EN-202

Fall 2024

Dr. Farrukh Khalid

School of Energy Science and Engineering
IITG
Nozzles and Diffusers Nozzles and diffusers are commonly
utilized in jet engines, rockets,
spacecraft, and even garden hoses.
A nozzle is a device that increases the
velocity of a fluid at the expense of
pressure.
A diffuser is a device that increases
the pressure of a fluid by slowing it
down.
The cross-sectional area of a nozzle
decreases in the flow direction for
subsonic flows and increases for
supersonic flows. The reverse is true
for diffusers.

Energy
balance for
a nozzle or
diffuser:

2
Deceleration
of Air in a
Diffuser

3
Acceleration
of Steam in a
Nozzle

4
Turbines and
Compressors Turbine drives the electric generator In
steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants.
As the fluid passes through the turbine,
work is done against the blades, which are
attached to the shaft. As a result, the shaft
rotates, and the turbine produces work.
Compressors, as well as pumps and
fans, are devices used to increase the
pressure of a fluid. Work is supplied to
these devices from an external source
through a rotating shaft.
A fan increases the pressure of a gas
slightly and is mainly used to mobilize a
gas.
A compressor is capable of compressing
the gas to very high pressures.
Pumps work very much like compressors
except that they handle liquids instead of
gases.
5
Compressing Air
by a Compressor

6
Power Generation
by a Steam
Turbine

7
Throttling Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that
cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid.
valves What is the difference between a turbine and a throttling
valve?
The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large
drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling devices are
commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.

Energy
balance

8
Expansion of
Refrigerant-134a
in a Refrigerator

9
Mixing chambers
In engineering applications, the
section where the mixing process
takes place is commonly referred to as
a mixing chamber.
The mixing chamber does not have to
be a distinct “chamber.” An ordinary T-
elbow or a Y-elbow in a shower, for
example, serves as the mixing
chamber for the cold- and hot-water
streams.
The conservation of mass principle for
a mixing chamber requires that the
sum of the incoming mass flow rates
equal the mass flow rate of the
outgoing mixture.
The conservation of energy equation
is analogous to the conservation of
mass equation.

10
Mixing of Hot and Cold
Waters in a Shower

11
 Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers are devices where two
moving fluid streams exchange heat without
mixing.

Heat exchangers are widely used in various

industries, and they come in various designs.

The heat transfer

associated with a heat
exchanger may be
zero or nonzero
depending on how the
control volume is
selected. 12
Cooling of
Refrigerant-134a
by Water

13
14
Pipe and duct flow
The transport of liquids or gases in pipes and ducts
is of great importance in many engineering
applications.

Flow through a pipe or a duct usually satisfies the

steady-flow conditions.

15
Electric Heating of Air in a House

16
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF
UNSTEADY-FLOW PROCESSES
Many processes of interest, involve Charging of a rigid
changes within the control volume tank from a supply
with time. Such processes are called line is an unsteady-
unsteady-flow, or transient-flow, flow process since it
processes. involves changes
within the control
Most unsteady-flow processes can volume.
be represented reasonably well by
the uniform-flow process.
Uniform-flow process: The fluid
flow at any inlet or exit is uniform and
steady, and thus the fluid properties
do not change with time or position
The shape and
over the cross section of an inlet or
size of a control
exit. If they do, they are averaged
volume may
and treated as constants for the
change during an
entire process.
unsteady-flow
process. 17
 Mass balance

Energy
balance

A uniform-flow
system may
involve
electrical, shaft,
and boundary
work all at
once.

The energy equation of a uniform-flow

system reduces to that of a closed system
when all the inlets and exits are closed. 18
Charging of
a Rigid Tank
by Steam

19
20
Discharge of Heated Air
at Constant Temperature

21
INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND LAW

These processes
cannot occur even
though they are not in
violation of the first law. 22
 MAJOR USES OF THE
SECOND LAW
1. The second law may be used to identify
the direction of processes.
2. The second law also asserts that energy
has quality as well as quantity. The first
law is concerned with the quantity of
energy and the transformations of
energy from one form to another with no
regard to its quality. The second law
provides the necessary means to
determine the quality as well as the
degree of degradation of energy during
a process.
3. The second law of thermodynamics is
also used in determining the theoretical
limits for the performance of commonly
used engineering systems, such as heat
engines and refrigerators, as well as
predicting the degree of completion of
chemical reactions.
23
 THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

• A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass x

specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature is called a thermal energy reservoir,
or just a reservoir.
• In practice, large bodies of water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as
the atmospheric air can be modeled accurately as thermal energy reservoirs
because of their large thermal energy storage capabilities or thermal masses.24
HEAT ENGINES HEAT ENGINES: The devices that convert heat to work.

