionization energies/form cations easily

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Metal Chemistry

• Compounds formed between metals and

nonmetals tend to be ionic.
• Metal oxides tend to be basic and react with acids.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Nonmetals

• Nonmetals are found on the right hand side of the

periodic table.
• Properties of nonmetals include the following:
– Solid, liquid, or gas (depends on element)
– Solids are dull, brittle, poor conductors
– Large negative electron affinity, so they form anions
readily

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Nonmetal Chemistry

• Substances containing only nonmetals are

molecular compounds.
Periodic
• Most nonmetal oxides are acidic. Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Recap of a Comparison of the
Properties of Metals and Nonmetals

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Metalloids

• Metalloids have some characteristics of metals

and some of nonmetals.
• Several metalloids are electrical semiconductors
(computer chips).

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Group Trends

• Elements in a group have similar properties.

• Trends also exist within groups.
• Groups compared:
– Group 1A: the alkali metals
– Group 2A: the alkaline earth metals
– Group 6A: the oxygen group
– Group 7A: the halogens
– Group 8A: the noble gases
– Why hydrogen is a nonmetal
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Alkali Metals

• Alkali metals are soft,

metallic solids.
• They are found only in
compounds in nature,
not in their elemental
forms.
• Typical metallic
properties (luster,
conductivity) are seen
in them. Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Alkali Metal Properties

• They have low densities and melting points.

• They also have low ionization energies.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Alkali Metal Chemistry

Their reactions with water are famously exothermic.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Differences in Alkali Metal Chemistry

• Lithium reacts with oxygen to make an oxide:

4 Li + O2 2 Li2O
• Sodium reacts with oxygen to form a peroxide:
2 Na + O2 Na2O2
• K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides:
M + O2 MO2

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Flame Tests
• Qualitative tests for alkali metals include their
characteristic colors in flames.
• These are caused by electronic transitions.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Alkaline Earth Metals

• Alkaline earth metals have higher densities

and melting points than alkali metals.
• Their ionization energies are low, but not as
low as those of alkali metals.
• They readily form +2 cations, losing the Periodic
Properties
2 valence electrons. of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Alkaline Earth Metals

• Beryllium does not

react with water, and
magnesium reacts only
with steam, but the
other alkaline earth
metals react readily
with water.
• Reactivity tends to
increase as you go
down the group.
Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Group 6A—Increasing in Metallic
Character down the Group

• Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.

• Tellurium is a metalloid.
• The radioactive polonium is a metal.
• Trend: Oxygen is more likely to form –2 anion;
Periodic
polonium is most likely to have a positive Properties
of the
charge. Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Allotropes of Oxygen

• Oxygen can exist as two different

elemental forms:
– Oxygen gas, O2 (technically called dioxygen)
– Ozone gas, O3

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Group 7A—Halogens

• The halogens are typical

nonmetals.
• They have highly negative
electron affinities, so they exist
as anions in nature.
• They react directly with metals
to form metal halides. Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Group 8A—Noble Gases

• The noble gases have very large ionization energies.

• Their electron affinities are positive (can’t form stable
anions).
• Therefore, they are relatively unreactive.
Periodic
• They are found as monatomic gases. Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
 Hydrogen

• Is 1s1 a metallic electron configuration

like the other ns1 elements?
• We do think of acid compounds, like
HCl, as having H+, however they are
really covalent in nature.
• When reacting with metals, hydride
–
anions (H ) form.

Periodic
Properties
of the
Elements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.