CLASSIFICATION

OF SOILS
 INTRODUCTION
▪ Soil classification is the arrangement of different soils with
similar properties into groups and subgroups based on their
application.
▪ Soils may be classified in a general way as:
• Cohesive vs. cohesionless
• Fine- grained vs. coarse grained
• Residual vs. Transported
▪ However these terms are too general and cover too wide
range of physical and engineering properties.
▪ A more refined classification is necessary to determine the
suitability of a soil for specific engineering purposes.

▪ Therefore, these terms are collected into SOIL CLASSIFICATION

SYSTEMS, usually with some specific engineering purpose in
mind.
▪ A number of classification systems have been proposed since
the 1st quarter of the 20th century.
▪ Most of the soil classification systems that have been
developed for engineering purposes are based on simple
index properties such as particle-size distribution and
plasticity.

NEED FOR SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

▪ A soil classification system represents, in effect, a language
of communication between engineers.
▪ It enables one to use the engineering experience of others.

▪ The engineering properties have been found to correlate

quite well with the index and classification properties of a
given soil deposit.
▪ Therefore, by knowing the soil classification, the engineer
already has a fairly good general idea of the way the soil will
behave.
Role of Soil Classification in Geotechnical Engineering

Classification and index properties

(w, e,  , s, GSD, LL, PI, etc.)

Classification System
“Language”

Engineering Properties
Permeability, shear strength, compressibility,
swell-shrinkage etc.

Engineering Purpose
(Foundation, Dams, Highways, Airfields, etc.)
Why more than one Classification System are in use?

➔Classification systems are used to group soils in

accordance with their general behavior under given
physical conditions.

➔Soils that are grouped in order of performance for

ONE SET of Physical CONDITIONS will not
necessarily have the same order for performance
under other set of physical conditions.

➔This led to classifying soil by use, and each agency

(Like FAA, AASHTO, USBR) has in mind specific use
for the soils.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
1. Grain-size classification

Limitations:
❑ Gives only border between groups (i.e. gravel, sand, silt,
clay) but does not give us a name for a given bulk of soil.
❑ In most cases, natural soils are mixtures of particles from
several size groups.
2. TEXTURALCLASSIFICATION
▪ In the textural classification system, the soils are
named after their principal components, such as
sandy clay, silty clay, and so forth.

▪ The texture of a soil is its appearance or ”feel” and it

depends on:
➔ The relative sizes of the particles
➔ Range or distribution of these sizes
➔ Shapes of the particles
▪ Generally the term texture is refereed wholly to the
size characteristics of the soil particles.
➔ Large soil particles with some small particles will give
COARSE-APPEARNCE or COARSE-TEXTURED soil.
➔ Smaller particles give a MEDIUM TEXTURED soil.

➔ Fine-grained particles give FINE-TEXTURED soil.

 ▪A number of textural classification systems were
developed in the past by different organizations.
▪ The following figure shows the textural classification
system developed by the USDA. It is based on the
particle size limit as shown in Table 2.3 in the
textbook.

Loam is soil composed of sand ,

silt ,and clay in relatively even
concentration (about 40-40-20%
concentration, respectively) .
REMARKS
 The chart is based on only the fraction of soils that passes
through No. 10 sieve (opening = 2 mm).
 If there were no gravel in the soil, the line representing the
three sizes included in the chart would intersect at a
common point.
 If a certain percentage of the soil particles are > 2 mm in
diameter, then a correction will be necessary.
 In concrete technology called Feret Triangle.
 Percentage of each class can be determined from GSD
(without GSD, percentage can be determined based on sieve
size opening).
Example 1
Let it be desired to determine the textural classification of
a soil whose grading is as follows:
4% Gravel
31% Sand
44% Silt-size
21% Clay-size
The two lines intersect within
the area labeled LOAM, which
is the textural class of this soil.