1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source

(solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the
form of a rotating shaft.)
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-
temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.

Heat engines and other

cyclic devices usually
involve a fluid to and from
which heat is transferred
while undergoing a cycle.
This fluid is called the
working fluid.

25
A steam power plant

26
Thermal
efficiency

27
28
 Can we
save Qout?
In a steam power plant,
the condenser is the
device where large
quantities of waste heat is
rejected to rivers, lakes,
or the atmosphere.
Can we not just take the
condenser out of the
plant and save all that
waste energy?
The answer is,
unfortunately, a firm no
for the simple reason that
without a heat rejection
process in a condenser,
Every heat engine must waste some energy the cycle cannot be
by transferring it to a low-temperature completed.
reservoir in order to complete the cycle, even
under idealized conditions. 29
Net Power Production
of a Heat Engine

30
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics:
Kelvin–Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device
that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single
reservoir and produce a net
amount of work.

No heat engine can have a thermal

efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working fluid
must exchange heat with the
environment as well as the furnace.
The impossibility of having a 100%
efficient heat engine is not due to
friction or other dissipative effects. It is a
limitation that applies to both the
idealized and the actual heat engines.
31
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

• The transfer of heat from a low-

temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators.
• Refrigerators, like heat engines,
are cyclic devices.
• The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a
refrigerant.
• The most frequently used
refrigeration cycle is the vapor-
compression refrigeration
cycle.

In a household refrigerator, the freezer

compartment where heat is absorbed by
the refrigerant serves as the evaporator,
and the coils usually behind the
refrigerator where heat is dissipated to the
kitchen air serve as the condenser. 32
Coefficient of Performance

The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed

in terms of the coefficient of performance
(COP).
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat (QL) from the refrigerated space.

Can the value of COPR be

greater than unity?
33
Heat Pumps

for fixed values of QL and QH

Can the value of COPHP

be lower than unity?
What does COPHP=1
represent?

34
• Most heat pumps in operation today have a
seasonally averaged COP of 2 to 3.
• Most existing heat pumps use the cold outside air as
the heat source in winter (air-source HP).
• In cold climates their efficiency drops considerably
when temperatures are below the freezing point.
• In such cases, geothermal (ground-source) HP that
use the ground as the heat source can be used.
• Such heat pumps are more expensive to install, but
they are also more efficient.
• Air conditioners are basically refrigerators whose
refrigerated space is a room or a building instead of
the food compartment.
• The COP of a refrigerator decreases with decreasing
refrigeration temperature.
• Therefore, it is not economical to refrigerate to a
lower temperature than needed.

Energy efficiency rating (EER): The amount of

heat removed from the cooled space in Btu’s for 1
Wh (watthour) of electricity consumed.

35
The Second Law of
Thermodynamics: Clasius Statement

It is impossible to construct a device that

operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-
temperature body to a higher-temperature
body.

It states that a refrigerator cannot operate unless

its compressor is driven by an external power
source, such as an electric motor.
This way, the net effect on the surroundings
involves the consumption of some energy in the
form of work, in addition to the transfer of heat
from a colder body to a warmer one.
To date, no experiment has been conducted that
contradicts the second law, and this should be
taken as sufficient proof of its validity.

36
 Equivalence
of the Two
Statements

Proof that the

violation of the
Kelvin–Planck
statement leads
to the violation
of the Clausius
statement.

The Kelvin–Planck and the Clausius statements are equivalent in

their consequences, and either statement can be used as the
expression of the second law of thermodynamics.
Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement also
violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa. 37
 PERPETUAL-
MOTION
MACHINES

Perpetual-motion machine: Any device that violates the first or the second law.
A device that violates the first law (by creating energy) is called a PMM1.
A device that violates the second law is called a PMM2. 38
Despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine
is known to have worked.
If something sounds too good to be true, it probably is. 39
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
Reversible process: A process that can be reversed without leaving any trace
on the surroundings.
Irreversible process: A process that is not reversible.
• All the processes occurring in nature are irreversible.
• Why are we interested in reversible processes?
• (1) they are easy to analyze and (2) they serve as
idealized models (theoretical limits) to which actual
processes can be compared.
• Some processes are more irreversible than others.
• We try to approximate reversible processes. Why?

Reversible processes deliver the most

and consume the least work. 40
 • The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibilities.
• They include friction, unrestrained expansion,
Friction mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite
renders a temperature difference, electric resistance,
process inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
irreversible. reactions.
• The presence of any of these effects renders a
process irreversible.

