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- The above figure has both the Bipolar NRZ and RZ waveforms
- The pulse duration and symbol bit duration are equal in NRZ type, while the pulse
duration is half of the symbol bit duration in RZ type

******

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Semester 4th ICT

(Information and Communication Technology Engineering)

Course Title: Digital and Data Communication (4343201)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Unit-IV: Data Communication: techniques and standards
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 Data Communication: Characteristics and Components of Data Communication
 Introduction
- Communication is defined as a process in which more than one computer transfers
information, instructions to each other and for sharing resources
- Other words, communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data
- A network of computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous
computers
- Autonomous means no computer can start, stop or control another computer
- Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable
- The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness and jitter
- The fundamental parts of a communication system are sources, input transducers,
transmitters, communication channel receivers, and output transducers
- The five aspects of communication are as follows:
o Source
o Message
o Channel
o Receiver, and
o Feedback loop
- There are three broad categories of communications system components:
o Transmission media
o Hardware, and
o Software
- Transmission media include both bounded media (twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
optical fiber) and unbounded media (microwave, satellite, and infrared)

 Charactristic
- Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices by using
transmission medium (Wire or Wireless)
- The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on some fundamental
factors:
o Delivery
o Accuracy
o Timeliness
o Jitter
o Error detection & Correction

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Delivery
- System must deliver the data to the correct destination
- (MAC address, IP Address)
Accuracy
- The system must deliver the data accurately
- Altered data is unusable
Timeliness
- In the case of video and audio, late delivery is useless
- Communication system must deliver data in a timely manner
- Timely means delivering data without any delay (real-time transmission)
Jitter
- Variation in the packet arrival time
- It is the delay in the delivery of audio or video data packets. an uneven quality in the
video is the result
Error Detection & Correction
- Parity check
- Checksum
- CRC

 Component
- A Data communication system is made up of the following components:
Message
- A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to
another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc
Sender
- It is simply a device that sends data messages
- It can be a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc
Receiver
- It is a device that receives messages
- It can be a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc
Transmission Medium / Communication Channels
- Communication channels are the medium that connect two or more workstations
- Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media
Set of rules (Protocol)
- When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable to the
receiver also otherwise it is meaningless
- For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan
- If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless
conversation
- Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer
connected to the internet and they are:
TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
- It is responsible for dividing messages into packets on the source computer and
reassembling the received packet at the destination or recipient computer
- It also makes sure that the packets have the information about the source of the
message data, the destination of the message data, the sequence in which the message

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data should be re-assembled, and checks if the message has been sent correctly to the
specific destination

IP(Internet Protocol)
- Do You ever wonder how computer determines which packet belongs to which device
- What happens if the message you sent to your friend is received by your father? Scary
Right
- Well! IP is responsible for handling the address of the destination computer so that
each packet is sent to its proper destination

 Type of data communication

- As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or
receive data from one device to another
- The data communication is divided into three types:
Simplex Communication
- It is one-way communication
- We can say that unidirectional communication in which one device only receives and
another device only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in transmission
- For example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc
Half Duplex communication
- It is a two-way communication
- We can say that it is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can
send and receive data but not at the same time
- When one device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-versa
- For example, walkie-talkie
Full-duplex communication
- It is a two-way communication
- We can say that it is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can
send and receive data at the same time
- For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

 Data transmission mode: simplex, half duplex, full duplex

- Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices
- It is also known as a communication mode

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- Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between

individual devices that are interconnected
- There are three types of transmission mode:
o Simplex
o Duplex
o Full duolex

 Simplex Mode
- In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street
- Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive
- The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction
- Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors
- The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor can only give the output

Advantages
- Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication
- It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication channel
- There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices,
which simplifies the communication process
- Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or response is not
required, such as broadcasting or surveillance

Disadvantages
- Only one-way communication is possible
- There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received correctly
- Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional
communication

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 Half-Duplex Mode
- In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time
- When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa
- The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in
both directions at the same time
- The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction
- Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent
in both directions
- Channel capacity = Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Advantages
- Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful in
situations where devices need to send and receive data
- It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the channel can
be used for both transmission and reception
- Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only requires one
communication channel

Disadvantages
- Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices cannot
transmit at the same time
- There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause problems in
some applications
- There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving devices,
which can complicate the communication process

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 Full-Duplex Mode
- In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
- In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with
signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways
- Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
sending and the other for receiving
- Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions
- Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the
time
- The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions
- Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons
by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time
- Channel Capacity = 2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Advantages
- Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication, which is
ideal for real-time applications such as video conferencing or online gaming
- It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can transmit and
receive data simultaneously
- Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there is no need
for error correction mechanisms

Disadvantages
- Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two communication
channels
- It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two physically
separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity
- Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a high level of
bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of communication

 Difference between Simplex, Half duplex and Full Duplex Transmission Modes
- In simplex mode, the signal is sent in one direction
- In half duplex mode, the signal is sent in both directions, but one at a time
- In full duplex mode, the signal is sent in both directions at the same time
- In simplex mode, only one device can transmit the signal
- In half duplex mode, both devices can transmit the signal, but one at a time
- In full duplex mode, both devices can transmit the signal at the same time
- Full duplex performs better than half duplex, and half duplex in turn performs better
than simplex

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Key Simplex Mode Half Duplex Mode Full Duplex Mode

Definition Simplex Mode is the mode Half duplex is the mode Full Duplex is the
of transmission in which of transmission in which mode of transmission
there is only unidirectional there is bi−directional in which again there
flow of data i.e., participant flow of data but one at a is bi−directional flow
does only one task which time, i.e., Sender can of data, i.e., Sender
means sender can only send as well as receive can send as well as
send the data and can't the data but does one receive the data at the
receive task at a time same time
Data flow Data flow in case of Data flow is Data flow is two
Simplex Mode is two−directional but one directional and is
Unidirectional at a time simultaneous
Performance Simplex Mode of The performance of Full−Duplex has best
transmission is treated as Half−duplex is better as performance as
worst performing mode of compared to Simplex compared to that of
transmission as it takes but is lower as Simplex and
longest time in data compared to Half−Duplex mode
transmission Full−Duplex mode of of transmission
transmission

 Data transmission techniques: I. Serial data communication: synchronous and

asynchronous II. Parallel data communication
 Data transmission techniques
- Data transmission is the process of transferring data from one point to another
- There are two methods for transmitting data:
o Serial communication
o Parallel communication
- There are different types of devices for data transmission:
o Wireless
o Optical fiber
o Infrared and more
- In serial transmission, data bits are sent one after the other across a single channel
- Parallel data transmission distributes numerous data bits through various channels at
the same time
- Data within a computer system is transmitted via parallel mode on buses with the
width of the parallel bus matched to the word size of the computer system
- Data between computer systems is usually transmitted in bit serial mode
- Consequently, it is necessary to make a parallel-to-serial conversion at a computer
interface when sending data from a computer system into a network and
a serial-to-parallel conversion at a computer interface when receiving information
from a network
- The type of transmission mode used may also depend upon distance and
required data rate
- Data transmission is a means of transmitting digital or analogue data over a
communication medium to one or more devices
- It allows the transmission and communication of devices in different environments:
o point-to-point

