9/12/2021

CYTOLOGY/CELL BIOLOGY
Cytology
(Greek: kytos- cell, logos- discourse or study)
➢ Branch of biology deals with the form or structure of cell and their
components
Cell Biology
➢ Deals with the various aspect of cell such as morphology, physiology,
biochemistry, genetics, development, reproduction, etc.
Cell
(Latin: cella – chamber or small room)
➢ Basic structural and functional unit of living organism consisting of
microscopic mass of cytoplasm and nucleus surrounded by cell
membrane

Cell as a structural unit

➢ Living organisms made up of cells

➢ Building blocks of body

➢ Unicellular organisms – single cell

➢ Multicellular organism – many cells

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Cell as a functional unit

➢ All the function of body is performed
by cell i.e. cell is capable of
carrying all life activities
Unicellular organisms – single cell
Multicellular organism – many cells
Cells are organized to perform particular
function - Division of labor exist

Organism
Based on body formation
Acellular- No cellular organelles
e.g. Virus

Unicellular- Organisms with single cell

e.g. Paramecium, Bacteria,
Amoeba, Yeast

Multicellular- more than one cells

e.g. Angiosperms, Human,
Cattle

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Differences between Unicellular and Multicellular Organism

S.N. Unicellular Organism Multicellular Organism
1. Body is made up of single cell Many cells
2. All function of body performed by single cell Division of labour exists among cells
3. Cell size larger ( 11µm to 1mm) Small (5µm to 100µm)
4 Death of cell brings about death of organism Death of one or few cells has no effect
5. The cell posses power of division All cells do not have power of division
6. Individual reproduces only once Reproduces several times
7. Life span is short Life span quite long
8. Cell is immortal Cell undergoes natural death
9. Can be seen under microscope Can be seen with naked eye
10. Growth by cell enlargement Growth by mitosis
11. e.g. Amoeba, Bacteria, Yeast e.g. Human, cattle, angiosperms

Discovery of Cell
Discovery of Microscope
Zacharias Janssen – Dutch Spectacle-maker
Discovered compound microscope
in 1590

Discovery of Cell
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) - English Physicist
➢ Improve primitive compound microscope
➢ Discovered cell (Dead) in 1665
➢ Observed bark (cork )slice of oak (Quercus suber)
➢ Noticed honey comb like structure
➢ Named each compartment – Cellulae (cell)
➢ Published in Micrographia

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Discovery of Cell ………

Discovery of Living Cell

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) - Netherland
in 1675 – Living cells
First Observe- Protozoa, Spermatozoa, Bacteria, RBC
Animalcules
“Father of microbiology”

Cell Theory
➢ Explain about the cell
➢ Proposed by Matthias Jakob Schleiden (German Botanist)
and Theodere Schwann (German physiologist ) (1838,1839)
“All plants and animals are made up of cells”
➢ Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (1855) - Physician
“New cells arise from preexisting cell”
➢ Later other also contributed
Modern Cell Theory/Cell Doctrine/Cell Principle

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Cell Theory………
Statements of Cell Theory
1. All organisms are made up of cells and their products.
2. Cells are basic structural and functional unit of life.
3. New cell arises from preexisting cell.
4. All cells are basically similar in their chemical composition and metabolic activities.
5. Each cell is made up of microscopic mass of protoplasm and nucleus surrounded
by cell membrane with or without cell wall
6. The function of an organism as a whole is the outcome of the activities and the
interaction of the cells constituting the body of that organism.

Exceptions/Drawbacks/ Shortcomings of Cell Theory

Cell theory does not apply for all organisms.

Some exceptions are:
1. Virus
• Do not have true cellular organization i.e.
Cytoplasm, nucleus, cell organelles etc.
• Consists of nucleic acid surrounded by protein
sheath.
• Non-living outside living host.

2. Monera (Bacteria and Cyanobacteria)

• Do not have true nucleus and membrane
bounded cells organelles.

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Exceptions…………
3. Certain algae (Vaucheria, Acetabularia)
and Fungi (Rhizopus, Mucor)
• Body is coenocyte (made by
undivided mass of cytoplasm with
multinucleate condition)

4. RBC and Sieve tube of Phloem

• Do not have nucleus

Cellular Totipotency

Totipotency
(Latin: totus-all, potens-powerful)
• Potentiality/ability of every nucleated
somatic(vegetative) cell of plant to form a complete
organism.
Concept – Gottlieb Haberlandt – 1902
Austrian Botanist – “Father of Tissue Culture”
“Since each cell of an organism is derived from a zygote and
contain same hereditary information, it should be able to
regenerate whole plant”
But not able to demonstrate experimentally
Experimental evidence of totipotency–Frederick Campion
Steward (British Botanist) & his coworkers -1957

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Cellular Totipotency………..

