WEATHER AND CLIMATE

What is weather?
• The state of the atmospheric conditions at a specific (short) period of time, day to day
changes in the atmosphere.

• Climate: is the average condition of the elements of the weather over a period of time,
say 30 to 40 years.

Four layers of the

atmosphere
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere

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Troposphere
• Contains 75% of the gases in the atmosphere
• Temperature falls with increasing height
• Environmental lapse rate = average drop of 6.5C for every 1km increase in height
• Most weather conditions are observed in this layer

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Stratosphere
• Abundant ozone gas absorbs ultraviolet rays from the sun
• Temperature increases with height
• Jet planes fly in this layer

Mesosphere
• Presence of strong winds blowing at 3,000km per hour
• Temperature falls with increasing height
• Temperatures can reach -80C
• Meteors burn up in this layer while entering the atmosphere
Thermosphere
• Temperature increases with
height
• Presence of atomic oxygen
• Auroras occur in this layer,
e.g. the Northern Lights

Temperature
• In the context of weather studies, temperature refers to the degree of hotness/coldness in
the atmosphere

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Factors that influence temperature
• Latitude
• Distance from the sea
• Ocean currents
• Altitude
• Cloud cover and humidity
• Microclimatic factors

1. Latitude
• Places near the Equator have higher temperatures
– Heat from the sun reaches the Earth at a more direct angle
– The heat is concentrated over a small area

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 2. Distance from the sea
• The sea moderates the temperatures of places nearby
• In summer, the sea heats up slower than land
🡺 Cooling effect on land along the coast
• In winter, the sea loses heat slower than land
🡺 Warming effect on the coastal area
• Temperatures of places farther inland are not moderated by the sea
🡺 These places experience more extreme variations in temperature

3. Ocean currents
• Warm currents
– Originate from the warm waters of the Equatorial region
– Raise the temperatures of coastal areas
• Cold currents
– Originate from the cold waters of the polar regions
– Lower the temperatures of coastal areas

4. Altitude
• Temperatures fall with increasing height
• Temperature drops about 6.5C for every 1km increase in height
• Higher concentration of water vapour and gases in the atmosphere nearer the
Earth’s surface
🡺 Most of the sun’s heat is absorbed at/near sea level, resulting in higher
temperatures
At higher altitudes, there is less water vapor and gases to absorb the sun’s heat, resulting in
lower temperatures

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 5. Cloud cover and humidity
• During the day, clouds reflect solar radiation and help to cool the land
• At night, clouds prevent loss of heat from the ground and help to warm the land
• The higher the humidity, the greater the cloud cover

6. Microclimatic factors
• Factors that affect the climate on a small (local) scale
• Aspect
– Direction a slope faces in relation to the sun
– In the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes are warmer
– In southern the hemisphere, north-facing slopes are warmer
• Type of land surface
– Exposed concrete surfaces absorb more heat than surfaces covered by vegetation or
even bare soil
– Evaporation of moisture on plant surfaces and transpiration cool the surrounding
areas

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 TEMPERATURE

Measuring air temperature

Done using a maximum and minimum thermometer, also known as Six’s Thermometer
Key temperature statistics
1. Diurnal range of temperature
• Difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures of a place for any
one day
• Calculation:
Maximum temperature – Minimum temperature
for the day for the day
2. Annual range of temperature
• Knowing the annual temperature range of a place will help you deduce the
climatic zone that it is located in
• Calculation:
Highest mean monthly – Lowest mean monthly
temperature in the year temperature in the year

3. Mean (average) daily temperature

• Calculation:
Maximum temperature + Minimum temperature
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
2
OR
Sum of 24 hourly temperature readings
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
24

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 4. Mean monthly temperature
• Calculation:
Sum of all mean daily temperatures in the month
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Total number of days in the month

5. Mean annual temperature

• Terms to describe mean annual temperature:
• Calculation:
Sum of all mean monthly temperatures in the year
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
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9
 HUMIDITY

