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Fiber Optic Sensors An Introduction for Engineers and
Scientists third edition Eric Udd Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Eric Udd, William B. Spillman, Jr.
ISBN(s): 9781119678786, 1119678781
Edition: 3
File Details: PDF, 50.88 MB
Year: 2024
Language: english
FIBER OPTIC SENSORS
FIBER OPTIC SENSORS
An Introduction for Engineers and Scientists
Third Edition

Edited by

ERIC UDD
Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA
McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, Santa Ana, CA, USA

WILLIAM B. SPILLMAN, JR.

Columbia Gorge Research LLC, Fairview, OR, USA
Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Set in 11/13pt TimesTen by Straive, Pondicherry, India

CONTENTS

ABOUT THE EDITORS xv

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xvii
PREFACE xix

1 THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY 1

Eric Udd and William B. Spillman, Jr.

2 OPTICAL FIBERS FOR SENSORS 7

Christopher Emslie
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 What is an Optical Fiber? 9
2.2.1 Key Performance Parameters for Sensor Fibers 10
2.2.2 Mechanical and Lifetime Properties 12
2.3 Conventional Silica-Based Fiber Fabrication 13
2.3.1 Preform Fabrication 14
2.3.2 Fiber Drawing 18
2.3.3 Fiber Coating 19
2.4 Types of SOF Used in Fiber Sensors 26
2.4.1 Polarization-Maintaining (PM) Fibers 26
2.4.2 Polymer Optical Fibers (POFs) 34
2.4.3 Soft Glass Optical Fibers (Fluorides, Chalcogenides, ZBLAN) 40
2.4.4 Rare-earth-doped Fibers 42
2.4.5 Pure-Silica Core Fibers 45
2.4.6 Spun Fibers (For Faraday Effect Current Monitors) 47
2.4.7 Multicore Fibers 50
References 52
vi CONTENTS

3 LIGHT SOURCES 57
Eric Udd
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Fundamental Properties of Light Sources 57
3.2.1 Spontaneous Emission 59
3.2.2 Stimulated Emission 62
3.2.3 Superradiance 63
3.3 Coherence Length 63
3.4 Semiconductor Light Sources 64
3.4.1 Light-Emitting Diodes 64
3.4.2 Laser Diodes 65
3.4.3 Superradiant Diodes 73
3.4.4 Fiber Optic Lasers and Amplifiers 74
3.5 Summary 77
References 77

4 OPTICAL DETECTORS 79
William B. Spillman, Jr.
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Theoretical Background 79
4.2.1 Statistics of Optical Detection 79
4.2.2 Basic Principles of Semiconductors 80
4.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes 83
4.4 Avalanche Photodiodes 88
4.5 Noise 88
4.5.1 Mathematical Background 88
4.5.2 Noise Due to DC Currents in the Detection Circuit 91
4.5.3 Noise Due to Thermal Effects 92
4.5.4 Signal-to-Noise Considerations 93
4.6 Spectral Detection 95
4.7 Summary 98
References 98

5 OPTICAL MODULATORS FOR FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 99

Leonard M. Johnson
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Electrooptic Effect 99
5.3 Bulk Modulators 102
5.3.1 Electrooptic Phase Modulation 102
5.3.2 Electrooptic Intensity Modulation 104
5.3.3 Bulk Acoustooptic Frequency Shifting 106
5.4 Integrated Optical Modulators 108
5.4.1 Phase Modulation 110
5.4.2 Interferometric Intensity Modulation 111
5.4.3 Integrated Optical Frequency Shifters 117
 CONTENTS vii

5.5 All-Fiber Optical Modulators 122

5.5.1 Phase Modulation 122
5.5.2 Frequency Shifting 123
References 124

6 INTENSITY-BASED AND FABRY–PEROT INTERFEROMETER SENSORS 125

Gordon L. Mitchell
6.1 Intensity Sensors 125
6.2 Band-Edge Temperature Sensors 127
6.3 Encoder-Based Position Sensors 129
6.4 Multimode Fabry–Perot Sensors 130
6.4.1 Multimode Fabry–Perot Development 130
6.4.2 Operating Principles 131
6.4.3 Sensor Construction 132
6.4.4 Readout Techniques 132
6.5 Single-Mode Fabry–Perot Sensors 134
6.5.1 Single-Mode Readout Options 135
References 136

7 MULTIMODE POLARIZATION SENSORS 139

William B. Spillman, Jr.
7.1 Introduction 139
7.2 Theoretical Background 139
7.2.1 Phenomenological Description of Polarization and Retardation 139
7.2.2 Poincaré Sphere 146
7.2.3 Mueller and Jones Calculus 147
7.2.4 Retardation and Special Properties of the Half-Wave Plate 149
7.2.5 Photoelastic Effect 151
7.2.6 Optical Common-Mode Rejection 154
7.2.7 Optical Encoding Techniques 156
7.2.8 Resolution and Noise 158
7.3 Sensors Based on the Photoelastic Effect 160
7.4 Sensors Based on Retardation Plates 166
7.5 Development Status of Sensors 172
References 172

8 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER AND PASSIVE

RING RESONATOR 175
Eric Udd
8.1 Introduction 175
8.2 Brief Overview of Optical Rotation Sensing and the Sagnac Effect 175
8.3 Ring Laser Gyros 180
8.3.1 Lock-In Solutions 180
8.4 Passive Ring Resonator Gyros 183
8.5 Fiber Optic Gyros 187
viii CONTENTS

8.6 Trade-Off Between the Ring Laser, Passive Ring Resonator,

and Fiber Optic Interferometer as Rotation Sensors 189
8.6.1 Packaging and Manufacturing Ability 190
8.6.2 Reliability Issues and Applications 191
8.7 Environmental Sensing Using the Sagnac Interferometer 192
8.7.1 Rapidly Varying Environmental Phenomena: Acoustic Sensing 193
8.7.2 Sagnac Interferometer-Based Acoustic Sensor 193
8.7.3 Fiber Optic Coil Configurations 194
8.7.4 Phase and Polarization Modulation 195
8.7.5 Strain 196
8.7.6 Wavelength Measurements 197
8.7.7 Summary 197
Acknowledgment 197
References 197