Flow of Energy through the Cell

Adenosinetriphosphate
Law of conservation of Energy
“Energy neither created nor destroyed
but it can be transferred from one form
to another”
Second law of thermodynamics
“All the system (Living and non-living)
need a constant supply of energy for
their existence and maintenance”
➢ Sun is the ultimate source of light
➢ Organisms obtained energy from
its surrounding either in the form
of light energy (photons) or
chemical energy (food molecules)

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Flow of Information through the Cell

➢ Cell performs function based on the information (inside cell or outside cell) they
received
Information is of two types
1. Intrinsic Information 2. Extrinsic information
1. Intrinsic Information
• DNA contains genetic information and control intrinsic
activities(metabolism and expression of characters) of cell by
synthesizing protein molecules
• The information of DNA carried to cytoplasm by mRNA (Transcription)
and protein is synthesized based o this information (Translation)
• Protein regulate the activities of the cell
Central
Dogma
Transcription Translation
DNA mRNA Specific Protein

Flow of Information through the Cell……………

2. Extrinsic Information
➢ Information comes from outside in the
form of specific stimuli and information
molecules
e.g. Hormones (Chemical substances
secreted in one cell/organ, transported to
other cell/organs and regulate the
activities away from the cell/organs where
they produced)

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Types of Cell
Basis - Membrane structure, cytoplasmic organelles and nuclear material
1. Prokaryotic and 2. Eukaryotic cell
1. Prokaryotic cell
(Greek: Pro-Primitive, Karyon–Nucleus)
• Small, simple and primitive
• Well organized nucleus is lacking
• Function of nucleus is carried out by nucleic acid (Incipient Nucleus)
e.g. bacteria, cyanobacteria etc.
2. Eukaryotic cell
(Greek: Eu-Advance, Karyon–Nucleus)
• Well organized nucleus (With nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm,
nuclear reticulum and nucleolus)
• Membrane bounded cell organelles present
e.g. Plantae and Animalia

Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Size 1-10 μm 10-100 μm
Cell wall Made up of muramic acid (Murein) or Cellulose in plant, Chitin in
peptidoglycan fungi and absent in animals
Capsule Present in some bacteria Absent
Cell Membrane bounded cell organelles
organelles (Plastids, Mitochondria, ER, Golgi
Complex) absent Present
Ribosome - 70 S Both 70 S and 80 S
Nucleus Incipient (nuclear material represented Well organized (Nuclear
by nucleic acid ) membrane, Nucleoplasm,
Chromatin, Nucleolus)

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Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell………

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Cyclosis Absent Observed
Respiratory Associated with plasma Present in cytoplasm as well as in
enzymes membrane mitochondria
DNA Naked (Lack histone Covered by histone protein
protein)
Circular in outline Linear in chromosomes and circular in
plastids and mitochondria
Thyllakoids If present, scattered in If present grouped in chloroplast
cytoplasm
Cell Division Amitosis Mitosis and meiosis. Amitosis in few
organisms (e.g. Paramecium, Amoeba)

Cell Structure
Shape
• Vary considerably according to functional need of organism and environment
• Oval, round, plate like, tubular, cylindrical, polygonal, irregular etc.
Size
• Microscopic (very small) or macroscopic (large)
• Unicellular organism have larger cell than multicellular
Smallest cell – Pleuro pneumonia like organism (PPLO) (Mycoplasma)
Largest cell – Egg of Ostrich
Longest cell – Nerve cell of human

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Structure of Cell……..
Structural Organization of Cell

Structure of Cell……..

Fig. Plant Cell

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Structure of Cell……..

Fig. Plant Cell

Structure of Cell……..

Fig. Animal Cell

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Differences between Plant and Animal Cell

SN Plant cell Animal Cell

1. Definite form/shape Less common
2. Size large Small
3. Cell wall present Absent
4. Plastids present Absent
5. Lysosome rare Present
6. Centrally located single large vacuole present in Many small vacuoles
mature cell
7. Centriole absent except some lower plants Present
8. Few number of mitochondria Numerous

Differences between Plant and Animal Cell

SN Plant cell Animal Cell

9. Golgi apparatus consists of unconnected units Localised or connected
called dictyosomes single complex
10. Nucleus lies at periphery Usually at the centre
11. Nucleus elliptical in shape Rounded
12. Produces all the material required for cell Can not synthesize certain
amino acids, fatty acids,
vitamins
13. Crystals of inorganic chemicals may occur Do not occur
14. Reserve food generally starch and fat Glycogen and fat
15. Cytokinesis occur by cell plate Cleavage