Humidity
• Amount of water vapour in the air
Absolute humidity
• Actual amount of water vapour contained in the air at a particular temperature
Relative humidity
• Ratio of the actual amount of water vapour in the air to the maximum amount of water
vapour the air can hold at a particular temperature
• The higher the air temperature, the greater the capacity of the air to carry water vapour

Measuring relative humidity

• Done using a hygrometer – consists of a dry bulb thermometer and a wet bulb
thermometer
• Dry bulb thermometer measures the normal air temperature
• Bulb of the wet bulb thermometer is wrapped with a muslin dipped in a dish of water
• Evaporation of the water from the muslin cools the bulb, thus lowering the temperature
reading

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CLOUDS
Types of clouds
1. High clouds
• Cloud base above 7km
• Consist of ice crystals
• E.g. cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus (clear day)
2. Middle clouds
• Cloud base between 2km and 7km
• Consist of water droplets
• E.g. altocumulus, altostratus

CIRRUS

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ALTOCUMULUS

3. Low clouds
• Cloud base below 2km
• Consist of water droplets
• E.g. stratus, stratocumulus, nimbostratus

4. Vertical clouds
• The base is generally in the low cloud range but the top reaches great heights
• E.g. cumulus, cumulonimbus

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Types of rainfall
1. Orographic or relief rain

Orographic rainfall is a type of precipitation that occurs when moist air is forced to rise over a
mountain range or elevated terrain. The process can be described as follows:
1. Moist Air Mass: When moist air approaches a mountain, it is typically carried by
prevailing winds.
2. Ascent: As the air encounters the mountains, it is forced to ascend. This upward
movement cools the air due to the decrease in atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes.
3. Cooling and Condensation: As the air rises and cools, its ability to hold moisture
decreases, leading to condensation. This forms clouds, and if the air cools sufficiently,
precipitation occurs.
4. Precipitation: Most of the rainfall falls on the windward side of the mountain, where the
air is rising. This is known as orographic precipitation.
5. Rain Shadow Effect: As the air descends on the leeward side of the mountain, it warms
and becomes drier, leading to significantly less precipitation. This dry area is known as a
rain shadow.
Key Features of Orographic Rainfall:
• Intensity: Orographic rainfall can be heavy on the windward slopes due to the
concentration of moisture.
• Geographic Distribution: It is common in mountainous regions and can significantly
affect local climates.
• Impact on Ecosystems: The difference in precipitation between the windward and
leeward sides can create diverse ecosystems within a relatively small geographic area.
Overall, orographic rainfall plays a crucial role in the hydrology and ecology of mountainous
regions, influencing vegetation patterns, water supply, and climate.

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 2. Convectional rain

Convectional rainfall is a type of precipitation that occurs due to the heating of the Earth's
surface, which causes moisture-laden air to rise and cool. The process can be broken down into
several key stages:

1. Heating of the Surface: During the day, the sun heats the land and water surfaces. This
heating is more intense in areas with direct sunlight, causing localized temperature
increases.
2. Rising Warm Air: As the surface temperature rises, the air in contact with it also warms
up. Warm air is less dense than cool air, so it begins to rise. This process is called
convection.
3. Cooling and Condensation: As the warm air rises, it expands due to lower atmospheric
pressure at higher altitudes. This expansion causes the air to cool. When the air cools to
its dew point, the water vapor in the air condenses into tiny water droplets, forming
clouds.
4. Cloud Development: Continued convection can lead to the formation of cumulus clouds,
which can grow taller as more warm air rises. If enough moisture accumulates, the clouds
can develop into cumulonimbus clouds, which are associated with thunderstorms.
5. Precipitation: Once the clouds become saturated with moisture, they release water in the
form of rain. Convectional rainfall can be intense but is often short-lived, typically
occurring in the afternoon or early evening.