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o point-to-multipoint
o multipoint-to-multipoint
- Data transmission can either be analogue or digital, but is mostly earmarked for
sending and receiving digital data
- As such, data transmission is also referred to as digital transmission or digital
communications
- It works when a device aims to transmit a data object or file to one or multiple
recipient devices
- The digital data comes from the source device in the form of digital bitstreams
- These data streams are positioned over a communication medium for transmission to
the destination device
- An outward signal can either be a baseband or a passband
- Aside from external communication, data transmission may be done internally,
between different parts of the same device
- The sending of data to a processor from the random access memory (RAM) or hard
disk is a form of data transmission
- There are two methods used for transferring data between computers which are given
below
o Serial data transmission
 Synchronous
 Asynchronous
o Parallel data transmission

 Serial data communication

- In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to another computer in
bidirection
- In this transmission, one bit flows at one clock pulse
- In Serial Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a time having a start and stop bit

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- A serial transmission transfers data one bit at a time, consecutively, via a

communication channel or computer bus in telecommunication and data transmission
- On the other hand, parallel communication delivers multiple bits as a single unit
through a network with many similar channels
- 8-bits are conveyed at a time in serial transmission, with a start bit and a stop bit
- All long-distance communication and most computer networks employ serial
communication
- Serial computer buses are becoming more common, even across shorter distances,
since newer serial technologies' greater signal integrity and transmission speeds have
begun to outperform the parallel bus's simplicity advantage
- The majority of communication systems use serial mode
- Serial networks may be extended over vast distances for far less money since fewer
physical wires are required
- Both Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission are types of serial data
transmission techniques in which data is transmitted between the sender and the
receiver based on a clock pulse used for synchronization
- Asynchronous transmission
- An extra bit is added to each byte to alert the receiver to the arrival of new data. 0 is
used as a start bit, while 1 is used as a stop bit
- In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of blocks or frames
- This transmission is the full-duplex type
- Between sender and receiver, synchronization is compulsory
- In Synchronous transmission, There is no time-gap present between data
- It is more efficient and more reliable than asynchronous transmission to transfer a
large amount of data
- Example:
o Chat Rooms
o Telephonic Conversations
o Video Conferencing

- Synchronous transmission
- No extra bit is added to each byte
- Data is transferred in batches, each of which contains multiple bytes
- In Asynchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of byte or character
- This transmission is the half-duplex type transmission
- In this transmission start bits and stop bits are added with data
- It does not require synchronization

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- Example:
o Email
o Forums
o Letters

 Difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission

Sr. No. Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission
1. In Synchronous transmission, data is In Asynchronous transmission, data is
sent in form of blocks or frames. sent in form of bytes or characters.
2. Synchronous transmission is fast. Asynchronous transmission is slow.
3. Synchronous transmission is costly. Asynchronous transmission is
economical.
4. In Synchronous transmission, the time In Asynchronous transmission, the time
interval of transmission is constant. interval of transmission is not constant, it
is random.
5. In this transmission, users have to wait Here, users do not have to wait for the
till the transmission is complete before completion of transmission in order to
getting a response back from the server. get a response from the server.
6. In Synchronous transmission, there is no In Asynchronous transmission, there is a
gap present between data. gap present between data.
7. Efficient use of transmission lines is While in Asynchronous transmission, the
done in synchronous transmission. transmission line remains empty during a
gap in character transmission.
8. The start and stop bits are not used in The start and stop bits are used in
transmitting data. transmitting data that imposes extra
overhead.
9. Synchronous transmission needs Asynchronous transmission does not
precisely synchronized clocks for the need synchronized clocks as parity bit is
information of new bytes. used in this transmission for information
of new bytes.
10. Errors are detected and corrected in real Errors are detected and corrected when
time. the data is received.
11. Low latency due to real-time High latency due to processing time and
communication. waiting for data to become available.
12. Examples: Telephonic conversations, Examples: Email, File transfer,Online
Video conferencing, Online gaming. forms

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 Parallel data communication

- In Parallel Transmission, many bits are flow together simultaneously from one
computer to another computer
- Parallel Transmission is faster than serial transmission to transmit the bits
- Parallel transmission is used for short distance

- Parallel communication is a means of transmitting multiple binary digits (bits)

simultaneously in data transmission
- It differs from serial communication, which sends only one bit at a time; this
distinction is one method to classify a communication channel
- A parallel interface comprises parallel wires that individually contain data and other
cables that allow the transmitter and receiver to communicate
- Therefore, the wires for a similar transmission system are put in a single physical
thread to simplify installation and troubleshooting
- A large amount of data must be delivered across connection lines at high speeds that
match the underlying hardware
- The data stream must be transmitted through "n" communication lines, which
necessitates using many wires
- This is an expensive mode of transportation; hence it is usually limited to shorter
distances

 Difference between Serial and Parallel Transmission

Sr. No. Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission
In this type, a single communication
In this type, multiple parallels links
1. link is used to transfer data from one
used to transmit the data
end to another
In serial transmission, data(bit) flows In Parallel Transmission, data flows in
2.
in bi-direction. multiple lines.
Parallel Transmission is not cost-
3. Serial Transmission is cost-efficient.
efficient.

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In serial transmission, one bit In Parallel Transmission, eight bits

4.
transferred at one clock pulse. transferred at one clock pulse.
Serial Transmission is slow in Parallel Transmission is fast in
5.
comparison of Parallel Transmission. comparison of Serial Transmission.
Generally, Serial Transmission is Generally, Parallel Transmission is used
6.
used for long-distance. for short distance.
The circuit used in Serial The circuit used in Parallel
7.
Transmission is simple. Transmission is relatively complex.
Serial Transmission is full duplex as
Parallel Transmission is half-duplex
8. sender can send as well as receive the
since the data is either send or receive
data
Converters are required in a serial
No converters are required in Parallel
9. transmission to convert the data
Transmission
between internal and parallel form
Serial transmission is reliable and Parallel transmission is unreliable and
10.
straightforward. complicated.