9 APPLICATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SAGNAC INTERFEROMETER 201

Eric Udd
9.1 Introduction 201
9.2 Fiber Optic Gyro Development 201
9.3 Derivative Applications of the Sagnac Interferometer 206
9.4 Markets and Conclusion 208
References 209

10 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS BASED ON THE MACH–ZEHNDER AND MICHELSON

INTERFEROMETERS 213
Anthony Dandridge
10.1 Introduction 213
10.2 Principle of Operation 214
10.2.1 Two-Beam Interferometry 214
10.2.2 Demodulation 218
10.2.3 Noise 226
10.2.4 Polarization 231
10.3 Fiber Interferometer Configurations 235
10.4 Applications 240
10.4.1 AC Applications 240
10.4.2 Applications 243
10.5 Summary 246
References 246

11 FIBER OPTIC INTERFEROMETRIC SENSORS: FROM BASIC RESEARCH

TO PRODUCTION 249
Clay Kirkendall and Anthony Dandridge
11.1 Introduction 249
11.2 Signal Fading 250
11.3 Hydrophone Transducer Development 253
 CONTENTS ix

11.4 Digital Interferometric Processing 255

11.5 The Path from Research to Production 257
References 261

12 DISTRIBUTED AND MULTIPLEXED FIBER OPTIC SENSORS 263

Alan D. Kersey
12.1 Introduction 263
12.2 Distributed Sensing 264
12.2.1 Optical Ranging in Fiber Systems 264
12.2.2 Rayleigh Backscatter Sensing Techniques 266
12.2.3 Raman Backscatter Temperature Sensing 268
12.2.4 Mode-Coupling Distributed Sensing 269
12.2.5 Quasi-Distributed Sensors 270
12.3 Basic Principles of Sensor Multiplexing 273
12.3.1 Basic Principles of Telemetry: Networks 273
12.3.2 Intensity Sensor Networks 274
12.4 Interferometric Sensor Multiplexing 277
12.4.1 Interferometric Demodulation Techniques for Multiplexed Sensors 277
12.4.2 Interferometric Sensor Multiplexing Topologies 283
References 289

13 New Technologies in Distributed Fiber Sensors and Their Applications 293

Xiaoyi Bao and Yuan Wang
13.1 Introduction 293
13.2 Introduction of Optical Time Domain Reflectometry and Optical Frequency-Domain
Reflectometry for Sensing 294
13.3 Spontaneous Scattering in Optical Fiber 295
13.3.1 Impact of Incident Light on Medium and Scattered Light 296
13.3.2 Rayleigh Scattering 296
13.3.3 Spontaneous Brillouin Scattering in a Single-Mode Optical Fiber 297
13.3.4 Brillouin Dynamic Grating and Acoustic Wave-Enabled Four-Wave Mixing 299
13.3.5 Spontaneous Raman Scattering 301
13.4 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Rayleigh Scattering 302
13.4.1 Principle of Optical Time Domain Reflectometry 302
13.4.2 Principle of Phase-Sensitive Optical Time Domain Reflectometry 303
13.4.3 Phase-Sensitive Optical Frequency-domain Reflectometry for Temperature,
Dynamic Strain, and Ultralow Frequency Measurement 305
13.4.4 Phase-Sensitive Optical Frequency-domain Reflectometry for Refractive Index
and Birefringence Measurement 308
13.4.5 High-Performance Distributed Sensor with Rayleigh Scattering Based on
Week Fiber Bragg Gratings and Random Fiber Grating 309
13.4.6 Challenge in Rayleigh Scattering-Based Optical Frequency-domain
Reflectometry Sensing 311
13.5 Distributed Fiber Sensors Based on Brillouin Scattering 316
13.5.1 Basics of the Time Domain Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis in Optical
Fibers for Distributed Sensors 316
13.5.2 Dynamic Strain and Temperature Measure by Distributed Brillouin Sensors 321
x CONTENTS

13.5.3 Brillouin Optical Frequency-domain Reflectometry and Recent Development 323

13.5.4 Opto-mechanical Wave Generation and its Sensing Applications 324
13.5.5 Computational Distributed Fiber Optic Sensing in Brillouin Optical Time
Domain Analysis 326
13.5.6 Brillouin Dynamic Grating and Applications 329
13.5.7 Simultaneous Distributed Temperature and Strain Sensing 329
13.5.8 Challenge in Brillouin Optical Time Domain Analysis and Brillouin Optical
Frequency-domain Reflectometry Sensing 330
13.6 Raman Scattering-Based Distributed Sensors 330
13.6.1 Temperature-dependent Raman Scattering for Distributed Sensing 330
13.6.2 Spatial Resolution Improvement in Raman Optical Frequency-domain
Reflectometry 331
13.6.3 Raman Optical Time-domain Reflectometry Based on Coded Pulses 332
13.6.4 Hybrid Vibration and Temperature Sensing by Raman and Phase Optical
Frequency-domain Reflectometry 332
13.7 Challenges and Limitations in Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors 333
13.8 Conclusion 334
References 334

14 DISTRIBUTED TRANSVERSE FORCE/STRESS SENSING ENABLED

BY DISTRIBUTED POLARIZATION ANALYSIS 343
X. Steve Yao
14.1 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Distributed Polarization Crosstalk
Analysis in PM Fibers 344
14.1.1 Polarization Crosstalk in PM Fibers 344
14.1.2 Description of Distributed Polarization Crosstalk Analyzer 346
14.1.3 Spatial Resolution and Sensing Range of DPXA 349
14.1.4 Transverse Force Sensing with Distributed Polarization Crosstalk Analysis 349
14.1.5 Simultaneously Transverse Stress and Temperature Sensing with DPXA 355
14.2 Transverse Force Sensing Enabled by Frequency Domain Distributed Mueller
Matrix Polarimetery 355
14.2.1 System Description of the Distributed Binary Mueller Matrix Polarimetery 356
14.2.2 Expression of Bending-Induced Birefringence in SMF 359
14.2.3 Validation of the Sensing System 359
14.2.4 Distributed Transverse Force Sensing Demonstration 362
14.3 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization Scrambled OFDR 368
14.4 Distributed Transverse Stress Sensing Enabled by Polarization OTDR 369
References 371