Notes
We could have used the
point of intersection of:
• Silt-size+ Clay-size
• Sand-size + Clay-size
Example 2
Let it be desired to determine the textural classification of
a soil whose grading is as follows:
10% Gravel
18% Sand
27% Silt-size
45% Clay-size
Find the modified textural
composition:
18 X 100
Sand - size = = 20%
100 − 10

27 X 100
Silt - size = = 30%
100 − 10
The textural classification is CLAY.
45 X 100
Clay - size = = 50% Because of the large percentage of
100 − 10
gravel, it may be called GRAVELLY CLAY.
Limitations of Textural Classification Systems
▪ They are based entirely on particle-size distribution and
does not consider PLASTICITY which to great extent
influences the physical properties of soils.
▪ Because textural classification systems do not take plasticity
into account and are not totally indicative of many
important soil properties, they are inadequate for most
engineering purposes.
▪ The two elaborate systems used at present are AASHTO and
USCS. Both systems take into account the particle-size
distribution and plasticity.
▪ The AASHTO classification system is used mostly by highway
departments. Geotechnical engineers generally prefer the
Unified system.
3. CLASSIFICATION BY USE
A. AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
 The AASHTO soil classification system was originally
developed in the late 1920’s (1929) by the U.S. Bureau of
Public Roads (BPR) for the classification of soils for highway
subgrade use.
 It was developed as a result of the work of Hogentogler in
the 1920’s.
 Adopted by Bureau of Public Roads in 1931.
 AASHTO : Acronym of American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials.
 Originally, the system classified soil as being either a group A
or a Group B.
 A Group A soil was able to maintain uniform pavement
support at all location whereas the Group B soils were not.
 The B designation was subsequently deleted, leaving only A
soils in the classification system.
 Consequently, the “A” still remains in an AASHTO
classification of a soil type, but it no longer has any real
significance.
 The A soils were subdivided into eight subgrade soil groups.
A-1 through A-8.
 It went through various revisions since 1929, and the
classification system received its last revision in 1974.
 ASTM D-3282; AASHTO method M145.
Criteria:

Tests Required:
•Grain-size analysis
•Liquid Limit
•Plastic Limit
 Sieve No. 10 Sieve No. 200

Remarks
o In addition to Sieve no. 10 & 200 also sieve no. 40 is involved in AASHTO
classification which separates between medium and fine sands.
o In the classification, differentiation between silt and clay soils is based on
plasticity.
(USCS) 4.75 mm 0.075 mm
2.0 mm 0.425 mm

Gravel Sand
18 (AASHTO)
Sieve No. involved in AASHTO Soil Classification System
3 Groups
6 Subgroups
4 Groups
2 Subgroups
No. 10
No. 40
No. 200

For classification starts apply the test data from left to right, top to
bottom. By process of elimination, the first group from the left into which
the test data fit is the correct classification.
• The plot below is for the range of the liquid limit and the
plasticity index for soils that fall into groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-
6, and A-7.
• If the soil is A-1 or A-3 we cannot use this chart
(mainly non plastic soils).