 Data representation: Audio, Video, Picture and text data

- Representation of data refers to the structured way in which information is conveyed,
including its symbolic representation and context

 Representation of data
- The representation of data in this method is done by converting at least one part of a
knowledge graph into a vector form
- Data is can be anything which represents the specific result or any number, text,
image, audio, video etc
- For example, If you will take an example of human being then data for a human being
such that name, personal id, country, profession, bank account details etc. are the
important data
- Data can be divide into three categories such that data can be personal, public and
private
- At present Information comes in different forms such as follows.
o Numbers
o Text
o Images
o Audio
o Video

Numbers
- Numbers are not represented as ASCII but by bit patterns
- Numbers are directly converted into binary representation to specify mathematical
operations
- The 0s and 1s used to represent digital data
- The number system that humans normally use is in base 10
- Number File Formats are as follow:
o Integer
o Fixed point

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o Date
o Boolean
o Binary, Octal, Decimal, Hex

Text
- Text is also represented as bit pattern or sequence of bits(such as 0001111)
- Various types of bits are assigned to represent text symbols
- A code where each number represents a character can be used to convert text into
binary
- Text File Formats are as foloow:
o DOC
o DOCX
o PDF
o RTF
o TXT

Audio
- Audio signal is a representation of sound or music
- Audio differs from all i.e. from text, number and images
- Audio is a series of binary numbers for digital signals
- It is continuous but not discrete
- Audio File Formats are as follow:
o MP3
o M4A
o FLAC
o WAV
o WMA
o AAC

- Video
- Video refers to the recording, broadcasting, copying or playback
- Video can either be produced or it is continuous and sometimes it is a combination of
multiple images produced in motion
- Video File Formats are as follow:
o MP4
o MOV
o AVI
o FLV

Images
- Images are also represented as bit patterns
- An image is composed of matrix of pixels with different values of pixels each where
each pixel is represented as dots
- Size of the picture is dependent on its resolution
- Consider a simple black and white image

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- If 1 is black (or on) and 0 is white (or off), then a simple black and white picture can
be created using binary
- Image File Formats are as follow:
o JPEG
o PNG
o TIFF
o GIF

 Multimedia Communications: Multimedia Communication Model important

Elements of Multimedia Systems
- Multimedia is a form of communication that uses a combination of different content
forms, such as writing, audio, images, animations, or video, into a single interactive
presentation, in contrast to traditional mass media, such as printed material or audio
recordings
- There are five basic elements of multimedia: text, images, audio, video and animation
- Example - Text in fax, Photographic images, Geographic information system maps,
Voice commands, Audio messages, Music, Graphics, Moving graphics animation,
Full-motion stored and live video, Holographic images

 Multimedia Communication Model

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 Multimedia Application
- Multimedia indicates that, in addition to text, graphics/drawings, and photographs,
computer information can be represented using audio, video, and animation
Education
- In the subject of education, multimedia is becoming increasingly popular
- It is often used to produce study materials for pupils and to ensure that they have a
thorough comprehension of various disciplines
Entertainment
- The usage of multimedia in films creates a unique auditory and video impression
- Multimedia is the only way to achieve difficult effects and actions
- The entertainment sector makes extensive use of multimedia
- It’s particularly useful for creating special effects in films and video games
- The most visible illustration of the emergence of multimedia in entertainment is music
and video apps
- Interactive games become possible thanks to the use of multimedia in the gaming
business
- Video games are more interesting because of the integrated audio and visual effects.
Business
- Marketing, advertising, product demos, presentation, training, networked
communication, etc. are applications of multimedia that are helpful in many
businesses
- The audience can quickly understand an idea when multimedia presentations are used.
- It’s also utilized to encourage clients to buy things in business marketing
Technology & Science
- It can communicate audio, films, and other multimedia documents in a variety of
formats
- Only multimedia can make live broadcasting from one location to another possible
- Plans can be produced more efficiently to cut expenses and problems
Fine Arts
- Multimedia artists work in the fine arts, combining approaches employing many
media and incorporating viewer involvement in some form
- Digital painters make digital paintings, matte paintings, and vector graphics of many
varieties using computer applications
Engineering
- Multimedia is frequently used by software engineers in computer simulations for
military or industrial training
- It’s also used for software interfaces created by creative experts and software
engineers in partnership
- Only multimedia is used to perform all the minute calculations
There are five basic elements of multimedia
- text, images, audio, video and animation
- Example - Text in fax, Photographic images, Geographic information system maps,
Voice commands, Audio messages, Music, Graphics, Moving graphics animation,
Full-motion stored and live video, Holographic images

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 Important Elements of Multimedia Systems

- In networks, the data transferred can be of any of the following forms.
Text
o Formatted text (electronic documents etc.)
o Unformatted text ( email – plain text without any font specifications)
Images
o Computer generated images –shapes (line/circle etc)
o Digitized images of documents
o Pictures
Audio
o Low fidelity (Speech - telephony)
o High fidelity (Steoreophonic music)
Video
o Short sequence of moving images (video clips - advertisements)
o Complete movies ( films )
Animation
- Animation is a process of making a static image look like it is moving. An animation
is just a continuous series of still images that are displayed in a sequence
- The animation can be used effectively for attracting attention
- Animation also makes a presentation light and attractive
- Animation is very popular in multimedia application

 Multimedia processing for communication: digital media, signal processing

elements, digital audio file formats, digital image file formats, digital video file
formats
- All types of multimedia information are stored and processed within a computer in a
digital form
- They can be integrated together and transmitted over a single all-digital
communications network
- Images include computer-generated images and digitized images of documents and
pictures
- The word multi and media are combined to form the word multimedia
- The word “multi” signifies “many.” Multimedia is a type of medium that allows
information to be easily transferred from one location to another
- Multimedia is the presentation of text, pictures, audio, and video with links and tools
that allow the user to navigate, engage, create, and communicate using a computer
- Multimedia refers to the computer-assisted integration of text, drawings, still and
moving images(videos) graphics, audio, animation, and any other media in which any
type of information can be expressed, stored, communicated, and processed digitally
- Aapplications of multimedia
o Conferences
o Training
o Advertising
o Promotion
o Product demos
o Modeling

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o Databases
o Portfolios
o Text messaging
o Network communications
o Voicemail messages
o Teleconferencing

 Standard formats of audio, image and video

Image formats
- Graphics Interchange Format ( GIF )
- Images in this format are used for banners, clip art, and buttons as they can have a
transparent background where in parts of the image, the background will be allowed
to show through
- They are not compressed, which results in slow load times and large transfer rates
- Gifs are limited to the 256 color scheme
- They create a simple animation called as animated GIFs
- Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
- Images in JPEG format have an unlimited color palette, and have a high compression
rate thus reducing load times and disk space
- They are a standard for storing and compressing images such as photographs that use
a wide range of colors
- Portable Network Graphics (PNG)
- It is an extensible file format for the lossless, portable, well-compressed storage of
raster images
- PNG provides a patent-free replacement for GIF and can also replace many common
uses of TIFF
- Indexed-color, grayscale, and true color images are supported, plus an optional alpha
channel
- Sample depths range from 1 to 16 bits
- PNG also compresses better than GIF in almost every case

Audio formats
- MP3
- MP3 is a popular format for music due to good compression and good audio quality
- Files have an .mp3 file extension and usually play in most browsers
- The MIME type is audio/mpeg.
- WAVE
- It was developed by IBM and Microsoft, and is supported by most web browsers
- Files have the .wav file extension
- It does not use compression, so its quality is better than MP3 but for which good-
quality speakers are needed
- Due to uncompressed format its file sizes is very large
- Its MIME type is audio/x-wav
- MID
- It stores a score in music which tells about how to play a piece of music, and not the
audio

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- It specifies different parts to be played on different instruments

- It is used to play music but now mp3 is more widely used
- MP3 format is preferred as it compresses to relatively small file sizes while retaining
a good sound quality thus widely supported
- But for high quality audio WAVE format is used and for Digital Rights Management
(DRM) Windows Media Audio or Real Audio format is used

