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JavaScript for impatient
programmers
Dr. Axel Rauschmayer

2019
JavaScript for impatient
programmers
JavaScript for impatient programmers
1 About this book (ES2019 edition)
1.1 About the content
1.2 Previewing and buying this book
1.3 About the author
1.4 Acknowledgements
2 FAQ: Book and supplementary material
2.1 How to read this book
2.2 I own a digital edition
2.3 I own the print edition
2.4 Notations and conventions

3 Why JavaScript? (bonus)

3.1 The cons of JavaScript
3.2 The pros of JavaScript
3.3 Pro and con of JavaScript: innovation

4 The nature of JavaScript (bonus)

4.1 JavaScript’s influences
4.2 The nature of JavaScript
4.3 Tips for getting started with JavaScript

5 History and evolution of JavaScript

5.1 How JavaScript was created
5.2 Standardizing JavaScript
 5.3 Timeline of ECMAScript versions
5.4 Ecma Technical Committee 39 (TC39)
5.5 The TC39 process
5.6 FAQ: TC39 process
5.7 Evolving JavaScript: Don’t break the web

6 FAQ: JavaScript
6.1 What are good references for JavaScript?
6.2 How do I find out what JavaScript features are supported
where?
6.3 Where can I look up what features are planned for
JavaScript?
6.4 Why does JavaScript fail silently so often?
6.5 Why can’t we clean up JavaScript, by removing quirks and
outdated features?
6.6 How can I quickly try out a piece of JavaScript code?
7 The big picture
7.1 What are you learning in this book?
7.2 The structure of browsers and Node.js
7.3 JavaScript references
7.4 Further reading

8 Syntax
8.1 An overview of JavaScript’s syntax
8.2 (Advanced)
8.3 Identifiers
8.4 Statement vs. expression
8.5 Ambiguous syntax
8.6 Semicolons
 8.7 Automatic semicolon insertion (ASI)
8.8 Semicolons: best practices
8.9 Strict mode vs. sloppy mode

9 Consoles: interactive JavaScript command lines

9.1 Trying out JavaScript code
9.2 The console.* API: printing data and more

10 Assertion API
10.1 Assertions in software development
10.2 How assertions are used in this book
10.3 Normal comparison vs. deep comparison
10.4 Quick reference: module assert

11 Getting started with quizzes and exercises

11.1 Quizzes
11.2 Exercises
11.3 Unit tests in JavaScript

12 Variables and assignment

12.1 let
12.2 const
12.3 Deciding between const and let
12.4 The scope of a variable
12.5 (Advanced)
12.6 Terminology: static vs. dynamic
12.7 Global variables and the global object
12.8 Declarations: scope and activation
12.9 Closures
12.10 Further reading

13 Values
 13.1 What’s a type?
13.2 JavaScript’s type hierarchy
13.3 The types of the language specification
13.4 Primitive values vs. objects
13.5 The operators typeof and instanceof: what’s the type of a
value?
13.6 Classes and constructor functions
13.7 Converting between types

14 Operators
14.1 Making sense of operators
14.2 The plus operator (+)
14.3 Assignment operators
14.4 Equality: == vs. ===
14.5 Ordering operators
14.6 Various other operators

15 The non-values undefined and null

15.1 undefined vs. null
15.2 Occurrences of undefined and null
15.3 Checking for undefined or null
15.4 undefined and null don’t have properties
15.5 The history of undefined and null

16 Booleans
16.1 Converting to boolean
16.2 Falsy and truthy values
16.3 Truthiness-based existence checks
16.4 Conditional operator (? :)
16.5 Binary logical operators: And (x && y), Or (x || y)
 16.6 Logical Not (!)

17 Numbers
17.1 JavaScript only has floating point numbers
17.2 Number literals
17.3 Arithmetic operators
17.4 Converting to number
17.5 Error values
17.6 Error value: NaN
17.7 Error value: Infinity
17.8 The precision of numbers: careful with decimal fractions
17.9 (Advanced)
17.10 Background: floating point precision
17.11 Integers in JavaScript
17.12 Bitwise operators
17.13 Quick reference: numbers
18 Math
18.1 Data properties
18.2 Exponents, roots, logarithms
18.3 Rounding
18.4 Trigonometric Functions
18.5 Various other functions
18.6 Sources