Note:
Differentiation
between A-2’s
and other
group is based
on %passing
Sieve No. 200
REMARKS
 According to this system, soil is classified into eight
major groups, A-1 through A-8.
 Soil group A-8 is peat (very organic) or muck (thin
very watery, and with considerable organic material).
 A soil is classified according to the table by
proceeding from left to right, top to bottom, column
by column on the table to find the first group in
which the soil test data will fit.
 The first group from the left into which the test data
will fit is the correct classification.
 The classification process stops at this point
regardless if another column farther to the right can
also qualify.
GROUP INDEX
▪ Soils containing fine-grained material are further
identified by a number called GROUP INDEX (GI). This
was to establish the relative RANKING of a soil within
a subgroup or a group. This help in evaluating the
quality of a soil as a highway subgrade material.
▪ It is dependent on:
1. Percentage of the soil passing the No. 200 (0.075
mm) sieve.
2. Liquid limit, LL
3. Plasticity Index, PI
▪ The index is given by the following empirical formula:
GI = ( F200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005( LL − 40)]
+ 0.01( F200 − 15)( PI − 10)
F200= % passing No. 200 sieve.
Rules for Determining Group Index
1. If GI is negative value take it as zero.
2. GI is rounded off to the nearest whole number.
3. There is no upper limit for GI.
4. The group index belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5
and A-3 will always be zero. Why?
5. When calculating the group index for soils belonging to groups
A-2-6 and A-2-7, the partial group index for PI should be used,
or
GI = 0.01( F200 − 15)( PI − 10)
6. The group index value is written in parenthesis next to the
AASHTO symbol. Ex. A-2-6(3), A- 4(5) etc.
7. In general the higher the GI, the less desirable is the soil for use
as a subgrade. A GI of 0 indicates a “good’ subgrade , and a GI>
or equal 20 indicates a “very poor” subgrade material.
 Partial
GI = 0 Group Full Group Index
Index

No. 10
No. 40
No. 200
Example 1
The sieve analysis and plasticity data for two soils are
given in the table below. Classify soils according to the
AASHTO soil classification system.

Soil 2 Soil 1 Sieve

%finer %finer Size
35 100 NO. 4
20 100 NO. 10
10 99 NO. 40
5 90 NO. 100
2 75 NO. 200
- 110 LL
- 50 PL
 Soil 2 Soil 1 Sieve
%finer %finer Size

35 100 NO. 4
20 100 NO. 10
No. 10
No. 40
10 99 NO. 40
No. 200 5 90 NO. 100
2 75 NO. 200
- 110 LL
- 50 PL

GI = ( F200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005( LL − 40)]

+ 0.01( F200 − 15)( PI − 10)
Soil 1: A-7-5
GI =(75-35)[0.2+.005(110-40)]
+0.01(75-15)[60-10] = 52 Soil 2: A-1-a(0)
The soil is A-7-5(52)
Soil 1: A-7-5

110

Because %Passing #200 > 35%

The soil is classified as A-7-5
and not A-2-7.
Example 2
 Because %Passing #200 > 35%
The soil is classified as A-7-5
and not A-2-7.

#200 86%
GI = ( F200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005( LL − 40)] LL 70%
+ 0.01( F200 − 15)( PI − 10) PI 32%
 Example 3
The grain size distribution curve, natural water content, liquid limit,
and liquidity index are give below. Classify the soil according to the
AASHTO Classification System.
Solution
Given
wn − PL 25 − PL
Li = = PL =21.25%
4 10 20
Seive No.
40 60 100 200 PI 21 − PL
40
100

%finer Sieve
Plastic Limit, LL = 40%
Natural Water Content, wn=25% No.
PI = 18.75%
80 Liquidity Index, Li = 0.2
98 NO. 4
Percent Finer

60 86 NO. 10
28 NO. 40
40
10 NO. 200
40 LL
20
19 PI
0
5.00 3.00 2.00 0.50 0.30 0.20 0.05 0.03 0.02
10.00 1.00 0.10 0.01
Particle Diameter (mm)
 %finer Sieve
No.
98 NO. 4
No. 10 86 NO. 10
No. 40
No. 200 28 NO. 40
10 NO. 200
40 LL
19 PI

GI = ( F200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005( LL − 40)]

+ 0.01( F200 − 15)( PI − 10)

From the AASHTO Table the soil is classified as: A-2-6 (0)
 Because %Passing #200 < 35%
The soil is classified as A-2-6
and not A-6.

%finer Sieve
No.
98 NO. 4
86 NO. 10
28 NO. 40
GI = ( F200 − 35)[0.2 + 0.005( LL − 40)] 10 NO. 200

+ 0.01( F200 − 15)( PI − 10) 40 LL

19 PI

Note: If the location comes along the border line, we need to consult the table
and the grain size will tell the classification of the given soil.
Remarks About AASHTO System
 Boulders (retained on 75 mm (3 inch) sieve] should be excluded
from the portion of the sample to which the classification is
applied, but the percentage of such material, if any, in the
sample should be recorded.