Video Formats
- FLV or Flash video
- It is the most popular format due to flash player plug-in is installed on most
computers
- Creating video needs the flash authoring software which can also create video players
for playback thus facilitating in control of look and feel of the player
- It uses flv or swf file extension and it has good compression and thus lower files size
- MPEG
- It is a video format developed by the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG)
- Most computers have a windows media player or quicktime player which plays
MPEG video format files
- It has mpg file extension and its file size is larger than flash
- WMV or Windows Media Video
- It requires windows media player to play it and has wmv file extension
- MOV
- This files are based on quicktime movie file format which can have file extension of
MP4 or mov and has small file size
- AVI (audio/video interleaved)
- It is known as a container format as in it video is compressed with another codec thus
some AVI files may play, and not others. Its file extension is avi

 RS -232, 422 and 485 standard

 RS -232 standard
- In telecommunications, RS-232 or Recommended Standard 232 is a standard
originally introduced in 1960 for serial communication transmission of data
- The physical characteristics of the hardware include both a 25-pin and 9-pin D sub
connector
- RS-232 is capable of operating at data rates up to 20 Kbps and can transmit data about
15 meters (50 ft)
- The absolute maximum data rate is difficult to determine due the differences in the
transmission line and cable length
- It is possible to operate at rather high data rates if the distance is short
- Also, RS-232 is an “asynchronous serial protocol”
- This implies that the data word is transmitted as single bits to the receiver, which puts
the word back together
- To make this happen correctly, the data rate, hand-shaking, start and stop bits, and
error checking must all be pre-defined

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- RS -232 9-pin and 25-pin diagram and connection are given bellow

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 RS - 422 standard
- The RS422 interface is used for multi drop configuration and supports up to 10
devices at a time
- It is used in balanced differential mode
- It supports data rate from 100 kbps to about 10 Mbps
- The following document describes the functions of the pins on the RS422 9 and 37
pin Sub-D connectors used in serial communications
- Pin diagram and connection are given bellow

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Pin No Function Purpose

1 TXD- Transmitted Data -
2 TXD+ Transmitted Data +
3 RTS- Request To Send -
4 RTS+ Request To Send +
5 GND Ground
6 RXD- Received Data -
7 RXD+ Received Data +
8 CTS- Clear To Send -
9 CTS+ Clear To Send +

Pin No Function Purpose Pin No Function Purpose

1 GND Ground 20 RC Receive Common
2 SRI Signal Rate Indicator 21 GND Ground
3 - Reserved 22 /SD Send Data B
4 SD Send Data A 23 /ST Send Timing B
5 ST Send Timing A 24 /RT Receive Timing B
6 RD- Received Data A 25 /RS Request To Send B
7 RTS Request To Send A 26 /RT Receive Timing B
8 RR Receiver Ready A 27 /CS Clear To Send B
9 CTS Clear To Send A 28 IS Terminal In Service
10 LL Local Loopback 29 /DM Data Mode B
11 DM Data Mode A 30 /TR Terminal Ready B
12 TR Terminal Ready A 31 /RR Receiver B
13 RR Receiver Ready A 32 SS Select Standby
14 RL Remote Loopback 33 SQ Signal Quality
15 RL Remote Loopback 34 NS New Signal
Select Frequency /
16 SF/SR 35 /TT Terminal Timing B
Select Rate
17 TT Terminal Timing A 36 SB Standby Indicator
18 TM Test Mode 37 SC Send Common
19 GND Ground

 RS - 485 standard
- The RS485 interface supports higher data rate and distance compare to RS232
- It supports distance of 10 meters for 30-35 Mbps and 1200 meters for the data rate of
about 100 kbps
- It is a balanced differential interface used mainly for multi drop configuration
- Figure depicts pin configurations of RS485 interface in a 9 pin DB9 connector

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 Comparison of RS 232, RS 422 and RS 485

- The most common serial communication protocols are RS232, RS485, RS422, USB,
and Ethernet

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 Communication ports-USB, HDMI, RCA, 3.5mm audio, Ethernet

- A communication port is a physical input/output interface that sends and receives data
between devices
- "Communication port" is a generic term that describes a plug port for communication,
such as a LAN port, USB port, and COM port
- It may be referred to as "port," "interface port," "network port," or "computer port
o USB
o HDMI
o RCA
o 3.5mm audio
o Ethernet

 USB
- USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an industry standard for short-distance digital
data communications
- USB ports allow USB devices to be connected to each other with and transfer digital
data over USB cables
- They can also supply electric power across the cable to devices that need it
- Different type of USB port are given bellow
o USB – A
o USB –B
o USB –C
o USB 3.0

USB-A
- A USB-A port exists on many devices, such as laptops, gaming consoles and TVs
- It's recognizable as both a common port on computers and as the rectangular port for
many charging cords for mobile devices
- You can charge a device's battery and transfer data at a relatively high speed using this
type of port, such as a phone cord and USB-A port in your car
- You can also charge your phone and simultaneously play stored or streamed music

USB-B
- A USB-B port commonly connects a computer and a large peripheral device, such as
a printer
- Often, the device has a USB-B port, which you connect to your computer through one
of its USB-A or USB 3.0 ports
- This allows your component to communicate with the device and share data, such as
sending files to the printer to create physical copies

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USB-C
- The USB-C port is oval and significantly smaller than the USB-A or USB-B ports
- It's the standard for transmitting both data and power over a single cable for many
electronics industries
- The port has no up or down orientation, which can help to reduce wear, as you don't
need to plug it in with the same orientation each time
- You may connect to it using a cord with a USB-A or a double-sided USB-C cord to
maximize the value of its increased capabilities

USB 3.0
- A USB 3.0 port is an updated version of the USB-A port
- It has the same shape, allowing you to connect either type of cord
- This port provides higher transfer speeds, similar to a USB-C
- Many USB devices on the market have a USB 3.0 port
- By combining a USB 3.0 cord with a compatible cord or connector, you can
maximize the benefit of the port
- Ports, such as a high-speed charger or fast data-transfer port, may also specialize in
data or charging

 HDMI
- High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is a proprietary audio/video interface
for transmitting uncompressed video data and compressed or uncompressed digital
audio data from an HDMI-compliant source device, such as a display controller, to a
compatible computer monitor, video projector, digital television
- HDMI ports accept connections from HDMI cables, which transmit and receive high-
definition audio and visual signals
- Computers, televisions and other multimedia devices often have HDMI ports to
transfer images and sound onto another device
- Many modern monitors use HDMI due to its high quality, so a modern computer will
likely have one or more HDMI out ports

 RCA
- The RCA connector is a type of electrical connector commonly used to carry audio
and video signals
- The name RCA derives from the company Radio Corporation of America, which
introduced the design in the 1930s

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- The connector's male plug and female jack are called RCA plug and RCA jack
- RCA cables have many of the same capabilities as HDMI cables, but they use a
method of transmission in which the audio and video signals transmit separately
- These ports and cables are typically color-coded to indicate the correct port for audio
and video cable insertion, with red and white cables for stereo sound and yellow
cables for video
- Many older gaming systems and multimedia devices, like DVD players, use RCA
cables to transfer audio and visual data, and RCA ports may allow your computer to
interact with them