Key Features of Convectional Rainfall:

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 • Location: Common in tropical regions, especially during the warm season, but can also
occur in temperate areas.
• Duration and Intensity: Often characterized by sudden and heavy downpours, followed
by clear skies as the storm moves on.
• Impact on Weather: Can lead to localized flooding, especially in urban areas where
drainage systems may be overwhelmed.

Overall, convectional rainfall is an essential component of the water cycle, contributing to the
replenishment of freshwater resources and influencing local climates.

Cool air at high

altitude results in Towering rain
the condensation of clouds build up
water vapour after
reaching dew point
Condensation level

Rising Heavy rain

warm accompanied by

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 3. Frontal or cyclonic rain

Frontal or cyclonic rainfall occurs when two air masses of different temperatures and humidity
levels meet, leading to the formation of precipitation. This process is associated with weather
fronts, particularly in mid-latitude regions, and can be described in several stages:

1. Formation of Weather Fronts:

• Cold Front: This occurs when a colder, denser air mass moves in and displaces a
warmer, lighter air mass. The warm air is forced to rise over the cold air.

• Warm Front: This occurs when a warmer air mass advances over a colder air mass. The
warm air gradually rises over the denser cold air.

2. Ascent of Warm Air:

• As the warm air is forced upward, it expands and cools due to the decrease in
atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes. This cooling leads to a drop in temperature.

3. Cooling and Condensation:

• When the rising warm air cools to its dew point, the water vapor in the air begins to
condense, forming clouds. Depending on the temperature and moisture content, different
types of clouds can develop.

4. Precipitation:

• The clouds continue to grow and accumulate moisture. Eventually, when the clouds
become saturated, precipitation occurs. This can manifest as light to moderate rainfall,
often lasting for an extended period, depending on the strength and movement of the
front.

5. Weather Patterns:

• Frontal rainfall is commonly associated with mid-latitude cyclones, which are large
systems that bring varied weather, including rain, wind, and changes in temperature.

Key Features of Frontal or Cyclonic Rainfall:

• Intensity and Duration: Unlike convectional rainfall, which is often brief and localized,
frontal rainfall can cover large areas and last for several hours or days.

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 • Types of Precipitation: Frontal systems can produce a range of precipitation types,
including rain, snow, sleet, or freezing rain, depending on the temperatures involved.
• Weather Systems: Frontal rainfall is often accompanied by changes in weather patterns,
such as drops in temperature and shifts in wind direction.

Overall, frontal or cyclonic rainfall is a significant component of the global weather system,
playing a crucial role in regulating climate and water resources.

Cold
front Warm air Cirrus
Cold air Cumulonimbus
Rain Warm
cloud front

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A warm front is a meteorological term that describes the boundary between a warm air mass and
a colder air mass. This type of front is associated with various weather phenomena and plays a
crucial role in the formation of different weather systems. Here are the key characteristics and
processes associated with warm fronts:

1. Definition:

• A warm front occurs when a warmer air mass advances and replaces a cooler air mass.
The warmer air is less dense than the cooler air, causing it to rise over the colder air.

2. Characteristics:

• Slope: Warm fronts typically have a gentle slope, usually around 1:200, meaning they
rise gradually over the cooler air.
• Cloud Formation: As the warm air rises, it cools and condenses, leading to the
formation of clouds. The cloud types associated with warm fronts include:
o Stratus Clouds: These are low, gray clouds that can cover the sky and often
produce light rain or drizzle.
o Nimbostratus Clouds: These are thicker and darker clouds that can lead to
continuous, steady precipitation.
o Cirrus and Altostratus Clouds: These may also be present in advance of the
warm front, indicating that the front is approaching.

3. Weather Associated with Warm Fronts:

• Precipitation: Warm fronts often bring extended periods of precipitation, which can vary
in intensity. As the warm air rises, it cools, and moisture condenses, resulting in rain or
light showers.
• Temperature Changes: Following the passage of a warm front, temperatures generally
rise as the warm air mass moves in.
• Wind Shifts: Winds typically shift from easterly or southeasterly to southerly or
southwesterly as the warm front passes.