 Differentiation between A-7-5, A-7-6 is according to the

following criterion:
PI <= LL- 30 ------→A-7-5 Or instead we use the chart
PI > LL- 30--------→ A-7-6
 Group A-3 is placed before group A-2 in the table since:
• It is better as a subgrade
• It is based only on grain size

So it was easer to put A-3 before A-2 in order to facilitate left to

right and top to bottom procedures applied in this system.
 For A-1, A-3, A-2-4, A-2-5…>> F<= 35% , PI < 15, therefore GI –ve
(i.e. GI always zero).
B. UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (USCS)
 This system was developed by Arthur Casagrande in
1942 for use in the air field construction works
undertaken by the Army Corps of Engineers during
WW II.
 To make it applicable to DAMS and other
constructions besides airfields, it was revised in
1952 in cooperation with the USBR.

 The system was last revised in 1984 by the ASTM by

the addition of a GROUP NAME to the group symbol.
This modification has not been adopted by some
agencies which use USCS to classify soils.

 ASTM Test Designation D-2487.

 This system is the most popular soil classification
system among geotechnical engineers.
 This system classifies soils under three broad
categories:
1. Coarse-grained soils < =50% passes sieve No. 200
2. Fine-grained soils > 50% passes sieve No. 200
3. Organic
 Criteria for USCS:
a. Grain size
b. Cu, Cc
c. Plasticity (Plasticity chart)
 Tests required
•Grain-size analysis
•Liquid Limit
•Plastic Limit
 All soils are classified into 15 groups each group is
designated by two letters called a GROUP SYMBOL.
 The first letter of the group symbol is termed the
PREFIX and the second letter is termed the SUFFIX.
These letters are abbreviations of certain soil
characteristics as follows:

Definition Suffix Definition Prefix

Well graded W Gravel G
Poorly Graded P Sand S
Silty M Silt M
Clayey C Clay C
High Plasticity H Organic O
Low Plasticity L Peat Pt
Use Plasticity Chart

High Low Sands Gravels

Plasticity Plasticity
USCS AASHTO

Gravels

Sands
To determine if well graded (W) or poorly graded (P),
calculate Cu and Cc
Coefficient of uniformity

Coefficient of gradation
 B-Line
CH
or
OH

CL
CL-ML or
OH OL or OH based
MH on the value of a
ML or
or
OH
OH
 Organic Soils
• Organic clay or silt (group symbol OL or OH):
Liquid Limit (oven dried)
=
Liquid Limit (never - been - dried)

if   0.75 the soil is considreed to be organic

− The second symbol is obtained by locating the values
of PI and LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.

• Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol Pt)

− A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in
various stages of decomposition and has a fibrous to
amorphous texture, a dark-brown to black color, and
an organic odor should be designated as a highly
organic soil and shall be classified as peat, PT.
 % Passing sieve No. 200 (0.075 mm)
< = 50% > 50%
Coarse-grained soils
Fine-grained soils (Silt
(Gravel (G) or Sand (S))
(M) or Clay (C))
% Coarse soil (Co) = 100 - % Passing # 200

B-Line
% Gravel (G) = 100 - % Passing # 4

G > 1/2 Co G < 1/2 Co CH

or
Gravel (G) Sand (S) OH
CL
CL-ML or
OL MH or OH
ML
or
OL
% Passing sieve No. 200 OL or OH based
on the value of 
< 5% GW, GP, SW or SP Use → Cu, Cc W : well graded P: poorly graded
5% -12 % GW-GM, GW-GC, GP-GM, GP-GC, SW-SM, SW-SC, SP-SM, SP-SC
> 12% GM, GC, SM, SC Use → plasticity charts
Example 1
The sieve analysis and plasticity data for two soils are
given in the table below. Classify the soils according to
the USCS soil classification system.
Soil 2 Soil 1 Sieve
%finer %finer Size
100 100 NO. 4
100 93 NO. 10
100 52 NO. 40
92 25 NO.100
85 16 NO. 200
89 38 LL
49 23 PL

Soil 1: SC

Soil 2: MH
Example 2

Classify the following soils Using USCS

SC

CH

SM

47
Example 2 (Cont.)

SC
CH
SM
Example 2 (Cont.)