 3.5mm audio
- This port is for audio transmission only and exists on many media players, mobile
devices, computers and cars
- Any device that plays audio or allows for a headphone connection may have a 3.5mm
audio jack
- Cords that plug into these ports may attach to a device directly or have another 3.5mm
audio jack on the other end of the cord for connections to many devices

 Ethernet
- Ethernet ports are for transmitting wired internet connections
- These ports allow connections from ethernet cables, which also connect to routers or
modems, allowing internet capabilities

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- Ethernet cables may enable faster internet connections than wireless connections, but
many Wi-Fi connections can achieve similar speeds to wired connections

 Industrial standards
- Industry standards are voluntary agreements that establish requirements for products,
practices, or operations in a given field
- Industry standards are documents that contain requirements that have been agreed on
by groups of companies and people working in specific industries or on specific types
of products
- The standards address product performance, safety, reliability, and the methods for
evaluating product performance, reliability, and safety

 Cross-Industry Standards
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
- This organization that has served as administrator and coordinator of the U. S. private
sector standardization system for 80+ years
- ANSI does not develop standards; it examines and approves standards developed by
others. Search using NSSN
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
- Raynor Reference TA401 .A64
- ASTM provides for the development and publication of voluntary standards for
materials, products, systems and services
- The library owns the print version of the 2019 edition
- Standards can be copied or scanned at nearby Printwise stations
IEEE Standards
- Browse by number or search by title keyword for approved, unapproved and draft
standards published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
- Full text of standards is included
National Information Standards Organization (NISO)
- NISO is a non-profit association accredited by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) that identifies, develops, maintains, and publishes technical standards

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to manage information; for content publishers, libraries, and software developers, etc.
Occupational Health and Safety (OSHA)
- Searchable site of U.S. gov't workplace safety standards and regulations
- Link to full text

 Industry-Specific Standards/Codes
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
- Several editions of AASHTO Load Resistance Factor Design standards
ACI Manual of Concrete Practice
- Raynor Reference TA439 .A25x
- This multi-volume set contains the standards, guides, and reports most widely used by
designers, concrete suppliers, and contractors for nearly every phase of concrete and
masonry design and concrete construction
W3C
- Define an Open Web Platform for application development enabling developers to
create interactive experiences available on any device
Organization
Purpose Examples
Name
EN 50155 ensures rail system
ENs is documents that have been ratified
interoperability and covers the
European by one of the three European
electronic equipment used on
Standards (ENs) Standardization Organizations (ESOs) –
rolling stock for railway
CEN, CENELEC or ETSI.
applications.
The ETG brings Ether CAT device
manufacturers, technology providers and
Ether CAT Both Ether CAT and Safety over
users together to further the technology
Technology Ether CAT are IEC Standards
and keep it open for all potential users.
Group (ETG) (IEC 61158 and IEC 61784).
The ETG is an official partner of the IEC
(see below)
The IEC is the international standards
International IEC 61850-3 enables the
and conformity assessment body for
Electrotechnical intelligent electronic devices in
electric and electronic products, systems
Commission electrical substation automation
and services, collectively known as
(IEC) systems to communicate.
electrotechnology.
IEEE is the world’s largest technical IEEE 802.11 is a set of media
professional organization dedicated to access control (MAC) and
advancing technology through its highly- physical layer (PHY)
IEEE
cited publications, conferences, specifications for implementing
technology standards, and professional wireless LANs across several
and educational activities. frequency bands.
ISO is an independent, non-governmental
ISO 14000 is a family of
International international organization that promotes
standards related to environmental
Organization for worldwide proprietary, industrial and
management to help companies
Standardization commercial standards. ISO develops
minimize their negative impact on
(ISO) voluntary, consensus-based, market
the environment.
relevant International Standards.
National NEMA is the largest trade association of NEMA TS-2 covers traffic
Electrical electrical equipment manufacturers in the signalling equipment used to

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Manufacturers U.S. NEMA has published more than 600 facilitate and expedite the safe
Association standards, application guides and movement of pedestrians and
(NEMA) technical papers. vehicular traffic.
ODVA was founded in 1995 and is a ODVA oversees technology and
global trade and standard development standards for EtherNet/IP,
ODVA organization whose members are DeviceNet, CompoNet,
suppliers of devices for industrial ControlNet, Common Industrial
automation applications. Protocol (CIP) and Conformance.
The PROFIBUS Nutzerorganisation e.V.
PNO oversees certifications and
(PROFIBUS User Organization, or PNO)
standards related to PROFINET,
PROFIBUS User is comprised of 25 regional associations,
PROFIBUS, PROFIsafe,
Organization including automation vendors, service
PROFIdrive & Encoder,
(PNO) suppliers and end-users, who work
PROFIenergy, IO-LINK and Field
together to create ideas that will become
Device Integration (FDI).
standards.
The UL 60950-1 standard is
UL is a global independent safety science applicable to information
company and has developed more than technology equipment designed
1,500 standards. UL supports the for use as telecommunication
UL Standards
responsible design, production, marketing terminal equipment and network
and purchase of goods, solutions and infrastructure equipment in order
innovations. to reduce the risk of injury or
damage

 Industry Organizations
- American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
- American Concrete Institute
- American Public Works Association
- ASHRAE - American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Airconditioning Engineers
- ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers
- AWWA - American Water Works Association
- American Welding Society
- Construction Specifications Institute
- International Electrochemical Commission
- International Telecommunication Union
- National Fire Protection Association
- Society of Automotive Engineers
- Underwriters Laboratories

******

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Semester 4th ICT

(Information and Communication Technology Engineering)

Course Title: Digital and Data Communication (4343201)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Unit-V: Emerging trend in Data communication
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Satellite Communication
 Introduction
- Satellite communication is the term used to describe any form of communication that
occurs between two earth stations using a satellite
- Electromagnetic waves are used as carrier signals in this communication
- In satellite communication system, various operations take place, among which the
main operations are orbit controlling, altitude of satellite, monitoring and controlling
of other subsystems
- Satellite communication is transporting information from one place to another using a
communication satellite in orbit around the Earth
- We know that there are different ways to communicate, and the propagation of these
waves can occur in different ways
- Ground wave propagation and skywave propagation are the two ways communication
takes place for a certain distance
- The maximum distance covered by them is 1500 km, which was overcome by the
introduction of satellite communication

Satellite communication block diagram

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 Working
- The communication satellites are similar to the space mirrors that help us bounce
signals such as radio, internet data, and television from one side of the earth to
another
- Three stages are involved, which explain the working of satellite communications
o Uplink
o Transponders
o Downlink
- Let’s consider an example of signals from a television
- In the first stage, the signal from the television broadcast on the other side of the earth
is first beamed up to the satellite from the ground station on the earth
- This process is known as uplink
- The second stage involves transponders such as radio receivers, amplifiers, and
transmitters
- These transponders boost the incoming signal and change its frequency so that the
outgoing signals are not altered
- Depending on the incoming signal sources, the transponders vary
- The final stage involves a downlink in which the data is sent to the other end of the
receiver on the earth
- It is important to understand that usually, there is one uplink and multiple downlinks