4. Transition:

• Before the Front: Ahead of the warm front, the weather can be characterized by overcast
skies, light rain, and increasing humidity.
• At the Front: As the front approaches, the weather can become unsettled, with increased
cloudiness and potential showers.
• After the Front: Once the warm front has passed, skies may gradually clear, and
temperatures will rise, leading to warmer and more stable weather.

5. Formation and Movement:

• Warm fronts are commonly associated with mid-latitude cyclones and can be found in
areas where warm and cold air masses interact, such as in temperate regions.

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In summary, warm fronts are important features in meteorology that significantly influence
weather patterns, leading to extended periods of precipitation, temperature changes, and shifts in
wind direction.

Whats the difference between a warm front and a cold front?

Warm fronts and cold fronts are both types of weather fronts that mark the boundaries between
different air masses, but they have distinct characteristics and weather patterns associated with
them. Here’s a breakdown of the key differences:

1. Definition:

• Warm Front: Occurs when a warm air mass moves into an area occupied by a cooler air
mass, causing the warm air to rise over the denser cold air.
• Cold Front: Occurs when a cold air mass moves into an area occupied by a warmer air
mass, pushing the warm air upward.

2. Slope:

• Warm Front: Has a gentle slope, typically about 1:200. The warm air rises gradually
over the cold air.
• Cold Front: Has a steeper slope, usually about 1:100. The cold air forces the warm air to
rise more rapidly.

3. Cloud Formation:

• Warm Front: Typically associated with stratus and nimbostratus clouds, which form
gradually and lead to extended periods of precipitation.
• Cold Front: Often associated with cumulonimbus clouds, which can develop quickly and
are linked to thunderstorms and heavy rain.

4. Weather Patterns:

• Warm Front: Generally leads to light to moderate rain over a wide area, with steady
precipitation that can last for hours. Following the front, temperatures usually rise, and
the weather becomes more stable.
• Cold Front: Can cause short, intense bursts of precipitation, often in the form of
thunderstorms. After the passage of a cold front, temperatures typically drop, and the
weather becomes cooler and drier.

5. Temperature Changes:

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 • Warm Front: Temperatures increase after the front passes due to the warmer air mass
moving in.
• Cold Front: Temperatures decrease after the front passes as the cooler air mass replaces
the warmer air.

6. Wind Changes:

• Warm Front: Winds typically shift from easterly or southeasterly to southerly or

southwesterly as the front passes.
• Cold Front: Winds often shift from southerly or southwesterly to northwesterly or
northerly after the front passes.

Summary Table

Feature Warm Front Cold Front

Definition Warm air moves over cold air Cold air pushes under warm air
Slope Gentle slope (1:200) Steeper slope (1:100)
Cloud Formation Stratus and nimbostratus clouds Cumulonimbus clouds
Precipitation Light to moderate, steady rain Intense, short-lived thunderstorms
Temperature Change Warmer after passage Cooler after passage
Wind Changes Shift to southerly/southwesterly Shift to northwesterly/northerly

In summary, while both warm fronts and cold fronts are important components of weather
systems, they differ significantly in their characteristics, associated weather, and effects on
temperature and wind patterns.

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Measuring rainfall

Using a conventional rain gauge

Key rainfall statistics

1. Total monthly rainfall
– Sum of all daily rainfall readings recorded over a month
2. Total annual rainfall
– Sum of all total monthly rainfall readings recorded over a year
– Terms to describe total annual rainfall:
3. Mean annual rainfall
– Average annual rainfall over a period of 30 years

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HURRICANES

What are hurricanes?