19 Unicode – a brief introduction (advanced)

19.1 Code points vs. code units
19.2 Encodings used in web development: UTF-16 and UTF-8
19.3 Grapheme clusters – the real characters

20 Strings
 20.1 Plain string literals
20.2 Accessing characters and code points
20.3 String concatenation via +
20.4 Converting to string
20.5 Comparing strings
20.6 Atoms of text: Unicode characters, JavaScript characters,
grapheme clusters
20.7 Quick reference: Strings

21 Using template literals and tagged templates

21.1 Disambiguation: “template”
21.2 Template literals
21.3 Tagged templates
21.4 Raw string literals
21.5 (Advanced)
21.6 Multiline template literals and indentation
21.7 Simple templating via template literals

22 Symbols
22.1 Use cases for symbols
22.2 Publicly known symbols
22.3 Converting symbols

23 Control flow statements

23.1 Conditions of control flow statements
23.2 Controlling loops: break and continue
23.3 if statements
23.4 switch statements
23.5 while loops
23.6 do-while loops
 23.7 for loops
23.8 for-of loops
23.9 for-await-of loops
23.10 for-in loops (avoid)

24 Exception handling
24.1 Motivation: throwing and catching exceptions
24.2 throw
24.3 The try statement
24.4 Error classes

25 Callable values
25.1 Kinds of functions
25.2 Ordinary functions
25.3 Specialized functions
25.4 More kinds of functions and methods
25.5 Returning values from functions and methods
25.6 Parameter handling
25.7 Dynamically evaluating code: eval(), new Function()
(advanced)
26 Environments: under the hood of variables (bonus)
26.1 Environment: data structure for managing variables
26.2 Recursion via environments
26.3 Nested scopes via environments
26.4 Closures and environments
27 Modules
27.1 Overview: syntax of ECMAScript modules
27.2 JavaScript source code formats
27.3 Before we had modules, we had scripts
 27.4 Module systems created prior to ES6
27.5 ECMAScript modules
27.6 Named exports and imports
27.7 Default exports and imports
27.8 More details on exporting and importing
27.9 npm packages
27.10 Naming modules
27.11 Module specifiers
27.12 Loading modules dynamically via import()
27.13 Preview: import.meta.url
27.14 Polyfills: emulating native web platform features
(advanced)
28 Single objects
28.1 What is an object?
28.2 Objects as records
28.3 Spreading into object literals (...)
28.4 Methods
28.5 Objects as dictionaries (advanced)
28.6 Standard methods (advanced)
28.7 Advanced topics

29 Prototype chains and classes

29.1 Prototype chains
29.2 Classes
29.3 Private data for classes
29.4 Subclassing
29.5 FAQ: objects
30 Synchronous iteration
 30.1 What is synchronous iteration about?
30.2 Core iteration constructs: iterables and iterators
30.3 Iterating manually
30.4 Iteration in practice
30.5 Quick reference: synchronous iteration
31 Arrays (Array)
31.1 The two roles of Arrays in JavaScript
31.2 Basic Array operations
31.3 for-of and Arrays
31.4 Array-like objects
31.5 Converting iterable and Array-like values to Arrays
31.6 Creating and filling Arrays with arbitrary lengths
31.7 Multidimensional Arrays
31.8 More Array features (advanced)
31.9 Adding and removing elements (destructively and non-
destructively)
31.10 Methods: iteration and transformation (.find(), .map(),
.filter(), etc.)
31.11 .sort(): sorting Arrays
31.12 Quick reference: Array<T>

32 Typed Arrays: handling binary data (Advanced)

32.1 The basics of the API
32.2 Element types
32.3 More information on Typed Arrays
32.4 Quick references: indices vs. offsets
32.5 Quick reference: ArrayBuffers
32.6 Quick reference: Typed Arrays
32.7 Quick reference: DataViews
33 Maps (Map)
33.1 Using Maps
33.2 Example: Counting characters
33.3 A few more details about the keys of Maps (advanced)
33.4 Missing Map operations
33.5 Quick reference: Map<K,V>
33.6 FAQ: Maps
34 WeakMaps (WeakMap)
34.1 WeakMaps are black boxes
34.2 The keys of a WeakMap are weakly held
34.3 Examples
34.4 WeakMap API
35 Sets (Set)
35.1 Using Sets
35.2 Examples of using Sets
35.3 What Set elements are considered equal?
35.4 Missing Set operations
35.5 Quick reference: Set<T>
35.6 FAQ: Sets