15 FIBER OPTIC SMART STRUCTURES 375

Eric Udd
15.1 Introduction 375
15.2 Fiber Optic Sensor Systems 376
15.3 Applications of Fiber Optic Smart Structures and Skins 385
15.4 Example of the Application of a Fiber Optic Sensor to Smart Structures 388
15.5 Conclusions 393
References 394
 CONTENTS xi

16 FIBER GRATING SENSORS 397

Eric Udd and Ingrid Udd Scheel
16.1 Introduction 397
16.2 Fabrication of Fiber Grating Sensors 398
16.3 Single-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 401
16.3.1 System Applications of Single-Parameter Fiber Grating Sensors 402
16.4 Multi-Parameter Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 410
16.5 Triaxial Fiber Grating Strain Sensors 414
16.6 Applications of Multi-Parameter Fiber Bragg Gratings 419
16.6.1 Strain-Field Mapping of Complex, Composite Parts 419
16.6.2 Detailed Analysis of Strain Fields Interior to Composite Parts 423
16.6.3 Insertion of Fiber Leads into Composite Materials 424
16.6.4 Health Monitoring and Damage Assessment of Composite Materials 428
16.6.5 Strain Imaging 429
16.6.6 Composite Cure Monitoring 433
16.6.7 Multi-parameter Pressure and Temperature Sensing 433
16.6.8 Very High-Speed Position and Velocity Sensing 436
16.6.9 Very High-Speed Pressure and Temperature Sensing 439
16.7 Summary 446
Acknowledgments 447
References 447

17 FEMTOSECOND LASER-INDUCED FIBER BRAGG GRATINGS FOR HARSH

ENVIRONMENT SENSING 449
Stephen Mihailov
17.1 Introduction 449
17.2 Femtosecond Laser-Induced Index Change Mechanisms 451
17.2.1 Formation of the Free Electron Plasma 451
17.2.2 Femtosecond Laser-induced Index Change Regimes 453
17.3 FBG Inscription Techniques with Femtosecond Lasers 454
17.3.1 Bulk Interferometers 454
17.3.2 Point-by-Point (Plane-by-Plane) Grating Inscription 455
17.3.3 Phase Mask 456
17.4 Sensing Applications of FS-Laser-Induced FBGS 462
17.4.1 High-Temperature Environments 462
17.4.2 Sensing Applications in Radioactive Environments 470
17.5 Summary 471
References 471

18 CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 479

Daniele Inaudi
18.1 Introduction: Fiber Optic Sensors for Structural Health Monitoring 479
18.2 Adapting Sensors for Civil Engineering Applications 481
18.3 Bridges 482
xii CONTENTS

18.3.1 I35W Bridge Monitoring Using SOFO Sensors 482

18.3.2 Göta Bridge Monitoring with Distributes Strain Sensing 484
18.4 Buildings 486
18.4.1 Singapore Residential Buildings 486
18.5 Geotechnical Engineering Structures 487
18.5.1 Pile Testing with Long-gauge Sensors 488
18.6 Tunnels 489
18.6.1 San Salvatore Tunnel Monitoring with Distributed Strain Sensors 489
18.7 Dams, Dykes, and Tailings 491
18.7.1 Optical Fiber Piezometers for Tailings Dam in Chile 491
18.8 Conclusions 492
References 494

19 FIBER OPTIC SENSING IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY 495

Neal G. Skinner, John L. Maida Jr., and Daniel Stark
19.1 Introduction 495
19.2 Life Cycle of a Well/field 496
19.2.1 Exploration Seismic and Geologic Evaluation 496
19.2.2 Exploration Well Drilling 496
19.2.3 Reservoir Plan Development 497
19.2.4 Drilling Operations 497
19.2.5 Completion Operations 497
19.2.6 Operation, Production, Optimization, and Management 498
19.2.7 Plug and Abandon 500
19.3 Environmental Conditions in the Oil Field and Risks to Optical Fiber 500
19.3.1 Surface Environmental Conditions 500
19.3.2 Downhole Environmental Conditions 501
19.4 Downhole Fiber Cables 502
19.5 Drivers for Downhole Sensors 504
19.5.1 Applications for Distributed Temperature Sensing Systems 504
19.5.2 Applications for Point and Quasi-Distributed High Pressure
and High-temperature Sensor Systems 506
19.5.3 Applications for Distributed Acoustics/Vibration Sensing Systems 507
19.6 Recent Trends and Challenges 509
19.6.1 Carbon Capture and Storage 509
19.6.2 Geothermal Wells 509
19.7 Conclusions 509
References 510

20 FIBER OPTIC BIOSENSORS 513

William B. Spillman Jr.
20.1 Introduction 513
20.1.1 Endoscopy 513
20.1.2 Orthoscopic Minimally Invasive Surgery 513
 CONTENTS xiii

20.1.3 Fiber Optic Laser Surgery 514

20.1.4 Fiber Optic Sensors 514
20.2 Sensor Classes and Transducer Mechanisms 515
20.2.1 Sensor Classes 515
20.2.2 Transducer Mechanisms 515
20.3 Biomedical Needs for Fiber Optic Biosensors 518
20.3.1 In Vivo Imaging 519
20.3.2 Vital Sign Monitoring 519
20.3.3 Temperature Sensing During RF Radiation Therapy 520
20.3.4 Biochemical Sensing 520
20.4 Historically Demonstrated Applications 520
20.4.1 Fiber Optic Imaging Sensors 521
20.4.2 Fiber Optic Physical Parameter Biosensors 522
20.4.3 Fiber Optic Temperature Sensors 522
20.4.4 Fiber Optic Pressure Sensors 522
20.4.5 Fiber Optic Blood Flow Sensors 524
20.4.6 Fiber Optic Humidity Sensors 524
20.4.7 Fiber Optic Radiation Dose Sensors 525
20.4.8 Fiber Optic Cataract Detection Sensors 525
20.4.9 Fiber Optic Biting Force Sensors 526
20.4.10 Fiber Optic Biochemical Sensors 526
20.4.11 Optrode and Evanescent Field Biochemical Sensing 526
20.5 New Sensor Concepts 530
20.5.1 Plastic Fiber Optic Endoscope 531
20.5.2 Fiber Optic Breathing Sensor 532
20.5.3 Fiber Optic Smart Bed 534
20.5.4 Shape Sensing for Biomedical Applications 538
20.6 Summary 542
References 542