Irreversibilities

(a) Heat
transfer through
a temperature
difference is
irreversible, and Irreversible
(b) the reverse compression
process is and
impossible. expansion
processes. 41
 Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
• Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of
the system during the process.
• Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries.
• Totally reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities within the system or its
surroundings.
• A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative
effects.

42
 THE CARNOT CYCLE

Execution of the Carnot cycle in a closed system.

Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temperature drops from TH to TL)
Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temperature rises from TL to TH43)
The Reversed Carnot Cycle
The Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible cycle.
Therefore, all the processes that comprise it can be reversed,
in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration cycle. 44
THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES

1. The efficiency of an
irreversible heat engine is
always less than the efficiency
of a reversible one operating
between the same two
reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all
reversible heat engines
operating between the same
two reservoirs are the same.

45
46
47
THE THERMODYNAMIC
TEMPERATURE SCALE
A temperature scale that is
independent of the properties of
the substances that are used to
measure temperature is called a
thermodynamic temperature
scale.
Such a temperature scale offers
great conveniences in
thermodynamic calculations.

48
This temperature scale is
called the Kelvin scale,
and the temperatures on
this scale are called
absolute temperatures.

49
THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE

Any heat
engine

Carnot heat
engine

50
51
Analysis of a Carnot Heat Engine

52
The Quality of Energy

Can we use C unit

for temperature
here?

How do you increase the thermal

efficiency of a Carnot heat engine?
How about for actual heat engines? 53
THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT PUMP

Any refrigerator
or heat pump

Carnot refrigerator
or heat pump

How do you increase the

COP of a Carnot
refrigerator or heat pump?
How about for actual ones?
54
The COP of a reversible refrigerator or heat pump is the
maximum theoretical value for the specified temperature
limits.
Actual refrigerators or heat pumps may approach these
values as their designs are improved, but they can never
reach them.
The COPs of both the refrigerators and the heat pumps
decrease as TL decreases.
That is, it requires more work to absorb heat from lower-
temperature media.

55
Heating a House by a
Carnot Heat Pump

56
ENTROPY

Clasius
inequality

Formal
definition
of entropy

The equality in the Clausius inequality holds

for totally or just internally reversible cycles
and the inequality for the irreversible ones. 57
 A quantity whose cyclic
integral is zero (i.e., a
property like volume)
Entropy is an extensive
property of a system.

A Special Case: Internally Reversible

Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes

This equation is particularly useful for determining

the entropy changes of thermal energy reservoirs. 58
THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE

The equality holds for an internally

reversible process and the inequality
for an irreversible process.

Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process,

and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities.

The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero.

Can the entropy of a system during a process decrease?
59
The increase
of entropy
principle
60
Some Remarks 1. Processes can occur in a certain
about Entropy direction only, not in any direction. A
process must proceed in the direction
that complies with the increase of
entropy principle, that is, Sgen ≥ 0. A
process that violates this principle is
impossible.
2. Entropy is a nonconserved property,
and there is no such thing as the
conservation of entropy principle.
Entropy is conserved during the
idealized reversible processes only
and increases during all actual
processes.
3. The performance of engineering
systems is degraded by the presence
of irreversibilities, and entropy
generation is a measure of the
magnitudes of the irreversibilities
during that process. It is also used to
establish criteria for the performance
of engineering devices.
61
 ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES
Entropy is a property, and thus
the value of entropy of a
system is fixed once the state
of the system is fixed.

Entropy change
62
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
A process during which the entropy remains constant is called
an isentropic process.

63
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY

On a T-S
diagram, the
area under the
process curve
represents the
heat transfer for
internally
reversible
processes.

Mollier diagram: The h-s diagram

64
65
WHAT IS ENTROPY?
Boltzmann relation W the total number of
possible relevant
microstates of the system

Gibbs’ formulation

pi sum of all microstates’ uncertainties,

i.e., probabilities

Boltzmann constant

A pure crystalline
substance at absolute
zero temperature is in
perfect order, and its
entropy is zero (the third
law of thermodynamics). 66
67
68
69
THE T ds RELATIONS

the first T ds, or Gibbs equation

the second T ds equation

Differential changes
in entropy in terms
of other properties
70
ENTROPY CHANGE OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
Liquids and solids can be
approximated as
incompressible substances
Since for liquids and solids since their specific volumes
remain nearly constant
during a process.