36 WeakSets (WeakSet)
36.1 Example: Marking objects as safe to use with a method
36.2 WeakSet API
37 Destructuring
37.1 A first taste of destructuring
37.2 Constructing vs. extracting
37.3 Where can we destructure?
37.4 Object-destructuring
 37.5 Array-destructuring
37.6 Examples of destructuring
37.7 What happens if a pattern part does not match anything?
37.8 What values can’t be destructured?
37.9 (Advanced)
37.10 Default values
37.11 Parameter definitions are similar to destructuring
37.12 Nested destructuring

38 Synchronous generators (advanced)

38.1 What are synchronous generators?
38.2 Calling generators from generators (advanced)
38.3 Background: external iteration vs. internal iteration
38.4 Use case for generators: reusing traversals
38.5 Advanced features of generators
39 Asynchronous programming in JavaScript
39.1 A roadmap for asynchronous programming in JavaScript
39.2 The call stack
39.3 The event loop
39.4 How to avoid blocking the JavaScript process
39.5 Patterns for delivering asynchronous results
39.6 Asynchronous code: the downsides
39.7 Resources

40 Promises for asynchronous programming

40.1 The basics of using Promises
40.2 Examples
40.3 Error handling: don’t mix rejections and exceptions
 40.4 Promise-based functions start synchronously, settle
asynchronously
40.5 Promise.all(): concurrency and Arrays of Promises
40.6 Tips for chaining Promises
40.7 Advanced topics
41 Async functions
41.1 Async functions: the basics
41.2 Returning from async functions
41.3 await: working with Promises
41.4 (Advanced)
41.5 Immediately invoked async arrow functions
41.6 Concurrency and await
41.7 Tips for using async functions

42 Asynchronous iteration
42.1 Basic asynchronous iteration
42.2 Asynchronous generators
42.3 Async iteration over Node.js streams

43 Regular expressions (RegExp)

43.1 Creating regular expressions
43.2 Syntax
43.3 Flags
43.4 Properties of regular expression objects
43.5 Methods for working with regular expressions
43.6 Flag /g and its pitfalls
43.7 Techniques for working with regular expressions
44 Dates (Date)
44.1 Best practice: avoid the built-in Date
 44.2 Time standards
44.3 Background: date time formats (ISO)
44.4 Time values
44.5 Creating Dates
44.6 Getters and setters
44.7 Converting Dates to strings
45 Creating and parsing JSON (JSON)
45.1 The discovery and standardization of JSON
45.2 JSON syntax
45.3 Using the JSON API
45.4 Customizing stringification and parsing (advanced)
45.5 FAQ
46 Next steps: overview of web development (bonus)
46.1 Tips against feeling overwhelmed
46.2 Things worth learning for web development
46.3 Example: tool-based JavaScript workflow
46.4 An overview of JavaScript tools
46.5 Tools not related to JavaScript

47 Index
JavaScript for impatient
programmers
1 About this book (ES2019
edition)

1.1 About the content

1.1.1 What’s in this book?
1.1.2 What is not covered by this book?
1.1.3 Isn’t this book too long for impatient people?
1.2 Previewing and buying this book
1.2.1 How can I preview the book, the exercises, and the
quizzes?
1.2.2 How can I buy a digital edition of this book?
1.2.3 How can I buy the print edition of this book?
1.3 About the author
1.4 Acknowledgements
1.1 About the content
1.1.1 What’s in this book?

This book makes JavaScript less challenging to learn for newcomers

by offering a modern view that is as consistent as possible.

Highlights:

Get started quickly by initially focusing on modern features.

Test-driven exercises and quizzes available for most chapters.
Covers all essential features of JavaScript, up to and including
ES2019.
Optional advanced sections let you dig deeper.

No prior knowledge of JavaScript is required, but you should know

how to program.

1.1.2 What is not covered by this book?

Some advanced language features are not explained, but

references to appropriate material are provided – for example,
to my other JavaScript books at ExploringJS.com, which are free
to read online.
This book deliberately focuses on the language. Browser-only
features, etc. are not described.
1.1.3 Isn’t this book too long for
impatient people?

There are several ways in which you can read this book. One of them
involves skipping much of the content in order to get started quickly.
For details, see §2.1.1 “In which order should I read the content in
this book?”.
1.2 Previewing and buying this
book
1.2.1 How can I preview the book, the
exercises, and the quizzes?