21 FIBER OPTIC MAGNETIC SENSORS 545

Frank Bucholtz
21.1 Introduction 545
21.2 Faraday Effect Sensors 546
21.2.1 Faraday Effect in Optical Fibers 547
21.2.2 Noise 551
21.2.3 Sensor Configurations 552
21.3 Magnetostrictive Sensors 554
21.3.1 Magnetostriction 555
21.3.2 Magnetostrictive Transducers 559
21.3.3 Noise in Magnetostrictive Sensors 565
21.3.4 Sensor Configurations 566
21.4 Lorentz Force Sensors 569
Acknowledgment 571
References 571
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there, and he was subject to the whims and caprices of the minister
of state, whom no appeals could reach, and by whom no call for
justice would be heard or heeded. If any man incurred the
displeasure of the minister, or of any one who had sufficient
influence to secure an order for his arrest under the royal seal, he
might be taken to the Bastille at any moment. If his accuser desired
that he should never more go out into the world, and never hold
communication with any one, the accuser’s will became law.
Hundreds of men were sent to the Bastille without knowing the
cause of their arrest or the names of their accusers, and without
being allowed to communicate with family or friend. It was this
uncertainty, this ever-present fear of injustice and cruelty, that made
the name of the Bastille appalling, and led every Frenchman to
regard it as a place full of horrors.
It is said that some of the most
barbarous cruelties ever inflicted within HORRORS
BASTILLE.
OF THE

the walls of the Bastille were during the

reign of Louis XI. Louis himself was the author and inventor of some
of the worst barbarities. It is recorded in history, that he caused
dungeons to be made in the Bastille surrounded with smooth and
polished masonry, where the prisoners, who were lowered into
them, were obliged to remain in an unnatural position, which they
could not change. According to history, the princes of the house of
Armagnac were shut up in these horrible pits, and were drawn out
twice a week to be scourged in the presence of the governor, and
once in every three months to have two of their teeth torn from their
jaws. Sometimes split sticks of dry wood were placed on their
fingers, and then the sticks would be set on fire and allowed to
consume. Richelieu sent many of his enemies to the Bastille, some
of whom were treated with extreme consideration, while others
endured great severity. One of these men, the notorious
Bassompierre, was immured there twelve years by the order of
Richelieu.
 One of the greatest mysteries attending
the Bastille is that of the Man in the Iron MAN IN THE IRON MASK.
Mask. A great deal has been said and written about him, some of it
being fact, and some of it fiction. Who he was is not positively
known. It is very certain that he was a personage of great
importance, whom it was desirable to keep out of the way, and at
the same time very desirable not to kill. He was always treated with
the utmost consideration. Every one of his attendants uncovered his
head when in presence of the mysterious personage. His clothing
was of the finest character, his food was of the best quality, and
served on the choicest table-ware. He was rarely left alone, and then
only in a place whence he could not escape; his face was always
covered with a mask of black velvet, fastened behind his head with
steel bands. His private governor was De Saint Mars, and it is
supposed that he was answerable with his own life for the safety of
the Man in the Iron Mask, and for the preservation of his incognito.
When first heard of he was confined in the Marguerite Islands, in the
Mediterranean. One day a fisherman, passing near the place of his
confinement, saw a hand wave towards him from a window, and a
moment after, a silver plate was thrown out. The fisherman picked
up the plate and looked at it; saw that some words were engraved
upon it, and immediately took it to the governor of the prison. The
governor looked at it carelessly, and then asked the fisherman if he
had shown it to any one, or had read it. The fisherman answered,
“No, your excellency, I have shown it to no one, and as for myself I
cannot read.”
“That is fortunate,” said the governor; and giving the fisherman a
gold piece, he dismissed him.
The gold piece, however, did the fisherman very little good, as he
was assassinated that night by some unknown person.
Every piece of linen, every scrap of paper, everything which in any
way would convey information, was scrupulously examined. One day
the mysterious man made some writing on one of his shirts which
was going out to the wash. By some means this escaped the notice
of the jailers, and was found by the washerwoman. She could not
read, and when she returned the linen, she called the attention of
the governor to the writing. She was rewarded for her fidelity with a
gold piece, and she, like the fisherman, was assassinated on the
night after she had obtained her reward. After this, the Man in the
Iron Mask was always furnished with new linen every day, and that
which he had worn was immediately destroyed.
From the Marguerite Islands, he was
moved to the Bastille, where he died on AN ILLUSTRIOUS
PRISONER.
the 19th of November, 1703. He was
buried the next day in the cemetery of St. Paul, under the name of
Marchiatti.
In the Bastille he was waited upon at the table and at his toilet by
the governor, and no one else. He was allowed to go to mass, and a
file of soldiers always accompanied him. Their muskets were loaded,
and their matches were lighted; they were ordered to kill him
instantly in case he spoke to any one, or attempted to tear off his
mask. Who he was, and what he was, will probably never be known.
No person of sufficient note to justify such precautions as were
taken in his case was absent from the stage of history at that time.
The general impression is, that he was an elder brother of Louis XIV.,
the fruit of an adulterous intrigue between Anne of Austria and the
Duke of Buckingham, or some other of those lovers for which Anne
was famous. As he was born in wedlock, he could not have been
dispossessed of his claim to the throne, if his existence had been
admitted. Louis XIV. may have had some absurd prejudice against
murdering his brother, though it was not the fashion of those days to
be so very fastidious. A story was written by Dumas under the title
of the Man in the Iron Mask, and it has been dramatized and given
on the stage in Europe and America. The mystery which envelops
the wearer of the mask gives an additional interest to all stories
concerning him.
In talking about this historic individual, we have almost forgotten
the Bastille. After the time of Louis XIV. the Bastille became a place
of imprisonment, not alone of persons of
honorable birth, but of common DESTRUCTION
BASTILLE.
OF THE

malefactors, and of persons of very low

repute. The imprisonment of Beuzot, the king’s librarian, for obeying
the king’s own directions, by the minister De Breteuil, brought to
light the whole system of iniquity in which the prison was managed.
On the 14th of July, 1789, the people arose in their fury, captured
the Bastille, and ransacked and destroyed it. At the time of its
capture only seven persons were found in its cells and dungeons,
one of them having been there since his eleventh year. There was
another who had been ten years in the Marguerite Islands, and
thirty years in the Bastille; he appeared, on his liberation, bewildered
and half idiotic, like a man waking from a sleep of forty years, and
looking out upon a new world. The records of the prison reveal
many cases as bad as this, and any lover of liberty, even to the
smallest degree, cannot regret that the Bastille has passed away
forever.
 DESTRUCTION OF THE BASTILLE, JULY 14, 1789.—ITS KEY PRESENTED BY LA
FAYETTE TO GEORGE WASHINGTON, AND NOW AMONG THE RELICS AT MOUNT
VERNON.
 XXV.
DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND MINES.