• Intense low-pressure circulation that develops over tropical waters
• Known as typhoons (Northwest Pacific), cyclones (South Pacific and Indian Ocean) and
hurricanes (Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico)

Characteristics of hurricanes
• Form over warm ocean waters with temperatures exceeding 27C
• Typical diameter of 480km – though large hurricanes can have diameters of more than
800km
• Wind speeds of 120km per hour or more
• Move in a path resembling the curve of a parabola because pf the Coriolis Force
• In the northern hemisphere, hurricanes travel in a northwesterly direction and turn
northeast in higher latitudes
• In the southern hemisphere, hurricanes travel in a southwesterly direction and then turn
southeast

Formation of hurricanes
• Winds converge over tropical waters
• Warm moist air is uplifted
• A low-pressure centre is formed
• More warm moist air is drawn in from the ocean
• Condensation of the rising air releases latent heat which warms the surrounding cool air
• Storm clouds form, with torrential downpour

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Hurricanes, also known as tropical cyclones or typhoons in different regions, form in specific
areas of the world characterized by warm ocean waters, atmospheric instability, and favorable
wind patterns. Here are the primary hurricane zones globally:

1. North Atlantic Ocean:

• Region: The North Atlantic hurricane zone primarily affects the eastern coast of the
United States, the Caribbean, and parts of Central America.
• Season: The Atlantic hurricane season runs from June 1 to November 30.

2. Eastern North Pacific Ocean:

• Region: This zone includes the eastern Pacific Ocean, impacting areas along the western
coast of Mexico and sometimes reaching the Hawaiian Islands.
• Season: The Pacific hurricane season runs from May 15 to November 30.

3. Western North Pacific Ocean:

• Region: This area covers the western Pacific Ocean, affecting countries like the
Philippines, Taiwan, Japan, and parts of China.
• Season: Tropical cyclones can occur year-round, with a peak from June to December.

4. Indian Ocean:

• Regions:

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 o North Indian Ocean: This includes the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea,
affecting countries like India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and parts of the Arabian
Peninsula.
o South Indian Ocean: This region is off the southeastern coast of Africa and
affects island nations like Madagascar and Mauritius.
• Seasons: The North Indian Ocean cyclone season typically runs from April to December,
while the South Indian Ocean season runs from November to April.

5. South Pacific Ocean:

• Region: This zone impacts islands in the South Pacific, including Fiji, Samoa, and
Tonga.
• Season: The South Pacific cyclone season runs from November to April.

6. Southern Hemisphere:

• Region: Tropical cyclones can form in the southwestern Indian Ocean, southeastern
Pacific Ocean, and southern Atlantic Ocean.
• Season: These storms typically occur between November and April.

Characteristics of Hurricane Zones:

• Warm Ocean Waters: Hurricanes form over warm waters (typically 26.5°C or higher)
because heat and moisture are essential for their development.
• Coriolis Effect: The Coriolis effect is necessary for the rotation of storms, which is why
hurricanes do not form near the equator (within about 5 degrees latitude).

In summary, the primary hurricane zones are concentrated in tropical and subtropical re

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Structure of Hurricanes
• Eye
– Innermost portion of the storm
– Usually 40km to 80km in diameter
– Often has clear skies
– Relatively calm with little or no wind
• Eyewall
– Dense wall of thunderstorms directly surrounding the eye
– Has the strongest winds and the heaviest rains
• Spiral rain bands
– Bands of thunderstorms spiralling outwards
– Outer rain bands can extend a few hundred kilometres from the centre

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Hurricanes and weather
• Before the hurricane
– Weather is fine
– Temperature is about 30C
– Humidity is high
– Air pressure is about 1,012 millibars

• Arrival of vortex
– Air pressure drops (960 mb)
– Wind speed increases (can go up to 250km/h)
– Cumulonimbus clouds appear, accompanied by torrential rain
– Temperature falls to about 25C

• Arrival of the eye

– Air pressure drops rapidly, sometimes to as low as 960 millibars
– There is little cloud cover and no rain
– Temperature rises to about 30C
– Winds are light
• After the eye comes the vortex again and its associated weather conditions; however, the
wind now blows from the opposite direction