Go to the homepage of this book:

All essential chapters of this book can be read online.

The first half of the test-driven exercises can be downloaded.
The first half of the quizzes can be tried online.

1.2.2 How can I buy a digital edition of

this book?

There are two digital editions of JavaScript for impatient

programmers:

Ebooks: PDF, EPUB, MOBI, HTML (all without DRM)

Ebooks plus exercises and quizzes

The home page of this book describes how you can buy them.

1.2.3 How can I buy the print edition of

this book?

The print edition of JavaScript for impatient programmers is

available on Amazon.
1.3 About the author
Dr. Axel Rauschmayer specializes in JavaScript and web
development. He has been developing web applications since 1995.
In 1999, he was technical manager at a German internet startup that
later expanded internationally. In 2006, he held his first talk on
Ajax. In 2010, he received a PhD in Informatics from the University
of Munich.

Since 2011, he has been blogging about web development at

2ality.com and has written several books on JavaScript. He has held
trainings and talks for companies such as eBay, Bank of America,
and O’Reilly Media.

He lives in Munich, Germany.

1.4 Acknowledgements
Cover by Fran Caye
Parts of this book were edited by Adaobi Obi Tulton.
Thanks for answering questions, discussing language topics,
etc.:
Allen Wirfs-Brock (@awbjs)
Benedikt Meurer (@bmeurer)
Brian Terlson (@bterlson)
Daniel Ehrenberg (@littledan)
Jordan Harband (@ljharb)
Mathias Bynens (@mathias)
Myles Borins (@MylesBorins)
Rob Palmer (@robpalmer2)
Šime Vidas (@simevidas)
And many others
Thanks for reviewing:
Johannes Weber (@jowe)

[Generated: 2019-08-31 17:39]

2 FAQ: Book and
supplementary material

2.1 How to read this book

2.1.1 In which order should I read the content in this book?
2.1.2 Why are some chapters and sections marked with
“(advanced)”?
2.1.3 Why are some chapters marked with “(bonus)”?
2.2 I own a digital edition
2.2.1 How do I submit feedback and corrections?
2.2.2 How do I get updates for the downloads I bought at
Payhip?
2.2.3 Can I upgrade from package “Ebooks” to package
“Ebooks + exercises + quizzes”?
2.3 I own the print edition
2.3.1 Can I get a discount for a digital edition?
2.3.2 Can I submit an error or see submitted errors?
2.3.3 Is there an online list with the URLs in this book?
2.4 Notations and conventions
2.4.1 What is a type signature? Why am I seeing static types
in this book?
2.4.2 What do the notes with icons mean?

This chapter answers questions you may have and gives tips for
reading this book.
2.1 How to read this book
2.1.1 In which order should I read the
content in this book?

This book is three books in one:

You can use it to get started with JavaScript as quickly as

possible. This “mode” is for impatient people:
Start reading with §7 “The big picture”.
Skip all chapters and sections marked as “advanced”, and
all quick references.
It gives you a comprehensive look at current JavaScript. In this
“mode”, you read everything and don’t skip advanced content
and quick references.
It serves as a reference. If there is a topic that you are interested
in, you can find information on it via the table of contents or via
the index. Due to basic and advanced content being mixed,
everything you need is usually in a single location.

The quizzes and exercises play an important part in helping you

practice and retain what you have learned.

2.1.2 Why are some chapters and

sections marked with “(advanced)”?

Several chapters and sections are marked with “(advanced)”. The

idea is that you can initially skip them. That is, you can get a quick
working knowledge of JavaScript by only reading the basic (non-
advanced) content.

As your knowledge evolves, you can later come back to some or all of
the advanced content.

2.1.3 Why are some chapters marked

with “(bonus)”?

The bonus chapters are only available in the paid versions of this
book (print and ebook). They are listed in the full table of contents.
2.2 I own a digital edition
2.2.1 How do I submit feedback and
corrections?

The HTML version of this book (online, or ad-free archive in the paid
version) has a link at the end of each chapter that enables you to give
feedback.

2.2.2 How do I get updates for the

downloads I bought at Payhip?

The receipt email for the purchase includes a link. You’ll always
be able to download the latest version of the files at that
location.

If you opted into emails while buying, you’ll get an email

whenever there is new content. To opt in later, you must contact
Payhip (see bottom of payhip.com).