User
- The user who actually sends or receives the information or data
- The user may be a sender or a receiver. Here, we have shown the two-way
communication system

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Terrestrial System
- It is the local geometrical communication system between earth stations
- They did not use satellites for communication
- Terrestrial communication uses both analog and digital signals for data transmission
- The terrestrial communication system is used to connect local earth stations
- This system also all the local users to an earth station
Earth Stations
- Earth stations are those from where signals are sent to the satellite and received
signals from the satellite
- Earth stations collect data from all the users and make it ready to transmit through the
satellite
- Earth stations have all the required circuits such as an oscillator, amplifier, modulator,
demodulator, etc
- Earth stations do all the major works of the communication system such as it
amplifies the signal before sending or after receiving
- It removes all the noise and corrects all the errors in the signals
Antenna
- The antenna is a device that sends and receives the signal in the form of a radio wave
or microwave
- It creates a medium between the circuit and space for the transmission of signals
- The antenna is a crucial component of satellite communication systems and is
commonly used for television broadcasting, internet connectivity, and other
applications
- A satellite antenna has some important parts and components such as Dish, LNB
(Low-Noise Block downconverter), Feedhorn, Mounting Assembly, Cables,
Connectors, etc
- When setting up a satellite antenna, it is essential to align it properly to the desired
satellite
- This alignment ensures optimal signal reception and minimizes interference
- It's important to note that the specific design and configuration of satellite antennas
can vary depending on the intended application, such as Direct-to-Home (DTH)
television reception, VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) systems for internet
connectivity, or specialized communication systems for military or scientific purposes
Uplink and Downlink
- The Uplink is the transmission channel through which the signal is transmitted from
the Earth station to the satellite
- Downlink is the transmission channel through which the signal is transmitted from the
satellite to the Earth station
- The frequency at which the signal is transmitted from the earth station to the satellite
is called uplink frequency
- On the other hand, the frequency at which the signal is transmitted from the satellite
to the Earth station is called Downlink frequency
Transponder
- The transponder is a device available in the satellite which actually does the
communication with the earth stations
- A satellite consists of thousand of transponders

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- The transponder receives the signal from the earth stations at a frequency, then it
converts those signals into another frequency and then sends them to the other earth
stations

 Satellite communication segments

- Satellite communication mainly consists of two segments
o Space segmne
o Earth segment
Space segment
- Space segment means the satellite is in space so the components or the subsystems of
this segment are the communication satellite itself, satellite payloads, launch vehicles,
etc
- Major space segment subsystems are:
o AOC Subsystem (altitude and orbit control subsystem)
o TT&C Subsystem (telemetry tracking and command subsystem)
o Power and Antenna Subsystem
o Transponders
Earth segment
- When we are talking about the earth segment which is also known as a ground
segment, it means transmitting equipment, receiving equipment, and antenna system.
The main components of the earth segment are called earth stations
- It presents in the ground segment which has the ability to access the satellite repeater
in order to provide communication between users
- Through communication links, the earth segment and space segment subsystems can
communicate with one another

 Satellite Subsystems
- Satellite subsystems can be broadly divided into four categories
o Power Supply section
o Attitute and Orbital Control
o Telemetry Tracking and Command
o Communication Section
- you can see four columns have been shown in diagram

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Satellite Subsystems diagram

 Advantages
- Installments of circuits are easy
- The elasticity of these circuits is excellent
- With the help of satellite communication, every corner of the earth can be covered
- The user fully controls the network

 Disadvantages
- Initial expenditure is expensive
- There are chances of blockage of frequencies
- Propagation and interference

 Applications
- Telephone
- Television
- Digital cinema
- Radio broadcasting
- Amateur radio
- Internet access
- Military
- Disaster Management

 5G Technology in data communication

 Introduction
- 5G is the fifth generation of cellular technology, which not only improves download
and upload speeds over cellular networks (1 Gbps speed) but also reduces latency
- The time it takes for the network to respond
- It also improves energy efficiency and provides a more stable network connection
- 5G is also designed to deliver signals more reliably than previous cellular networks

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- 5G will provide a wider range of frequency spectrum (frequency range) to prevent

network congestion
- In addition, the connection to the perfect circle is also guaranteed. Everything is
connected to everything
- 5G will facilitate the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, and integrate artificial
intelligence (AI) into our daily lives
- To reap the benefits of 5G, users will have to buy new phones and carriers will have
to install new transmission equipment to provide faster service
- 5G mainly works in three bands: low, medium, and high-frequency spectrum
- All of these have uses and limitations
- The low-band spectrum is promising in terms of coverage but is limited to 100Mbps
maximum speeds
- This means that while carriers can use and install very fast internet for commercial
mobile phone users with no special needs, the low-band spectrum may not be optimal
for the specific needs of the industry
- The mid-band spectrum, on the other hand, offers higher speeds than the low-band
but is limited in terms of coverage area and signal penetration
- The 5G leading carriers and enterprises are customizing this band to meet the needs of
specific industries
- It shows that it can be used by industry and professional factory units to build their
networks that can be used
- The high-band spectrum offers the highest speed of all three bands, but has very
limited coverage and signal penetration strength
- Internet speeds on 5G’s high-band spectrum have been tested at up to 20 Gbit/s
(Gigabits per second), while 4G’s maximum Internet data speed is mostly recorded at
1 Gbit/s

 Major Advantages
Fast
- Imagine being able to download a full HD movie in less than 3 seconds
- This is the download speed on 5G
- 5G will deliver speeds of up to 20 Gbps, increasing traffic capacity and network
efficiency by a factor of 100
Low latency
- In addition, mm Wave can also achieve latency as low as 1 ms
- This establishes a connection instantly and reduces network traffic afterwards
State-of-the-art technology foundation
- 5G’s full potential is envisioned to provide speeds that enable real-time reproduction
of augmented reality
- This will further lead to the development of more hardware to work with augmented
reality
- This technology is also the basis for virtual reality, autonomous driving, and the
Internet of Things

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Ripple Effect
- The benefits of 5g will not only improve the smartphone experience but also open up
opportunities for progress in other areas such as healthcare, infrastructure, and even
manufacturing

 Important Pillers of 5-G

Millimeter-Wave
- mm wave 5G will ingest massive amounts of data, enabling data transfer speeds
exceeding 1 Gbps
- This form of technology is currently used in the United States by carriers such as
Verizon and AT&T
- Small cell
- Since mm Wave cannot overcome obstacles, many mini-cell towers are placed in the
area to relay the signal from the main cell towers
- These small cells have to be placed closer compared to traditional masts to allow the
user to receive his 5G signal without interruption
Massive MIMO (multiple input multiple outputs)
- This technology is used in large cell towers to handle large amounts of traffic
- A typical cell tower delivering 4G has 12 antennas handling all cell traffic in the area.
MIMO can support 100 antennas simultaneously, increasing the tower’s total capacity
to handle more traffic
- This technology will help make the transmission of 5G signals smoother
Beamforming
- Beamforming is a technology that can periodically monitor multiple frequency
sources and switch to a stronger, faster tower when the signal is blocked
- This ensures that certain data is only sent in certain directions. Something like a data
traffic light
Full duplex
- Full-duplex is a technology that allows nodes to transmit and receive data
simultaneously on the same frequency band
- Landlines and shortwave radios use this type of technology. It’s like a one-way street,
allowing the same amount of traffic in either direction

 How does 5G Wireless Technology Work?