• After the hurricane

– Air pressure is back to normal (1012mb)
– Temperature returns to about 30C
– Winds are gentle
– The rain may continue for a day or two

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Effects of hurricanes
• Human injuries or death
• Damage or loss of property
• Damage to natural vegetation

Factors affecting the extent of damage or loss caused by hurricanes

• Disaster preparedness
• In the face of a hurricane, effective communication among everyone involved,
including the government, the private sector and the community, is needed to
limit the damage
• Public education on disaster preparedness will help people to take the necessary
measures to protect themselves and their property

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 • Complacency and delayed action can result in unnecessary loss
• Development of roads must keep up with population growth so that they will not
hamper evacuations
• Poverty
• The poor occupy hurricane-prone areas as these are cheaper to stay in
• Yet they lack the resources to protect themselves and their property
• Time of occurrence
• There will be more deaths if a hurricane strikes at night because people are caught
unawares
• Vegetation and wind breaks
• These slow down the speed of the wind, thereby limiting the damage caused

Measures to help reduce damage and loss

• Stronger regional and national disaster response training programmes
• More funds allocated to support such training programmes
• More community and NGO (non-governmental organisation) participation in risk
reduction
• More government mitigation programmes and policies
• Stronger regional meteorological capability
• Stronger emergency warning capability

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Why do Hurricanes curve in the Caribbean?

Hurricanes curve in the Caribbean due to several atmospheric and oceanic factors, primarily
influenced by the Coriolis effect, wind patterns, and the geography of the region. Here’s a
breakdown of the key reasons:

1. Coriolis Effect:

• The Coriolis effect is a result of the Earth’s rotation, causing moving air and water to turn
and twist rather than travel in a straight line. In the Northern Hemisphere, this results in a
counterclockwise rotation around low-pressure systems (like hurricanes) and influences
their path. As hurricanes move, they tend to curve to the right.

2. Trade Winds:

• The prevailing trade winds blow from east to west in the tropics. Hurricanes generally
form in the eastern Atlantic or the Caribbean, where these winds push them westward.
However, as hurricanes move further west, they encounter a shift in wind patterns.

3. Subtropical Ridge:

• The subtropical high-pressure system (often referred to as the Bermuda High) is a

significant feature in the Atlantic and Caribbean. This high-pressure system tends to steer
hurricanes westward initially, but as they approach the western edge of the ridge, they
may start to curve northward or northeastward, especially if they encounter the western
edge of the ridge.

4. Upper-Level Winds:

• The upper-level wind patterns, including the steering currents created by the jet stream,
can also influence a hurricane's path. These winds can create areas of lower pressure that
can affect the trajectory of a hurricane, causing it to curve.

5. Interaction with Land:

• When hurricanes approach land, particularly the islands of the Caribbean, they can be
influenced by the topography of the land and local wind patterns. This interaction can
cause shifts in the hurricane's path.

6. Environmental Conditions:

• Changes in sea surface temperatures, ocean currents, and other environmental factors can
also affect the hurricane's development and trajectory.

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Summary:

In summary, hurricanes curve in the Caribbean primarily due to the Coriolis effect, trade winds,
the influence of high-pressure systems, upper-level wind patterns, and interactions with land.
These factors combine to create the complex paths that hurricanes often take as they move
through the region.

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AIR PRESSURE

What is air pressure ?