HOW DIAMONDS ARE OBTAINED.—THE COUNTRIES THAT PRODUCE THEM.—

MODES OF SEEKING THEM IN BRAZIL.—CURIOUS PRECAUTIONS AGAINST
THEFT.—HOW A SLAVE IN BORNEO ROBBED HIS EMPLOYER.—FAMOUS
DIAMONDS AND THEIR HISTORY.—THE REGENT, THE ORLOFF, AND THE
KOHINOOR.—FIDELITY OF A SERVANT.—THE STAR OF THE SOUTH.—A SHARP
TRICK OF AN AMATEUR GAMBLER.

The hardest known mineral in the world, and at the same time the
most valuable, is the diamond. It cannot be cut or scratched by any
other substance. In cutting the diamond, another diamond, or the
dust of one, must be used. The process of polishing these stones by
rubbing two of them together was probably known in Asia a great
many years ago; but it was not introduced into Europe until the
middle of the fifteenth century. The diamond-cutters of Asia
preserved the secret of their work very carefully long after these
valuable stones were brought to Europe. About the middle of the
fifteenth century, Louis Berquen, of Bruges, accidentally discovered
that by rubbing two diamonds together, their surfaces might be cut.
The powder obtained in this way is used for polishing the stone.
The diamond must first be dug from the earth, and if we only
knew where to find them we could doubtless discover richer gems
than any of those now known. The earth which contains the
diamond is worked in the same way as the auriferous gravels, both
having been produced by the same causes. Gold occurs in the beds
or streams, by the disintegration of the rocks, in which it was
originally contained, and their gradual wearing and washing away.
Diamonds were originally contained in the rocks in the same way
that gold was held there, and the process of disintegration has been
pretty much the same. Many of the places where gold is found
contained diamonds; and in some localities in California the sands
are now being reworked to obtain any small particles of gold that
may have been left, and also to obtain diamonds. The original gold-
seeker looked only for the yellow metal. The gold-seeker of to-day
searches not only for gold, but for hard pebbles, which may prove
rough diamonds.
Diamonds are found in various parts of
the globe. The most celebrated diamond WHERE DIAMONDS ARE
FOUND.
regions are those of India, South Africa,
and Brazil. The Indian diamond mines are in various localities, the
most famous being in the vicinity of Golconda. They have been
exploited for thousands of years, and some of the stones now in
existence have a history dating back two thousand years before the
Christian era. The diamond mines of Brazil have latterly yielded more
extensively than have the Golconda mines. At one time, a slave at
work in a Brazilian mine struck with his pick a bed of diamonds
which were valued at nearly two millions of dollars. They were
carried to England, and caused a panic in the diamond market. The
supply was the largest ever known to come forward at one time, and
greatly frightened the holders of precious stones, not only in
England, but all over the continent of Europe. If any individual could
be so fortunate as to find a few million dollars’ worth of diamonds at
one time, he could create an alarm among the dealers in precious
stones from one end of the world to the other.
The work of obtaining diamonds is not by any means the easiest
in which a man can engage. About the hardest way in the world to
obtain gold is to dig for it, and the same may be said of diamonds.
In the Brazilian mines the earth consists of sand and gravel in the
beds of the streams. It is taken out in the dry season, and piled
away where it can be conveniently washed. Then in the rainy season
the washing begins. Sometimes the men work by hand, as it were;
that is, by taking a quantity of earth in a bowl, or pan, and then,
standing in the middle of the stream, under the eye of a vigilant
overseer, they slowly wash away the sand and dirt, until nothing but
pebbles remains.
The pick and shovel are used for
breaking up the diamond-bearing gravels, DIGGERS AT WORK.
just as they are used for breaking up earth which contains gold. The
water carries away the clay, and sand, and fine dirt. The large stones
are thrown out, and the finer gravel that remains is carefully picked
over. It is examined in the sunshine, where the light plays upon the
gems, and leads to their detection. The search for the diamond is
always conducted under the eye of a superintendent, so as to guard
against theft. Each diamond-seeker has a little case, made of reed,
and generally ornamented on the outside. The small diamonds are
placed in this case, and every negro who possesses a case which
has once held diamonds is very unwilling to part with it. He regards
it with a superstitious reverence, believing that when it once
contains precious stones it will lead to the discovery of more.
The earth which has been gathered up for washing, if it is not
worked immediately, is placed under a long shed, and when the
rainy season begins, and water becomes abundant, the slaves are
assembled for their duty. In the diamond district of Brazil the sheds
are generally about thirty yards long, and half as wide. They consist
simply of upright posts, and a thatched roof, erected over the spot
where the heaps of gravel are placed. A stream of water is
conducted through this shed. There is a range of sloping troughs,
each about three feet wide, connecting with the streams at the
upper end. Opposite the troughs there are high chairs, where the
overseers are stationed.
A slave at each trough takes about a bushel or so of the gravel,
and lets the water in slowly, in order to wash away the gravel and
earthy particles. Then he throws out the largest stones, and
examines the rest, with great care, for diamonds. Whenever he finds
one, he stands upright, clasps his hands, holding the stone between
his thumb and finger, and shows it to the overseer, who receives it.
 When a slave finds a stone exceeding seventeen and a half carats
in weight, he is immediately set at liberty. Free papers are given
him, and he cannot again be enslaved. Generally, on such occasions,
a holiday or half-holiday is granted to the negroes about the
establishment. The lucky finder is carried on the shoulders of his
comrades, and when the day ends most of them are in a condition
the reverse of sober.
In the diamond district of Brazil the
diamonds were first discovered by gold DISCOVERY IN BRAZIL.
miners, about the year 1730. At first they were ignorant of the value
of the gems, and threw them away as useless. Some of the stones
were sent to the governor of Brazil as curiosities. He supposed that
they were crystals, and by accident a few were carried to Lisbon,
where they happened to be shown to the Dutch consul. The consul
was a diamond sharp, and recognized the true character of the
stones. He immediately caused them to be sent to Holland, where
they were cut, and found to be of great value.
As soon as the character of the stone became generally known,
large quantities of them were gathered and sent from Brazil, and at
one time it seemed as if the diamond market would be ruined. The
Portuguese government took means to secure a monopoly of the
trade. The diamond district was surrounded by well-defined
boundaries, which were guarded with the greatest care. No one was
permitted to cross them without a permit from the superintendent of
the mine, and whenever a traveller who had visited the diamond
ground was leaving it, he was obliged to submit to a thorough
examination of himself and baggage. So great was the vigilance,
that, it is said, at one time every traveller leaving the district was
detained three days at the boundary, and was compelled to swallow
medicines whose effect was to prevent his absconding with any
precious stones concealed in his stomach.
A peculiar system was established for the regulation of this
district. Stringent laws were passed to provide for the registering of
the inhabitants, the admission of settlers, and the punishment of
infringements of every kind upon the government monopoly. At first
the diamond mines were rented to private individuals; but so many
frauds were practised, that the government took the matter into its
own hands, and worked the mines under officers of its own
appointment. At present the mines are open to anybody who
chooses to work them, on payment of a tax, which is placed not on
the amount of diamonds obtained, but on the number of men
employed. This method of collecting the tax is much more successful
than the old one of levying a royalty upon the diamonds. The
number of men employed can be readily counted, while, the
diamonds being small, they could easily be secreted, and the
payment of the proper tax evaded.
In Asia the most noted localities for
THE GOLCONDA MINES.
obtaining diamonds are in various parts of
India and the Island of Borneo. Two thousand years ago the mines
of Golconda were the richest on the globe; but for some time they
have been comparatively unproductive.