2.2.3 Can I upgrade from package

“Ebooks” to package “Ebooks + exercises
+ quizzes”?

Yes. The instructions for doing so are on the homepage of this book.
2.3 I own the print edition
2.3.1 Can I get a discount for a digital
edition?

If you bought the print edition, you can get a discount for a digital
edition. The homepage of the print edition explains how.

Alas, the reverse is not possible: you cannot get a discount for the
print edition if you bought a digital edition.

2.3.2 Can I submit an error or see

submitted errors?

On the homepage of the print edition, you can submit errors and see
submitted errors.

2.3.3 Is there an online list with the URLs

in this book?

The homepage of the print edition has a list with all the URLs that
you see in the footnotes of the print edition.
2.4 Notations and conventions
2.4.1 What is a type signature? Why am I
seeing static types in this book?

For example, you may see:

Number.isFinite(num: number): boolean

That is called the type signature of Number.isFinite(). This notation,

especially the static types number of num and boolean of the result, are
not real JavaScript. The notation is borrowed from the compile-to-
JavaScript language TypeScript (which is mostly just JavaScript plus
static typing).

Why is this notation being used? It helps give you a quick idea of how
a function works. The notation is explained in detail in a 2ality blog
post, but is usually relatively intuitive.

2.4.2 What do the notes with icons

mean?

Reading instructions

Explains how to best read the content.

External content

Points to additional, external, content.

 Tip

Gives a tip related to the current content.

Question

Asks and answers a question pertinent to the current content

(think FAQ).

Warning

Warns about pitfalls, etc.

Details

Provides additional details, complementing the current content. It

is similar to a footnote.

Exercise

Mentions the path of a test-driven exercise that you can do at that

point.

Quiz

Indicates that there is a quiz for the current (part of a) chapter.

3 Why JavaScript? (bonus)

3.1 The cons of JavaScript

3.2 The pros of JavaScript
3.2.1 Community
3.2.2 Practically useful
3.2.3 Language
3.3 Pro and con of JavaScript: innovation

In this chapter, we examine the pros and cons of JavaScript.

“ECMAScript 6” and “ES6” refer to versions of

JavaScript

ECMAScript is the name of the language standard; the number

refers to the version of that standard. For more information,
consult §5.2 “Standardizing JavaScript”.
3.1 The cons of JavaScript
Among programmers, JavaScript isn’t always well liked. One reason
is that it has a fair amount of quirks. Some of them are just unusual
ways of doing something. Others are considered bugs. Either way,
learning why JavaScript does something the way it does, helps with
dealing with the quirks and with accepting JavaScript (maybe even
liking it). Hopefully, this book can be of assistance here.

Additionally, many traditional quirks have been eliminated now. For

example:

Traditionally, JavaScript variables weren’t block-scoped. ES6

introduced let and const, which let you declare block-scoped
variables.
Prior to ES6, implementing object factories and inheritance via
function and .prototype was clumsy. ES6 introduced classes,
which provide more convenient syntax for these mechanisms.
Traditionally, JavaScript did not have built-in modules. ES6
added them to the language.

Lastly, JavaScript’s standard library is limited, but:

There are plans for adding more functionality.

Many libraries are easily available via the npm software registry.
3.2 The pros of JavaScript
On the plus side, JavaScript offers many benefits.

3.2.1 Community

JavaScript’s popularity means that it’s well supported and well

documented. Whenever you create something in JavaScript, you can
rely on many people being (potentially) interested. And there is a
large pool of JavaScript programmers from which you can hire, if
you need to.

No single party controls JavaScript – it is evolved by TC39, a

committee comprising many organizations. The language is evolved
via an open process that encourages feedback from the public.

3.2.2 Practically useful

With JavaScript, you can write apps for many client platforms. These
are a few example technologies:

Progressive Web Apps can be installed natively on Android and

many desktop operating systems.
Electron lets you build cross-platform desktop apps.
React Native lets you write apps for iOS and Android that have
native user interfaces.
Node.js provides extensive support for writing shell scripts (in
addition to being a platform for web servers).
JavaScript is supported by many server platforms and services – for
example:

Node.js (many of the following services are based on Node.js or

support its APIs)
ZEIT Now
Microsoft Azure Functions
AWS Lambda
Google Cloud Functions

There are many data technologies available for JavaScript: many

databases support it and intermediate layers (such as GraphQL)
exist. Additionally, the standard data format JSON (JavaScript
Object Notation) is based on JavaScript and supported by its
standard library.