• Weight of air

Measuring air pressure

• Done using a barometer

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Factors affecting air pressure
1. Altitude
• Air pressure decreases with increasing altitude
• At greater heights, gravity exerts less pull on the air
🡺 Lower concentration of gases
🡺 Lighter air and lower air pressure
2. Temperature
• Air pressure decreases with increasing temperature
• Molecules in warm air are further apart
🡺 The air is lighter and exerts less pressure
• Molecules in cool air are closer together
🡺 The air is heavier and more pressure is exerted

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Wind Speed

Measuring wind speed

• An anemometer is used to measure how fast the wind blows

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Wind Direction
Measuring wind direction
• A wind vane shows the direction from which the wind blows
• It is attached to an object well above ground such as the roof of a building
• It should be located away from objects such as buildings and trees which interfere with
the true wind direction

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Global wind system
• Coriolis force
– Results from the Earth’s rotation
– Causes winds to be deflected from their original course
– Winds are deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere
– Winds are deflected to the left in the southern hemisphere

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 • Doldrums
– A belt of low pressure along the Equator
– Absence of Coriolis effect
– Characterised by light winds

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– Also known as the ITCZ

Cross-section of the ITCZ

● The ITCZ is a blet of low pressure circling the earth roughly around the equator
● It is where the NE and SE Trad winds meet
● It lies in the doldrums within 5 degrees N and S of the equator
● The air rises to produce a low pressure trough, this trough is located between 0 to 10
degrees N and S of the equator
● It is not well developed over oceans
● Winds blow at 40kph
● Where the NE and SE trades meet, air rises, cumulus clouds, heavy convectional rainfall,
high humidity
● It affects the Caribbean, if the angle of convergence is small there is fine weather, if large
rainfall.
● It moves to Guyana gives Trinidad rainfall. In September and October, Trinidad has a
short dry season called Petite Careme.

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 • Westerlies
– Prevailing winds that generally blow from the west
– Originate from the subtropical belt of high pressure, like the trade winds
– Blow northwards and southwards towards the poles
– Westerlies are descending winds and thus are warm and dry
• Polar easterlies
– Winds that blow from the cold high-pressure centre of the poles towards the Equator
– Converge with the westerlies, thereby creating frequently changing weather conditions over
Europe

• Trade winds
– Prevailing winds that blow towards the Equator from the northern and southern hemispheres
– General direction affected by the Coriolis force
– Northeast winds in the northern hemisphere
– Southeast winds in the southern hemisphere

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46
CARIBBEAN TRADE WINDS

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TROPICAL EASTERLY WAVES
● Disturbances in shallow tropical waters
● Troughs of low pressure
● Move from east to west
● As they move west they acquire moisture and appear as indentations in the isobars on the
pressure charts
● They develop 5-30 N and S latitude
● Height of 4500m
Conditions:
● As the wave approaches, they is a line of thunderstorms
● East of rear side of the trough, winds converge, there is rain
● West side clear skies

COLD AND WARM FRONT:

● Warm air intrudes in cold air
● The boundary between cold air and advancing warm air is called a warm front
● The boundary between warm air and advancing cold air is called the cold front
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Weather with the cold front
● Temperature falls, pressure rises, winds veer to the N and NW, cold front brings bright
weather, though unstable air produces showers

Weather with warm front:

● Warm air overrides cold air, temperature rises, overcast skies

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ANTICYCLONES: (High Pressure) (H)
● Stable, sinking air, highest pressure to the centre
● Clear skies, bright

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LAND AND SEA BREEZE
● Sea breezes occur during hot, summer days because of the unequal heating rates of land
and water.
● During the day, the land surface heats up faster than the water surface. Therefore, the air
above the land is warmer than the air above the ocean.
● warmer air is lighter than cooler air. As a result, warm air rises.

● Therefore, the warmer air over the land surface is rising. As the warm air over the land is
rising, the cooler air over the ocean is flowing over the land surface to replace the rising
warm air.

● This is the sea breeze and can be seen at the top of the following image.

● The bottom of the following image illustrates the land breeze that occurs at night.

● Recall that the land surface cools quicker than the water surface at night.

● Therefore, the warmer air over the ocean is buoyant and is rising.

● The denser cool air over the land is flowing offshore to replenish the buoyant warm air
and is called a land breeze.

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WEATHER SYMBOLS

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End

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