WORKING A DIAMOND CLAIM IN BRAZIL.

 RIVER WASHING—CRADLING FOR DIAMONDS.

The working of these mines is carried on very nearly in the same

way as the working of the mines of Brazil. In the Brazilian mines the
slaves and overseers are permitted to wear clothing, though the
slaves are allowed but a very small quantity. Formerly they were
compelled to work naked, to prevent their secreting diamonds. At
the present time the garments they wear are subjected to the most
careful examination. In the mines of India the laborers work entirely
nude; but the temperature is such that they do not suffer on account
of the absence of clothing. In spite of every precaution they manage
to steal diamonds. They secrete them in the hair, unless their hair is
cut very short. They push them into their noses, and hide them in
various parts of their bodies, and in other ways.
In one of the mines of Borneo there was once a laborer who
managed to steal several valuable diamonds. As he wore no clothing
when at work, and underwent the usual examination, he was
considered entirely safe. He escaped with his prizes, became a rich
man, lived contented, and died happy. In his old age he revealed the
secret of his diamond thefts.
He had prepared himself for the work
with the assistance of a surgeon, who INGENIOUS MODE OF
STEALING.
shared with him the proceeds of the
enterprise. The surgeon placed a ball, somewhat larger than a pea,
in the fleshy part of the man’s thigh; kept down the irritation as
much as possible, and allowed the flesh to grow over the wound, or
nearly so. The ball was then taken out, leaving a comfortable cavity
a quarter of an inch below the skin. A small opening was made, and
the skin at the opening was allowed to grow around a steel rod
about half as large as the diameter of the cavity. In this way a very
fine receptacle was formed for the deposit of the diamond.
It took some time to get it up, but when finished it was entirely
satisfactory, and the man was sure of having his pocket always
about him. When he found a diamond that could be crowded into
this cavity, he would manage to stow it away; and then, at the
earliest opportunity, he repaired to the office of the surgeon, where
the diamond was removed with the aid of a pair of forceps. They did
not strike for the largest diamonds, and were doubtless more
successful in this mode of working than if they had planned their
enterprise on a grander scale.
It is a general principle in chemistry, that when the component
parts of an article are well known, a counterfeit can be produced,
provided the component parts are attainable. But it is not so with
the diamond.
For hundreds of years chemists have labored to produce this
stone. They know perfectly well of what it is composed, but they
cannot repeat it. The diamond is nothing more than pure crystallized
carbon, and placed under a great heat it boils and disappears. It is
not acted upon by acids or alkalies, and when kept in the open air, it
may be heated to a high degree without damage. Exposed to the
intense heat produced by a Bunsen burner, it is converted into coke;
and if it is heated in the open air, it boils at the temperature of
melting silver, and disappears in the form of carbonic acid gas. If the
sun’s rays are converged to a focus by means of a lens, and directed
upon a diamond under a bell-glass filled with oxygen gas, the
diamond will burn; and when it is consumed, carbonic acid will be
found beneath the glass. Thus the most precious substance in the
known world can be made to disappear.
The diamond is sold by its weight,
estimated in carats,—a carat being equal HOW TO KNOW THE
VALUE OF DIAMONDS.
to three and one fourth grains Troy, and
subdivided into half, quarter, eighth, and so on. It is difficult to say
what a rough diamond is worth, since a great many reasons may
occur to cause its fluctuation in value. The ordinary estimate for a
cut diamond is sixty dollars a carat, that is to say, when the stone
weighs a single carat. The price of the diamond exceeding a carat is
not in proportion to its weight, but by the square of the weight, that
is to say, to the weight multiplied by itself. Thus, if a diamond
weighing one carat is worth sixty dollars, one which weighs two
carats is worth 2 × 2, and then multiplied by sixty, or two hundred
and forty dollars. A stone of three carats is worth 3 × 3, multiplied
by sixty, or five hundred and forty dollars. The value, therefore, of a
polished diamond is found by multiplying the square of the weight
by the price of a stone of one carat. This is the rule generally given
for the pricing of diamonds; but the value of each stone varies more
or less according to its character, so that one stone weighing fifteen
carats might be worth three or four thousand dollars more than
another stone of the same weight. The best rule, probably, for
obtaining the price of diamonds, is to ask a man who has them for
sale. Diamonds are sold very much like any other commodity, that is,
for the highest price the purchaser is willing to pay.
Diamonds, especially those of a large size, require, it is needless
to say, great care in keeping, to save them from being stolen. The
crown jewels of England are kept in the Tower of London in an iron
cage surrounded with glass. Some of them are of great antiquity.
The crown jewels include not only diamonds, but some valuable
rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and pearls. The crown contains a heart-
shaped ruby, which is said to have been given to Edward the Black
Prince by Don Pedro, King of Castile, after the battle of Najera, A. D.
1367.
It was afterwards worn in the helmet of
FAMOUS STONES.
Henry V., at the battle of Agincourt, in the
year 1415.
The crown jewels of France disappeared in 1792, during the
troubles of the first republic, though they were kept under seal, and
in the royal treasury. Some of them were afterwards found buried in
an obscure place, which was named in an anonymous letter sent to
the prime minister. The famous Regent diamond was in this casket.
The Regent diamond is probably the finest and best cut stone in
the world, though it is not the largest. It was named after the Duke
of Orleans, who was regent during the minority of Louis XV. The
regent bought it, in 1717, for one hundred and thirty-five thousand
pounds sterling. It was sold to him by Governor Pitt, who paid
twelve thousand five hundred pounds for it in India five years
before. Its weight before cutting was four hundred and ten carats,
and the process of cutting occupied two years. Its weight was
reduced to one hundred and thirty-six carats, and its present value is
estimated at a million dollars.
Pitt was an unhappy man during the five years he owned the
stone. He carried it with him constantly. He never made known his
movements a day beforehand, nor slept for two nights successively
in the same house.
Another diamond, quite famous in its way, is the “Sancy.” It fell
from the helmet of Charles the Bold at the battle of Granson, and
was picked up by a Swiss soldier. The soldier disposed of it for two
francs, and thought he had made a very good bargain. In 1589 it
was bought by De Sancy, treasurer to Henry IV. of France. In 1792 it
was stolen, and after various adventures, was bought, forty years
afterwards, by Prince Demidoff, who paid for it seventy-five
thousand pounds. It has since been sold for a much smaller sum.
A few years ago a diamond was found in Brazil, and imported into
France under the name of the Star of the South. It was found by a
negress, and bought for a few dollars by a speculator, who obtained
a large return for his investment. Its weight in the rough was two
hundred and fifty-four carats; after cutting, it was one hundred and
twenty-four carats.
Another famous stone, known as the Grand Duke of Tuscany, is of
a yellow color, and weighs one hundred and forty carats.
It was lost at one time, and bought subsequently, it is said, for a
few francs, out of a jeweller’s shop at Florence, the jeweller
supposing that it was only a piece of colored crystal.
A famous diamond in Russia is the
THE ORLOFF AND THE
Orloff. It is shaped like an egg, with an KOHINOOR.
indented hollow in the smaller end. It was
found at Landak, in India, and at one time formed the eye of an idol
in a Brahmin temple at Pondicherry. An enterprising deserter from
the French army managed to have himself shut up in the temple,
and during his incarceration he gouged out this eye of the idol. He
attempted to capture the other eye, but was unsuccessful. He was
lucky enough to get away with his prize, which he sold to a jeweller
at Calcutta. After passing through the hands of various purchasers, it
was bought by a Greek merchant, who sold it to the Empress
Catherine for four hundred and fifty thousand dollars, and an
annuity of twenty thousand dollars, with a title of nobility.
 STAR OF THE
STAR OF THE
THE ORLOFF. SOUTH— THE NASSAC. THE SHAH.
SOUTH.
ROUGH.
THE THE REGENT THE KOHINOOR
THE SANCY. THE DRESDEN.
CUMBERLAND. DIAMOND. —RECUT.
AUSTRALIAN THE REGENT—SIDE THE
THE HOPE.
BRILLIANT. EUGENIE. VIEW. FLORENTINE.
CELEBRATED DIAMONDS OF THE WORLD.