Lastly, many, if not most, tools for JavaScript are written in

JavaScript. That includes IDEs, build tools, and more. As a
consequence, you install them the same way you install your libraries
and you can customize them in JavaScript.

3.2.3 Language

Many libraries are available, via the de-facto standard in the

JavaScript universe, the npm software registry.
If you are unhappy with “plain” JavaScript, it is relatively easy to
add more features:
You can compile future and modern language features to
current and past versions of JavaScript, via Babel.
 You can add static typing, via TypeScript and Flow.
You can work with ReasonML, which is, roughly, OCaml
with JavaScript syntax. It can be compiled to JavaScript or
native code.
The language is flexible: it is dynamic and supports both object-
oriented programming and functional programming.
JavaScript has become suprisingly fast for such a dynamic
language.
Whenever it isn’t fast enough, you can switch to
WebAssembly, a universal virtual machine built into most
JavaScript engines. It can run static code at nearly native
speeds.
3.3 Pro and con of JavaScript:
innovation
There is much innovation in the JavaScript ecosystem: new
approaches to implementing user interfaces, new ways of optimizing
the delivery of software, and more. The upside is that you will
constantly learn new things. The downside is that the constant
change can be exhausting at times. Thankfully, things have
somewhat slowed down, recently: all of ES6 (which was a
considerable modernization of the language) is becoming
established, as are certain tools and workflows.

Quiz

See quiz app.

4 The nature of JavaScript
(bonus)

4.1 JavaScript’s influences

4.2 The nature of JavaScript
4.2.1 JavaScript often fails silently
4.3 Tips for getting started with JavaScript
4.1 JavaScript’s influences
When JavaScript was created in 1995, it was influenced by several
programming languages:

JavaScript’s syntax is largely based on Java.

Self inspired JavaScript’s prototypal inheritance.
Closures and environments were borrowed from Scheme.
AWK influenced JavaScript’s functions (including the keyword
function).
JavaScript’s strings, Arrays, and regular expressions take cues
from Perl.
HyperTalk inspired event handling via onclick in web browsers.

With ECMAScript 6, new influences came to JavaScript:

Generators were borrowed from Python.

The syntax of arrow functions came from CoffeeScript.
C++ contributed the keyword const.
Destructuring was inspired by Lisp’s destructuring bind.
Template literals came from the E language (where they are
called quasi literals).
4.2 The nature of JavaScript
These are a few traits of the language:

Its syntax is part of the C family of languages (curly braces, etc.).

It is a dynamic language: most objects can be changed in various

ways at runtime, objects can be created directly, etc.

It is a dynamically typed language: variables don’t have fixed

static types and you can assign any value to a given (mutable)
variable.

It has functional programming features: first-class functions,

closures, partial application via bind(), etc.

It has object-oriented features: mutable state, objects,

inheritance, classes, etc.

It often fails silently: see the next subsection for details.

It is deployed as source code. But that source code is often

minified (rewritten to require less storage). And there are plans
for a binary source code format.

JavaScript is part of the web platform – it is the language built

into web browsers. But it is also used elsewhere – for example,
in Node.js, for server things, and shell scripting.
 JavaScript engines often optimize less-efficient language
mechanisms under the hood. For example, in principle,
JavaScript Arrays are dictionaries. But under the hood, engines
store Arrays contiguously if they have contiguous indices.

4.2.1 JavaScript often fails silently

JavaScript often fails silently. Let’s look at two examples.

First example: If the operands of an operator don’t have the

appropriate types, they are converted as necessary.

> '3' * '5'

15

Second example: If an arithmetic computation fails, you get an error

value, not an exception.