- There are basically two main components in the 5G Wireless Technology systems i.e.
the Radio Access Network and the Core Network
Radio Access Network
- The Radio Access Network mainly includes 5G Small Cells and Macro Cells that
form the crux of 5G Wireless Technology as well as the systems that connect the
mobile devices to the Core Network
- The 5G Small Cells are located in big clusters because the millimeter wave spectrum
(that 5G uses for insanely high speeds!) can only travel over short distances
- These Small Cells complement the Macro Cells that are used to provide more wide-
area coverage
- Macro Cells use MIMO (Multiple Inputs, Multiple Outputs) antennas which have
multiple connections to send and receive large amounts of data simultaneously

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- This means that more users can connect to the network simultaneously

- Core Network
- The Core Network manages all the data and internet connections for the 5G Wireless
Technology
- And a big advantage of the 5G Core Network is that it can integrate with the internet
much more efficiently and it also provides additional services like cloud-based
services, distributed servers that improve response times, etc
- Another advanced feature of the Core Network is network slicing (Which we talked
about earlier!!!)

 What are the Benefits of 5G Wireless Technology?

- 5G Wireless Technology will not only enhance current mobile broadband services, but
it will also expand the world of mobile networks to include many new devices and
services in multiple industries from retail to education to entertainment with much
higher performances and lower costs
- It could even be said that 5G Technology as much as the emergence of automobiles or
electricity ever did!!!
- Some of the benefits of 5G in various domains are given here:
- 5G will make our smartphones much smarter with faster and more uniform data rates,
lower latency and cost-per-bit and this, in turn, will lead to the common acceptance of
new immersive technologies like Virtual Reality or Augmented Reality
- 5G will have the convenience of ultra-reliable, low latency links that will empower
industries to invest in more projects which require remote control of critical
infrastructure in various fields like medicine, aviation, etc
- 5G will lead to an Internet of Things revolution as it has the ability to scale up or
down in features like data rates, power, and mobility which is perfect for an
application like connecting multiple embedded sensors in almost all devices!

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 What are the Parameters for 5G Wireless Technology?

- Details about the performance of 5G Wireless Technology according to various
parameters are given here:
Peak data rate At least 20Gbps downlink and 10Gbps uplink per mobile base
station.
Real-world data rate Download speed of 100Mbps and upload speed of 50Mbps.
Spectral efficiency 30bits/Hz downlink and 15 bits/Hz uplink. This assumes 8×4 MIMO
Latency Maximum latency of just 4ms (compared to 20ms for LTE)
Connection density At least 1 million connected devices per square kilometre (to enable
IoT support)

 Spread spectrum communication

 Introduction
- The increasing demand for wireless communications has problems due to limited
spectrum efficiency and multipath propagation
- The use of spread spectrum communication has simplified these problems
- In the spread spectrum, signals from different sources are combined to fit into larger
bandwidth
- Most stations use air as the medium for communication, stations must be able to share
the medium without an interception and without being subject to jamming from a
malicious intruder
- To achieve this, spread-spectrum techniques add redundancy means it uses extended
bandwidth to accommodate signals in a protective envelope so that more secure
transmission is possible
- The spread code is a series of numbers that looks random but are actually a pattern.
The original bandwidth of the signal gets enlarged (spread) through the spread code as
shown in the figure

 Principles of Spread Spectrum process

- To allow redundancy, it is necessary that the bandwidth allocated to each station
should be much larger than needed
- The spreading process occurs after the signal is created by the source

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 Conditions of Spread Spectrum

- The spread spectrum is a type of modulation where modulated signal BW is much
larger than the baseband signal BW i.e. spread spectrum is a wide band scheme
- A special code (pseudo noise) is used for spectrum spreading and the same code is to
be used to despread the signal at the receiver

 Characteristics of the Spread Spectrum

- Higher channel capacity
- Ability to resist multipath propagation
- They cannot easily intercept any unauthorized person
- They are resistant to jamming
- The spread spectrum provides immunity to distortion due to multipath propagation
- The spread spectrum offers multiple access capabilities

 Types of techniques for Spread Spectrum

- Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
- Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
- In Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS), different carrier frequencies are
modulated by the source signal i.e. M carrier frequencies are modulated by the signal
- At one moment signal modulates one carrier frequency and at the subsequent
moments, it modulates other carrier frequencies
- A pseudorandom code generator generates Pseudo-random Noise of some pattern for
each hopping period Th
- The frequency corresponding to the pattern is used for the hopping period and is
passed to the frequency synthesizer
- The synthesizer generates a carrier signal of that frequency
- The figure of general block diagram of FHSS shows the spread signal via FHSS

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Advantages of FHSS
- Synchronization is not greatly dependent on distance
- Processing Gain is higher than DSSS
Disadvantages of FHSS
- The bandwidth of the FHSS system is too large (in GHz)
- Complex and expensive Digital frequency synthesizers are required

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

- In DSSS, the bandwidth of the original signal is also expanded by a different
technique
- Here, each data bit is replaced with n bits using a spreading code called chips, and the
bit rate of the chip is called as chip-rate
- The chip rate is n times the bit rate of the original signal. The below Figure shows the
DSSS block diagram

- In wireless LAN, the sequence with n = 11 is used

- The original data is multiplied by chips (spreading code) to get the spread signal
- The required bandwidth of the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of
the original signal
Advantages of DSSS
- The DSSS System combats the jamming most effectively
- The performance of DSSS in presence of noise is superior to FHSS
- Interference is minimized against the signals
Disadvantages of DSSS
- Processing Gain is lower than DSSS
- Channel Bandwidth is less than FHSS
- Synchronization is affected by the variable distance between the transmitter and
receiver

 Edge Computing
 Introduction
- Edge Technology aims at making Internet Of Things (IOT) with 100 thousand of
sensors in next decade, with the increased usage and manipulation of large data it
becomes important to get used to this technology which refers to computing on sensor
itself

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- 2019 is predicted as the year of edge technology and will remain so in the coming
years
- In a variety of situations, edge computing is deployed. One is when IOT devices is
centrally connected to cloud due to poor connectivity of devices
- By the year 2020, there will be approximately 1.5 GB worth of data is generated per
day. With many devices connected to the internet and generating data, its not possible
for cloud alone to handle this huge data all by itself
- Edge can relate to the data processing as well as the local processing of real-time data
- The various edge components that can be counted upon are Data processing, Rule
Engine, Local Database
- Cloud is more concerned with big data processing and data warehousing

 Why Edge Computing?