One of the best known, and probably the most famous, diamonds
in the world is the Kohinoor. It is interesting for the great number of
historical associations connected with it. It is said to have been worn
by an Indian king three thousand years before the Christian era.
From this king the Kohinoor passed through the hands of successive
sovereigns of Central India, until about the beginning of the
fourteenth century, when it was added to the treasures of Delhi by
the Patan monarch Aladdin. In 1739 the Persian monarch Nadir Shah
conquered Delhi, and had an interview with its vanquished ruler. The
latter put on his best garments in order to make as good an
impression as possible. He wrapped a gorgeous turban around his
head, and in it he fastened the Kohinoor.
 The Persian conqueror, during the progress of the interview, saw
this diamond, and, in the expressive language of modern days,
“went for it.”
He was too polite to capture it by main force, but proposed eternal
peace and friendship to Mohammed Shah, the vanquished ruler of
Delhi. The latter, like Barkis, was willin’, and the two embraced.
“As a token of our friendship,” said Nadir, “let us exchange
turbans.” Mohammed was cornered and obliged to comply, and Nadir
walked off with the prize. But Nadir did not keep it long, as he was
assassinated soon after.
After his death it passed to the hands of Ahmed Shah of Cabool,
and thence through various other hands, until in 1849, when, on the
annexation of the Punjaub to the East India Company’s territory, it
was stipulated that the Kohinoor should be given to the Queen of
England. It was sent to England, and was delivered to the queen
July 3, 1850. It was exhibited at the Crystal Palace in London, but
caused great disappointment by its inability to develop the proper
refraction, unless surrounded by strong lights; in fact, it was much
inferior to its glass model in the Tower. Its name, Mountain of Light,
seemed to be a misnomer.
An examination was made with a view
to recutting it. Scientific gentlemen were RECUTTING THE
KOHINOOR.
called in, and skilful cutters at Amsterdam
were sent for. After much consultation, it was determined to recut
the stone. The proper machinery was prepared, and set up, and the
Duke of Wellington was required to begin the work.
In cutting a diamond, the stone is firmly embedded in lead at the
end of a stick. Only the portion which is intended to be cut is
exposed at one time. The Kohinoor was properly fixed in its leaden
surrounding, and placed in the hands of the duke. He held it firmly
against a swiftly revolving wheel covered with diamond dust, and in
a little while the first facet was finished. Then the stone was placed
in the hands of the workmen who were to continue the operation;
and when their labors were completed, the Kohinoor was found
blazing brilliantly, and justified its title as the Mountain of Light.
The largest and most valuable diamond in the world, so far as
known, is presumed to be the one so long owned by the Sultan of
Matan, Borneo. It weighs three hundred and sixty-nine carats, and is
valued at five million dollars—a very good piece of property to have;
but it is said to be so carefully kept, that no ordinary diamond thief
can obtain it.
Though diamonds cannot be made
ARTIFICIAL DIAMONDS.
artificially, they can be imitated, and the
imitation is almost perfect. Several French manufacturers of bogus
diamonds have obtained high reputation for their skill. Flint, white
sand, and silver are the substances used; at least they are said to be
the substances, though there is doubtless some other material
added which the manufacturers do not mention. These fraudulent
diamonds, in weight, color, and brilliancy, are almost identical with
the genuine ones, and some of them have even deceived the
dealers. They will stand some, but not all, the tests applied to
diamonds. They reflect the light perfectly, but are apt to grow dim in
a few weeks, and require fresh polishing. The diamonds sold in New
York under the name of Alaska, Australia, or California diamonds are
mostly of French manufacture, and were never seen in the locality
whose name is applied to them.
False diamonds have become so common among certain classes of
Americans as to cause the real diamond to be used very rarely
among other classes. During the prosperity of the famous Tammany
Ring, false diamonds blazed on many a political shirt-front, where
they could be seen and admired of men.
The followers of the Ring politicians were generally equipped with
false diamonds; but the great leaders, like Tweed and his
companions, decorated, or were supposed to decorate, themselves
with the genuine article.
 There are many strange stories told in connection with diamonds.