49
Example 3

50
 Soil A is then classified as SP-SM
(Poorly graded sand with silt and gravel)
51
Example 4
100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm) From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
#4 = 95%
#200 = 11%
Coarse fraction =100-11 = 89%,
Gravel = 100 -95 = 5% (5/89 = 5.6% < 50%) -→ Sand
Example 4 (cont.)

100

80
% Finer

60

40

20

0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm)

D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm

Cu = 0.75/0.06 = 12.5 Cc = 0.25X0.25/(0.75X 0.06) = 1.39
 Well graded
From Atterberg Tests
PI = 32-26 = 6
LL = 32, PL = 26

The fine part is silt

The soil is classified as SW-SM (Well-graded sand with silt)

 Unified soil classification (including identification and description)

Field identification procedures Group Information required for Laboratory classification

(Excluding particles larger than 75mm and basing fractions on symbols Typical names
1 describing soils criteria
estimated weights)

Depending on percentages of fines (fraction smaller than .075mm

D

Bordeline case requiring use of dual symbols

Wide range of grain size and substantial GW Well graded gravels, gravel-
Gravels with Clean gravels

C U = --- 60 Greater than 4

Determine percentages of gravel and sand from grain size curve

Give typical names: indicate ap-
(little or no

amounts of all intermediate particle sand mixtures, little or no proximate percentages of sand D 10
fines)

sizes fines 2
and gravel: maximum size: (D30 )
More than half of coarse

C c = ---------------------
fraction is larger than

Predominantly one size or a range of angularity, surface condition, Between 1 and 3

GP Poorly graded gravels, gravel- D10 x D60

sieve size) coarse grained soils are classified as follows

sizes with some intermediate sizes sand mixtures, little or no and hardness of the coarse
More than half of material is larger than

missing fines grains: local or geological name Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW
2.36mm
Gravels

and other pertinent descriptive

amount of fines)

Use grain size curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification
Non-plastic fines (for identification GM Silty gravels, poorly information and symbol in
(apreciable

procedures see ML below) graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures parentheses. Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with
fines
The .075mm sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye
Coarse grained soils

"A" line or PI less than 4 PI between 4 and 7

.075mm sieve size

Plastic fines (for identification pro- GC Clayey gravels, poorly graded For undisturbed soils add infor- are borderline cases
Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual

GM, GC, SM, SC

cedures see CL below) gravel-sand-clay mixtures mation on stratification, degree

GW, GP, SW, SP

of compactness, cementation, line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Wide range in grain sizes and sub- moisture conditions and drain- D
SW Well graded sands, gravelly
C U =--- 60 Greater than 6
Clean sands
(little or no

stantial amounts of all intermediate age characteristics.

particle sizes sands, little or no fines D 10
fines)
More than half of coarse

(D 30 )2
fraction is smaller than

Example:
Predominantely one size or a range of SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly C c = --------------------- Between 1 and 3
Silty sand, gravelly; about 20% D 10 x D60
sizes with some intermediate sizes missing sands, little or no fines hard angular gravel particles
2.36mm
Sands

12.5mm maximum size; rounded Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW

More than 12%

amount of fines)

Non-plastic fines (for identification pro- SM Silty sands, poorly graded and subangular sand grains
(appreciable

Less than 5%
Sands with

cedures, see ML below) sand-silt mixtures coarse to fine, about 15% non- Atterberg limits below Above "A" line with