- This technology increases the efficient usage of bandwidth by analysing the data at
the edges itself, unlike the cloud which requires the transfer of data from the IOT
requiring large bandwidth, making it useful to be used in remote locations with
minimum cos.
- It allows smart applications and devices to respond to data almost at the same time
which is important in terms of business ad self-driving cars
- It has the ability to process data without even putting it on a public cloud, this ensures
full security
- Data might get corrupt while on an extended network thus affecting the data
reliability for the industries to use
- Edge computation of data provides a limitation to the use of cloud

 Edge vs Fog Computing

- Edge is more specific towards computational processes for edge devices
- So, fog includes edge computing, but would also include the network for the
processed data to its final destination

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 Real Life Application Of Edge Technology

Autonomous Vehicles
- GE Digital partner, Intel, estimates that autonomous cars, with hundreds of on-vehicle
sensors, will generate 40 TB of data for every eight hours of driving
- Therefore, wheels edge computing plays a dominant role
- Sending all the data to cloud is unsafe and impractical
- The car immediately response to the events which has valuable data when coupled
into digital twin and performance of other cars of its class.
Fleet Management
- Let’s example considering a trucking company, the main goal is to combine and send
data from multiple operational data points like wheels, brakes, batteries, etc to the
cloud
- Health key operational components are analysed by the cloud
- Thus, essentially a fleet management solution encourages the vehicle to lower the cost

 Key Benefits Of Edge Computing

- Faster response time
- Security and Compliance
- Cost-effective Solution
- Reliable Operation With Intermittent Connectivity
- Reduced latency

 Limitation Of Edge Computing

Complexity
- Setting up and maintaining edge computing systems can be challenging, especially if
there are many devices or a vast geographic region involved
Limited resources
- Edge devices frequently have constrained processing, storage, and bandwidth, which
can restrict their capacity to carry out specific activities
Dependence on connectivity
- In order for edge computing to work correctly, connectivity is required
- If the connection is lost, the system may not be able to work
Security Concern
- Edge devices may be susceptible to security risks such malware, hacking, and
physical interference

 Edge Cloud Computing Services

- IOT (Internet Of Things)
- Gaming
- Health Care
- Smart City
- Intelligent Transportation
- Enterprise Security

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 Block chain in Communication Security

- Blockchain is a list of blocks
- Each block comprises information such as transactions and a unique hash to identify
each block
- It is a distributed, decentralized ledger that is widely becoming popular these days

 What is Blockchain Security?

- Security is managed in order to protect some vital information so that hackers or other
unauthorized users do not get access to it
- With the increasing dependency on Blockchain networks, Blockchain security has
become a prime concern
- Blockchain security is a risk management technique that aims to secure transactions
and hence the whole blockchain network
- It is usually implemented with the help of cybersecurity, authorized services, and
ethical users

 Why Does Blockchain Require Security?

- Blockchain is an immutable ledger with no involvement of third-party organization
- It also uses cryptography to hide some details
- So hackers find it almost impossible to tamper with the blocks. But there are some
loopholes that allow the malicious users to perform malicious activities as blockchain
networks are not immune to cyberattacks and fraud
- Blockchain attacks are cyber attacks that can be done by outside malicious users as
well as the users involved in the network
Some of the attacks are as follows
- • Sybil Attack: Hackers try to increase the traffic in the network like Sybil Attack. In
this, the malicious user floods the network with unnecessary packets to create traffic
in the network.
Eclipse Attack
- Hackers try to make duplicates of the node
- This is an eclipse attack
- The user eclipses(hides) the original node and broadcasts the fake node that was
created by the hacker
51% Attack
- Hackers try to control the network
- They take control of 51% of the mining and this attack is known as 51%Attack
Finney Attack
- In the Finney attack, the hacker hides the original block and broadcasts the fake block
- The transaction is performed. After that transaction for the original block is performed
- So a case of double expenditure happens
Attack Wallet
- In this hackers try to attack users’ wallets to perform unnecessary transactions
- So security is of prime concern in blockchain as millions and millions of transactions
are involved and these are the reasons why Blockchain networks should be secured

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 How does Blockchain Technology Work?

- One of the famous use of Blockchain is Bitcoin
- Bitcoin is a cryptocurrency and is used to exchange digital assets online
- Bitcoin uses cryptographic proof instead of third-party trust for two parties to execute
transactions over the Internet
- Each transaction protects through a digital signature

 Disadvantages of the current transaction system

- Cash can only be used in low-amount transactions locally
- The huge waiting time in the processing of transactions
- The need for a third party for verification and execution of Transactions makes the
process complex
- If the Central Server like Banks is compromised, the whole system is affected
including the participants
- Organizations doing validation charge high process thus making the process
expensive
Building trust with Blockchain
- Blockchain enhances trust across a business network
- It’s not that you can’t trust those who you conduct business with it’s that you don’t
need to when operating on a Blockchain network
- Blockchain builds trust through the following five attributes

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Distributed
- The distributed ledger is shared and updated with every incoming transaction among
the nodes connected to the Blockchain
- All this is done in real time as there is no central server controlling the data

Secure
- There is no unauthorized access to Blockchain made possible through Permissions
and Cryptography
Transparent
- Because every node or participant in Blockchain has a copy of the Blockchain data,
they have access to all transaction data
- They themselves can verify the identities without the need for mediators
Consensus-based
- All relevant network participants must agree that a transaction is valid
- This is achieved through the use of consensus algorithms
Flexible
- Smart Contracts which are executed based on certain conditions can be written into
the platform
- Blockchain Networks can evolve in pace with business processes

 What are the benefits of Blockchain?

Time-saving
- No central Authority verification is needed for settlements making the process faster
and cheaper
Cost-saving
- A Blockchain network reduces expenses in several ways
- No need for third-party verification
- Participants can share assets directly
- Intermediaries are reduced
- Transaction efforts are minimized as every participant has a copy of the shared ledger
Tighter security
- No one can tamper with Blockchain Data as it is shared among millions of
Participants
- The system is safe against cybercrimes and Fraud
Collaboration
- It permits every party to interact directly with one another while not requiring third-
party negotiation
Reliability
- Blockchain certifies and verifies the identities of every interested party
- This removes double records, reducing rates and accelerating transactions

 Ethical and Privacy Considerations in Data Communication

- As we know, these days Data Science has become more popular and it is one of the
emerging technologies

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- According to the latest estimation 328.77 million terabytes are generated every day so
just think of how large the volume is. , this data may also consist of your data such as
your Identity cards or your Banking information or it may be any other Data
- Just imagine if someone misuses your data
- You may be thinking of how other people will get my data right?

 What is Ethics in Data Science?

- Ethics in Data Science refers to the responsible and ethical use of the data throughout
the entire data lifecycle
- This includes the collection, storage, processing, analysis, and interpretation of
various data
Privacy
- It means respecting an individual’s data with confidentiality and consent
Transparency
- Communicating how data is collected, processed, and used, So it will maintain
transparency
Fairness and Bias
- Ensuring fairness in data-driven processes and addressing biases that may arise in
algorithms, preventing discrimination against certain groups
Accountability
- Holding individuals and organizations accountable for their actions and decisions
based on data
Security
- Implementing robust security measures sensitive data and protects them from
unauthorized access and breaches
Data Quality
- Ensures the accuracy of the data , completeness and the reliability of the data to
prevent any misinformation

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