> 1 / 0
Infinity

The reason for the silent failures is historical: JavaScript did not have
exceptions until ECMAScript 3. Since then, its designers have tried
to avoid silent failures.
4.3 Tips for getting started with
JavaScript
These are a few tips to help you get started with JavaScript:

Take your time to really get to know this language. The

conventional C-style syntax hides that this is a very
unconventional language. Learn especially the quirks and the
rationales behind them. Then you will understand and
appreciate the language better.
In addition to details, this book also teaches simple rules of
thumb to be safe – for example, “Always use === to
determine if two values are equal, never ==.”
Language tools make it easier to work with JavaScript. For
example:
You can statically type JavaScript via TypeScript or Flow.
You can check for problems and anti-patterns via linters
such as ESLint.
You can format your code automatically via code formatters
such as Prettier.
Get in contact with the community:
Twitter is popular among JavaScript programmers. As a
mode of communication that sits between the spoken and
the written word, it is well suited for exchanging knowledge.
Many cities have regular free meetups where people come
together to learn topics related to JavaScript.
 JavaScript conferences are another convenient way of
meeting other JavaScript programmers.
Read books and blogs. Much material is free online!
5 History and evolution of
JavaScript

5.1 How JavaScript was created

5.2 Standardizing JavaScript
5.3 Timeline of ECMAScript versions
5.4 Ecma Technical Committee 39 (TC39)
5.5 The TC39 process
5.5.1 Tip: Think in individual features and stages, not
ECMAScript versions
5.6 FAQ: TC39 process
5.6.1 How is [my favorite proposed feature] doing?
5.6.2 Is there an official list of ECMAScript features?
5.7 Evolving JavaScript: Don’t break the web
5.1 How JavaScript was created
JavaScript was created in May 1995 in 10 days, by Brendan Eich.
Eich worked at Netscape and implemented JavaScript for their web
browser, Netscape Navigator.

The idea was that major interactive parts of the client-side web were
to be implemented in Java. JavaScript was supposed to be a glue
language for those parts and to also make HTML slightly more
interactive. Given its role of assisting Java, JavaScript had to look
like Java. That ruled out existing solutions such as Perl, Python, TCL,
and others.

Initially, JavaScript’s name changed several times:

Its code name was Mocha.

In the Netscape Navigator 2.0 betas (September 1995), it was
called LiveScript.
In Netscape Navigator 2.0 beta 3 (December 1995), it got its
final name, JavaScript.
5.2 Standardizing JavaScript
There are two standards for JavaScript:

ECMA-262 is hosted by Ecma International. It is the primary

standard.
ISO/IEC 16262 is hosted by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC). This is a secondary standard.

The language described by these standards is called ECMAScript, not

JavaScript. A different name was chosen because Sun (now Oracle)
had a trademark for the latter name. The “ECMA” in “ECMAScript”
comes from the organization that hosts the primary standard.

The original name of that organization was ECMA, an acronym for

European Computer Manufacturers Association. It was later
changed to Ecma International (with “Ecma” being a proper name,
not an acronym) because the organization’s activities had expanded
beyond Europe. The initial all-caps acronym explains the spelling of
ECMAScript.

In principle, JavaScript and ECMAScript mean the same thing.

Sometimes the following distinction is made:

The term JavaScript refers to the language and its

implementations.
The term ECMAScript refers to the language standard and
language versions.
Therefore, ECMAScript 6 is a version of the language (its 6th
edition).
5.3 Timeline of ECMAScript
versions
This is a brief timeline of ECMAScript versions:

ECMAScript 1 (June 1997): First version of the standard.

ECMAScript 2 (June 1998): Small update to keep ECMA-262 in
sync with the ISO standard.
ECMAScript 3 (December 1999): Adds many core features –
“[…] regular expressions, better string handling, new control
statements [do-while, switch], try/catch exception handling,
[…]”
ECMAScript 4 (abandoned in July 2008): Would have been a
massive upgrade (with static typing, modules, namespaces, and
more), but ended up being too ambitious and dividing the
language’s stewards.
ECMAScript 5 (December 2009): Brought minor improvements
– a few standard library features and strict mode.
ECMAScript 5.1 (June 2011): Another small update to keep
Ecma and ISO standards in sync.
ECMAScript 6 (June 2015): A large update that fulfilled many of
the promises of ECMAScript 4. This version is the first one
whose official name – ECMAScript 2015 – is based on the year
of publication.
ECMAScript 2016 (June 2016): First yearly release. The shorter
release life cycle resulted in fewer new features compared to the
large ES6.
ECMAScript 2017 (June 2017). Second yearly release.
Subsequent ECMAScript versions (ES2018, etc.) are always
ratified in June.
5.4 Ecma Technical Committee 39
(TC39)
TC39 is the committee that evolves JavaScript. Its member are,
strictly speaking, companies: Adobe, Apple, Facebook, Google,
Microsoft, Mozilla, Opera, Twitter, and others. That is, companies
that are usually fierce competitors are working together for the good
of the language.