For and isentropic process of an incompressible substance

71
THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
From the first T ds relation From the second T ds relation

72
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)

Entropy change of an ideal gas on a

unit–mole basis

73
 Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
We choose absolute zero as the reference
temperature and define a function s° as

On a unit–mass basis

On a unit–mole basis

74
75
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)

Setting this eq. equal to

zero, we get

76
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)

Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume

exp(s°/R) is The use of Pr data
the relative for calculating the
pressure Pr. final temperature
during an isentropic
process.

The use of vr data for

calculating the final
T/Pr is the relative
temperature during an
specific volume vr.
isentropic process 77
REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK

When kinetic and

potential energies
are negligible

The larger the

specific
volume, the
For the steady flow of a liquid through a
greater the
device that involves no work interactions
(such as a pipe section), the work term is work
zero (Bernoulli equation): produced (or
consumed) by
a steady-flow
device. 78
EXAMPLE: Compressing a
Substance in the Liquid versus Gas
Phases

79
Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume
the Least Work when the Process Is Reversible
Taking heat input and work output positive:
Actual
Reversible

Work-producing devices such as

turbines deliver more work, and work-
consuming devices such as pumps
and compressors require less work
when they operate reversibly. 80
 MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
When kinetic and
potential energies
are negligible

Isentropic (Pvk = constant):

Polytropic (Pvn = constant):

Isothermal (Pv = constant):

The adiabatic compression (Pvk = constant)

requires the maximum work and the
isothermal compression (T = constant)
requires the minimum. Why?
81
Multistage
Compression
with
Intercooling
The gas is compressed
in stages and cooled
between each stage by
passing it through a
heat exchanger called
an intercooler.

To minimize compression work during two-stage

compression, the pressure ratio across each
stage of the compressor must be the same. 82
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES
OF STEADY-FLOW DEVICES

Isentropic Efficiency
of Turbines

83
84
Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps

When kinetic and

potential energies
are negligible
For a
pump
Isothermal
efficiency

Compressors
are sometimes
intentionally Can you use isentropic efficiency for a
cooled to non-adiabatic compressor?
minimize the Can you use isothermal efficiency for
work input. an adiabatic compressor? 85
86
Isentropic Efficiency
of Nozzles

If the inlet velocity of the

fluid is small relative to
the exit velocity, the
energy balance is

Then,

87
88
ENTROPY BALANCE

Entropy Change of a
System, ∆Ssystem

When the properties of the

system are not uniform

Energy and entropy

balances for a system.
89
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
1 Heat Transfer
Entropy transfer by heat transfer:

Entropy transfer by work:

No entropy accompanies work as it crosses the

system boundary. But entropy may be
generated within the system as work is
dissipated into a less useful form of energy. 90
2 Mass Flow
Entropy transfer by mass:

When the properties of the mass

change during the process

91
Entropy Generation, Sgen Entropy generation
outside system
boundaries can be
accounted for by
writing an entropy
balance on an
extended system that
includes the system
and its immediate
surroundings.

Mechanisms of entropy transfer for a

general system.
92
Closed Systems

The entropy change of a closed system during a process is equal to the

sum of the net entropy transferred through the system boundary by heat
transfer and the entropy generated within the system boundaries.

93
 Control Volumes

The entropy of a
substance always
increases (or
remains constant in
the case of a
reversible process)
as it flows through a
single-stream,
adiabatic, steady-
flow device. 94
EXAMPLES
Entropy balance for heat
transfer through a wall

Entropy balance for

a throttling process

95
Entropy Generated when a Hot
Block Is Dropped in a Lake

or

Entropy Generation in a Heat Exchanger

96
Entropy Generation Associated
with Heat Transfer

97
Entropy generation associated with a
heat transfer process

98
EXERGY: WORK POTENTIAL OF ENERGY
The useful work potential of a
given amount of energy at some
specified state is called exergy,
which is also called the availability
or available energy.

A system is said to be in the dead

state when it is in thermodynamic
equilibrium with the environment it
is in.

99
A system delivers the maximum possible work as it undergoes a reversible process
from the specified initial state to the state of its environment, that is, the dead state.
This represents the useful work potential of the system at the specified state and is
called exergy.
Exergy represents the upper limit on the amount of work a device can deliver without
violating any thermodynamic laws.

100
Exergy (Work Potential) Associated The exergies of kinetic and
with Kinetic and Potential Energy potential energies are equal to
themselves, and they are entirely
Exergy of kinetic energy: available for work.