We have already seen through what vicissitudes the famous
diamonds have passed.
A story is told of a French prince, who, while travelling, was
attacked by robbers. He had intrusted a valuable diamond to a
faithful servant. The servant was slain, but the master escaped. He
returned subsequently to the scene of the fight, and sought for the
diamond, but could nowhere find it. At last he bethought himself to
examine the body of his attendant, when he found that the latter
had swallowed the diamond to preserve it.
Some years ago an actor, looking
through an old clothes shop in London, A FORTUNATE ACTOR.
found a pair of slippers decorated with glass beads, and suited to a
character he was about to play. He bought them for a trifle, paying
two or three shillings for them. He wore them on the evening of his
performance, and used to leave them lying carelessly about the
theatre. He had them a year or more before discovering, as he did,
by accident, that the supposed beads were diamonds, and that the
shoes which had cost him a few shillings were worth thousands of
pounds. He sold them soon after making the discovery, and retired
upon the fortune so easily obtained. He never took the trouble to
ascertain their previous character or history.
About twenty years ago, in a gaming-house in New York, a
gambler, who may be called Smith, put up a ring as a stake, against
an outside player for a hundred dollars. The player—I call him Jones
for sake of convenience,—won the ring and went away with it. Smith
had received the ring a short time before as a present, and was told
at the time that it was false, or, as it is generally called, “paste.”
Jones took the ring next day to a jeweller, and asked what it was.
The jeweller said, “It is paste—worth about two dollars.”
“Have you a genuine stone like it?” Jones asked of the jeweller.
 “Yes,” was the reply, “I have one exactly resembling it, worth five
hundred dollars.”
“Will you take out the paste and set the genuine stone in its
place,” asked Jones, “provided I leave you its value as security, and
pay you for the use of it?”
“Certainly,” was the reply; and the bargain was quickly settled. The
change was made, and Jones walked away with the ring.
That evening he was in the same
gaming-house, and was chaffed by the HOW A GAMBLER WAS
CAUGHT.
friends of Smith on obtaining a paste ring
against a stake of a hundred dollars. Jones insisted that the ring was
genuine, and offered to back his opinion with a bet of a hundred
dollars. The bet was taken, and it was agreed that Jones, Smith, and
a person selected by the two, should go together to the prominent
jewellers and ascertain the value of the ring.
Next day they visited the stores, and jeweller after jeweller
examined the stone, and pronounced it genuine, and worth four or
five hundred dollars. Most of them were ready to give four hundred
dollars for it.
The bet was paid, and Jones departed to drive with a friend up
town; but on his way he called at the jeweller’s, exchanged the
genuine stone for the paste, obtained his five hundred dollars he
had left on deposit, paid for the use of the diamond, and slipped
away.
That evening he was again at the gambling-house, and rallied
Smith on having sold himself. Smith acknowledged that he had been
deceived, but he never supposed the ring was worth anything, and
was surprised to find that the stone was genuine.
“Well,” said Jones, “I don’t wish to take any mean advantage of
your stakes; you staked that ring for a hundred dollars, and the
jewellers said it is worth four or five hundred dollars. For a hundred
dollars, the amount of your stake, you can have it back again.”
Smith bit at the offer, paid the hundred dollars, and received the
ring. Jones departed, and did not return. Imagine the disgust of
Smith when he subsequently found out the real state of affairs.
 XXVI.
THE DIAMOND FIELDS OF SOUTH AFRICA.

MODE OF REACHING THEM—THEIR EXTENT AND RICHNESS—THE YIELD OF THE

MINES—CHARACTER OF THE AFRICAN DIAMONDS—MODE OF WORKING—
THE NEGROES AND THEIR PECULIARITIES—DU TOIT’S PAN—KIMBERLEY—
COLESBERG KOPJE—LIFE IN THE FIELDS—DUST STORMS AND HEAVY RAINS
—A WHIRLWIND AND ITS EFFECTS—CAUGHT IN A STORM—INDIVIDUAL
INSTANCES OF GOOD LUCK—A DIAMOND ON A BURST.

THE DIAMOND FIELDS OF SOUTH AFRICA.

The owners of diamonds, and those who buy and sell the gems,
were thrown into great consternation, a few years ago, by the
announcement of the discovery of immense diamond deposits in
South Africa. As usual, when rich deposits of precious stones or
precious metals are known to have been found, there was a great
rush for the newly-opened region. Many persons imagined they had
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