5% to 12%
fines

plastic lines with low dry "A" line or PI less than 4 PI between 4 and 7
Plastic fines (for identification pro- SC Clayey sands, poorly graded strength; well compacted and are borderline cases
cedures, see CL below) sand-clay mixtures moist in places; alluvial sand; Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
(SM) line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Identification procedure on fraction smaller than .425mm
sieve size
Dry strength Dilatency Toughness
More than half of material is smaller than

Silts and clays

crushing (consistency
less than 50

(reaction
liquid limit

character- to shaking) near plastic

istics limit)
Inorganic silts and very fine sands, Give typical name; indicate degree
None to Quick to rock flour, silty or clayey
None ML
Fine grained soils

and character of plasticity,

.075mm sieve size

slight slow fine sands with slight plasticity 60

amount and maximum size of Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
Medium to None to very Inorganic clays of low to medium coarse grains: colour in wet con- 50 Toughness and dry strength increase
high slow
Medium CL,CI plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy dition, odour if any, local or in
e
clays, silty clays, lean clays with increasing plasticity index "l
geological name, and other pert- "A
40

Plasticity index
Slight to Slow Slight Organic silts and organic silt- inent descriptive information, and
medium OL clays of low plasticity symbol in parentheses CH
30 CI
inorganic silts, micaceous or
Silts and clays

Slight to Slow to Slight to For undisturbed soils add infor-

greater than
liquid limit

medium none medium MH dictomaceous fine sandy or mation on structure, stratif- OH

silty soils, elastic silts 20
ication, consistency and undis-
50

High to very Inorganic clays of high or

None High turbed and remoulded states, CL OL
high CH plasticity, fat clays moisture and drainage conditions 10
CL-ML or MH
ML
Medium to None to very Slight to Organic clays of medium to Example 0
high high medium OH high plasticity Clayey silt, brown: slightly plastic: 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Readily identified by colour, odour small percentage of fine sand:
Highly organic soils spongy feel and frequently by fibrous Pt Peat and other highly organic soils numerous vertical root holes: firm Plasticity chart
and dry in places; loess; (ML) for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
texture
Remarks
 If for coarse-grained soils, the percent passing
through the No. 200 sieve is between 5 and 12% dual
symbols are needed (i.e. GW-GC, GP-GC, GW-GM, GP-GM,
SW-SC, SP-SC, SW-SM, SP-SM).
 A soil that plots in the area to the left of the A-line in
the plasticity chart bounded by 4<= PI <=7, the A-line,
and the left of the boundary chart has a dual-
classification of CL-ML. This is the only fine-grained
soil that has such a dual classification.
 Peat is visually identified
 Whether the fine-grained soil is organic or not, that is
determined as follows: Liquid Limit (oven dried)
=
Liquid Limit (never - been - dried)

if   0.75 the soil is considreed to be organic

 Comparison of the USCS and AASHTO
Classification Systems
 In AASHTO if 35% passes No. 200 ➔ fine-grained
In USCS if 50% passes No. 200 ➔ fined-grained
 In AASHTO Sieve No. 10 is used to separate gravel
from sand, in USCS it is Sieve No.4.
 In USCS, the gravely and sandy soils are clearly
separated, in the AASHTO system they are not.
 The symbols GW, SM, CH and others that are used
in the USCS are more descriptive of the soil
properties than the A symbols used in the AASHTO
system.
 The classification of organic soils such as OL, OH,
and Pt has been provided in the USCS. In AASHTO
system, there is no place for organic soils. (A-8 has
 In AASHTO PI is used to distinguish between silt
and clay (LL appears only in distinguishing A-7-5
and A-7-6). In USCS both PI and LL (plasticity chart)
are used.
 USCS distinguishes high and low plastic fine-
grained soils.
 Both AASHTO and USCS are better than most other
available systems when applied to engineering or
construction applications.
 Both AASHTO and USCS systems have the
advantage of having been used for many years and
having gained acceptance in the engineering and
construction fields.