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Cell wall
➢ Outermost, non-living permeable protective layer of plant cell, fungal cells and
bacteria
➢ Absent in reproductive cells of higher plants
➢ Observed by Robert Hooke in 1665
Thickness
0.1 – 10 µ m
Chemical composition
Water – 60 %, Cellulose and hemicellulose – 5-15 %, Pectic substances – 2-8 %,
Lipid – 0.5- 3 %, Proteins 1- 2 %, lignin, cutin, suberin, silica, waxes,
resins, gums etc.
Fungal cell wall - Chitin
Bacterial cell wall – Peptidoglycan or mucopeptide or murein

Cell wall…..
Structure of Cell Wall
Consists of
1. Middle lamella
2. Primary wall
3. Secondary wall
1. Middle Lamella
▪ Thin, amorphous and cementing layer
present between adjacent cells
▪ First layer formed during cytokinesis
Fig: Structure of cell wall
▪ Chemically made up of pectate of
calcium and magnesium
▪ Found in all plant cells

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Cell wall…..
Structure of Cell Wall………
2. Primary wall
▪ Lies immediately next to middle lamella
▪ Chemically made up of pectin, hemicellulose and loose
network of microfibrils made from cellulose
▪ Found in all plant cells
3. Secondary wall
▪ Thick, inelastic, rigid and permeable wall formed on either
side of primary wall in matured cell
▪ Formed by three sublayers: S1, S2, and S3
▪ Chemically made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin.
▪ Lignin, suberin, cutin, waxes, tannins, resins, gums etc. also
present

Cell wall…..
Structure of Cell Wall………
Tertiary wall
• Another layer present in some plants
e.g. Xylan in Gymnosperms
Plasmodesmata
• Gap forms during development of
primary and secondary wall
• Cytoplasmic bridges between adjacent
cells
Pits
• Unthicken area in the secondary wall of
plant cell

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Cell wall…..
Function of Cell Wall
1. Provides shape to cell
2. Provide rigidity to cell
3. Protects protoplasm against mechanical injury
4. Protects cell from attack of pathogens
5. Counteracts osmotic pressure
6. Deposition of cutin and suberin help to reduce transpiration
7. Cell wall has some enzymetic activities for metabolism
8. Plasmodesmata helps in exchange of materials between cells

Protoplasm
Greek: proto – first, plasma – something molded
▪ Coined by Johannes Evangelista Purkinje (Czech Republic) in 1840
▪ Essential living material of cell
▪ Complex colloidal system of substances
▪ Protoplasm of a single cell- protoplast
Defined as physical basis of life (Huxley 1868)
Protoplasm is endowed with life. As protoplasm dies, the cell ceases to function
and dies
Chemical composition
Water- 75-90%, Inorganic (Ca, P, S,K, Na, Mg, Fe etc.), Organic (Carbohydrate,
Protein, Lipid, Nucleic acid etc.)
▪ Consists of cytoplasm and nucleus

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Cytoplasm
▪ Jelly like semifluid mass of protoplasm excluding nucleus
▪ Outermost covering cell membrane
▪ Space between cell membrane and nucleus is filled with amorphous, translucent,
homogeneous colloidal substance called cytoplasmic matrix or cytosol or
hyaloplasm
▪ Cytosol differentiated into ectoplast (plasma gel) and endoplast (plasma sol)

Ectoplast: Below plasma membrane, formed by non-

granular viscous mass
Endoplast: Lies internal to ectoplast, formed by
granular viscous mass
Cyclosis: Streaming movement of cytoplasm within
the eukaryotic cell
Help in movement of organelles and substances inside
cell

Cell Membrane
Term coined by Carl Nageli (Swiss) and C. Cramer in 1855
Also called plasmalemma/Plasma membrane
▪ Outermost covering of animal cell and lies below cell wall in plant cell
▪ Cell organelles (Mitochondria, Plastids, Golgi bodies) and Nucleus also
covered by similar membrane called subcellular membrane
▪ Cell membrane and subcellular membrane collectively called biological
membrane or biomembrane
▪ They are ultrathin (50-100Å), living, elastic, semipermeable (for solvent)
and selectively permeable (for solute)

Chemical Composition: Lipids (20-79%), Protein (20-70%), Carbohydrate (1-5%),

Water (20%)