Exergy of potential energy:

101
REVERSIBLE WORK AND IRREVERSIBILITY
Reversible work Wrev: The maximum amount of
useful work that can be produced (or the
minimum work that needs to be supplied) as a
system undergoes a process between the
specified initial and final states.
As a closed
system expands,
some work needs
to be done to push
the atmospheric
air out of the way
(Wsurr).

The difference between

reversible work and
actual useful work is the
irreversibility.

For constant-volume
systems, the total
actual and useful
works are identical
(Wu = W). 102
The Rate of Irreversibility of a
Heat Engine

103
Irreversibility during the
Cooling of an Iron Block

104
SECOND-LAW EFFICIENCY

105
General definition of exergy efficiency:

106
Second-Law Efficiency of Resistance Heaters

107
EXERGY CHANGE OF A SYSTEM
Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow
(or Closed System) Exergy

Exergy of a closed system

108
 Closed system
exergy per unit
mass

Exergy
change of
a closed
system

When the properties of a system are

not uniform, the exergy of the system is

109
Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream) Exergy

Exergy of flow energy

Flow
exergy
Exergy change of flow

110
111
Work Potential of
Compressed Air in a Tank

112
Exergy Change During a
Compression Process

113
EXERGY TRANSFER BY
HEAT, WORK, AND MASS

Exergy by Heat Transfer, Q

Exergy transfer
by heat

When temperature is
not constant

114
Exergy Transfer by Work, W

Exergy Transfer by Mass, m

115
THE DECREASE OF EXERGY PRINCIPLE
AND EXERGY DESTRUCTION

The exergy of an isolated system during a process always decreases or, in

the limiting case of a reversible process, remains constant. In other words, it
never increases and exergy is destroyed during an actual process. This is
known as the decrease of exergy principle. 116
Exergy Destruction

Exergy destroyed is a positive quantity for

any actual process and becomes zero for a
reversible process.
Exergy destroyed represents the lost work
potential and is also called the
irreversibility or lost work.
Can the exergy change
of a system during a
process be negative?

Consider heat transfer from a system to

its surroundings. How do you compare
exergy changes of the system and the
surroundings? 117
EXERGY BALANCE: CLOSED SYSTEMS

The exergy change of

a system during a
process is equal to the
difference between the
net exergy transfer
through the system
boundary and the
exergy destroyed
within the system
boundaries as a result
of irreversibilities.

118
 The heat transfer to
a system and work
done by the system
are taken to be
positive quantities.

Qk is the heat transfer through the boundary at temperature Tk at location k.

Exergy Exergy
balance for destroyed
a closed outside system
system boundaries can
when heat be accounted for
transfer is by writing an
to the exergy balance
system and on the extended
the work is system that
from the includes the
system. system and its
immediate
surroundings. 119
General Exergy Balance for Closed Systems

120
Exergy Destruction during Heat Conduction

121
 Exergy Destruction During Expansion of Steam
The exergy balance applied on the extended
system (system + immediate surroundings)
whose boundary is at the environment
temperature of T0 gives

Alternative method of exergy

destruction calculation:

122
Exergy Destroyed During Stirring of a Gas

= 1 Btu

= 19.6 Btu

123
Dropping a Hot Iron Block into Water

124
Work Potential of Heat Transfer Between Two Tanks

125
EXERGY BALANCE: CONTROL VOLUMES

The rate of exergy change within the

control volume during a process is
equal to the rate of net exergy transfer
through the control volume boundary
by heat, work, and mass flow minus the
rate of exergy destruction within the
boundaries of the control volume.

126
Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
Most control volumes encountered in practice such as turbines, compressors, nozzles,
diffusers, heat exchangers, pipes, and ducts operate steadily, and thus they experience
no changes in their mass, energy, entropy, and exergy contents as well as their volumes.
Therefore, dVCV/dt = 0 and dXCV/dt = 0 for such systems.

127
Reversible Work
The exergy balance relations presented above can be used to
determine the reversible work Wrev by setting the exergy destroyed
equal to zero. The work W in that case becomes the reversible work.

The exergy destroyed is zero only for a reversible process, and

reversible work represents the maximum work output for work-
producing devices such as turbines and the minimum work input for
work-consuming devices such as compressors.

128
Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices
The second-law efficiency of various steady-flow devices can be determined from its
general definition, II = (Exergy recovered)/(Exergy expended). When the changes in
kinetic and potential energies are negligible and the devices are adiabatic:

Turbine

Compressor

Heat
exchanger

Mixing
chamber

129
Second-law analysis of a steam turbine

130
Exergy Destroyed During Mixing
of Fluid Streams

131
Charging a Compressed Air Storage System

132
References
• Powerpoint by Mehmet Kanoglu et al

133