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Cell Membrane…………..
Structure of Cell Membrane
1. Lamellar Model 2. Fluid Mosaic Model
1. Lamellar model
➢ Earlier model
“Plasma membrane believed to have stable structure”
a. Sandwich Model b. Robertson Model
a. Sandwich Model
Based on physical and chemical properties
of plasma membrane
Proposed by James Danielli (English Biologist) and
Hugh Davson (UK) in 1935

Cell Membrane…………..
Structure of Cell Membrane
a. Sandwich Model…….
Statements
1. Plasma membrane is trilaminar structure
consisting of phospholipid bilayer sandwiched
by two surface layer of protein molecules
2. Proteins molecules are globular and give
stability to plasma membrane
3. Each phospholipid molecule have hydrophilic
head and hydrophobic tail
4. The head (glycerol) of phospholipid directed towards opposite direction and
associated with protein and tails (fatty acid) face each other. The tails are
held together by Van der wall force.

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Cell Membrane…………..
Structure of Cell Membrane…………

b. Robertson Model (Unit membrane concept)

Modification of Sandwich model, Proposed by J. David Robertson in 1959
Statements
1. Cell membrane has phospholipid bilayer sandwiched by proteins
2. Mucoprotein present on outside and non-mucoid protein on innerside
3. Plasma membrane has thickness of 75Å with central lipid layer of 35Å and two
peripheral protein layer of 20Å each.
Lamellar model can not explain
1. The permeability of membrane to water (Phospholipid has not affinity to water)
2. Unit membrane concept is not valid because different biomembranes differ in
their form, composition and thickness
3. Protein lipid ratio is not fixed
4. Not explain about active transport

Cell Membrane…………..
Structure of Cell Membrane…………
2. Fluid Mosaic Model
Most recent model
Proposed by S. Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicholson in 1972
According to this model,
Plasma membrane does not have uniform disposition of lipid and protein but is
instead of mosaic of two. Further the membrane is not solid but is quasifluid (Shows
the property of quick repair, dynamic nature, ability to fuse, expand and contract)
Thus,
They described fluid mosaic model as
“Proteins icebergs in the sea of Lipid”

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Cell Membrane…………..
Structure of Cell Membrane…………
2. Fluid Mosaic Model…..

It postulates that Fig. Fluid Mosaic Model

1. Plasma membrane is trilaminar structure made up of lipoprotein
2. Phospholipid bilayer is fluidy in nature and exhibit two types of movement viz.
Transition movement (molecules change their position with in the same layer)
and Flip-flop movement (molecules of two layers can be interchanged)
3. Proteins are globular. They are of two types: extrinsic or peripheral (lie outside
the outer layer and inner surface of phospholipid) and intrinsic or internal
proteins (embedded partially or fully in phospholipid).

Cell Membrane…………..
Structure of Cell Membrane…………
2. Fluid Mosaic Model…..

Fig. Fluid Mosaic Model

4. Each phospholipid molecules have hydrophilic head (glycerol) and hydrophobic

tail (fatty acid chain)
5. Head of phospholipid molecules directed in opposite direction and tail faces each
other
6. Carbohydrates (Oligosaccharides) are associated with outer surface of plasma
membrane in the form of glycolipid and glycoproteins

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Cell Membrane…………..
Mode of transport across cell membrane
Passage of substances across plasma membrane occurs by three methods. They are:
1. Passive transport 2. Active transport 3. Bulk transport
1. Passive transport: It takes place according to concentration gradient.
Osmosis: Movement of solvent (water) from a region of higher concentration to lower
concentration through cell membrane
Simple diffusion: Gaseous molecules enter the cell through plasma membrane
Facilitated diffusion: Occurs through agency of membrane protein called permease
e.g. entry of glucose into RBC
2. Active transport: Energy is required for movement of materials across membrane.
E.g. Salt uptake by plant cells
3. Bulk transport: Intake of large sized molecules
Phagocytosis (Cell eating process)- Intake of large size solid food particles
Pinocytosis (Cell drinking process)- intake of large size liquid nutrients

Cell Membrane…………..
Functions
1. It helps in compartmentalization (separate cell from external environment).
2. It protects cell from external injury.
3. The semipermeable and selectively permeable nature of cell membrane help in
passage of some substances
4. Cell membrane has receptors for some hormone
5. They have carrier protein for active transport
6. They contain enzymes for performing certain reaction e.g. ATPase
7. They help in endocytosis and exocytosis
8. They provide sheath to flagella and cilia
9. It helps in movement of cell e.g. pseudopodia in Amoeba
10. They help in absorption of food e.g. microvilli

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