Every two months, TC39 has meetings that member-appointed

delegates and invited experts attend. The minutes of those meetings
are public in a GitHub repository.
5.5 The TC39 process
With ECMAScript 6, two issues with the release process used at that
time became obvious:

If too much time passes between releases then features that are
ready early, have to wait a long time until they can be released.
And features that are ready late, risk being rushed to make the
deadline.

Features were often designed long before they were

implemented and used. Design deficiencies related to
implementation and use were therefore discovered too late.

In response to these issues, TC39 instituted the new TC39 process:

ECMAScript features are designed independently and go

through stages, starting at 0 (“strawman”), ending at 4
(“finished”).
Especially the later stages require prototype implementations
and real-world testing, leading to feedback loops between
designs and implementations.
ECMAScript versions are released once per year and include all
features that have reached stage 4 prior to a release deadline.

The result: smaller, incremental releases, whose features have

already been field-tested. Fig. 1 illustrates the TC39 process.
 Review at TC39 meeting

Stage 0: strawman Sketch

Pick champions

Stage 1: proposal TC39 helps

First spec text, 2 implementations

Stage 2: draft Likely to be standardized

Spec complete

Stage 3: candidate Done, needs feedback from implementations

Test 262 acceptance tests

Stage 4: finished Ready for standardization

Figure 1: Each ECMAScript feature proposal goes through stages that

are numbered from 0 to 4. Champions are TC39 members that
support the authors of a feature. Test 262 is a suite of tests that
checks JavaScript engines for compliance with the language
specification.

ES2016 was the first ECMAScript version that was designed

according to the TC39 process.

5.5.1 Tip: Think in individual features

and stages, not ECMAScript versions

Up to and including ES6, it was most common to think about

JavaScript in terms of ECMAScript versions – for example, “Does
this browser support ES6 yet?”

Starting with ES2016, it’s better to think in individual features: once

a feature reaches stage 4, you can safely use it (if it’s supported by the
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
BURGH-UPON-SANDS is the next station. In BURGH-UPON-SANDS.
Horsley’s day the remains of its ramparts were
to be seen at a place called the Old-castle, a little to the east of the
church. He says—
On the west side these remains are most distinct, being about six
chains in length. And Severus’s Wall seems to have formed the north
rampart of the station. I was assured by the person to whom the
field belonged, that stones were often ploughed up in it, and lime
with the stones. Urns have also frequently been found here. I saw,
besides an imperfect inscription, two Roman altars lying at a door in
the town, but neither sculptures nor inscriptions are now visible
upon them. ...... If besides all this, we consider the distance from
the last station at Stanwix, I think it can admit of no doubt but there
must have been a station here, though most of its ramparts are now
levelled, the field having been in tillage many years. I shall only
further add, that it was very proper to have a station at each end of
the marsh, which, if the water flowed as high as some believe,
would make a kind of bay.
At present, little meets the eye of the inquirer, to inform him of the
spot where the station stood, but when the surface of the ground is
broken, the traces of a Roman city are still sufficiently distinct. The
church-yard is filled with fragments of red sandstone blocks. At the
depth of two feet, it contains several distinct lines of foundations.
Entire ‘lachrymatory’ vessels and fragments of unglazed jars and urns
have repeatedly been dug up. A small bronze figure was recently
found. When the canal was cut, blocks of stone, blackened by smoke,
were dug out of the soil to the south-east of the church.
A few inscribed stones have been found since Horsley’s day, but none
of them name the cohort which was stationed in the camp. Hence we
have no means of knowing whether Watch-cross has been rightly
thrown out of the list of ‘stations along the line,’ and whether Burgh is,
as Horsley states it to be, the Axelodunum of the Notitia, or Congavata,
according to the opinion of Hodgson.
In the absence of more decided remains of the camp or Wall, an
examination of the church of this long straggling town will reward the
attention of the antiquary. It is a good specimen of the fortified Border
churches. It has served the threefold purpose of a church, a fortress,
and a prison.
In case of an inroad from the Scottish coast, the cattle appear to
have been shut up in the body of the church, and the inhabitants to
have had recourse to the large embattled tower at its western end.
The only entrance to this tower is from the inside of the church, and
it is secured by a ponderous iron door, fastening with two large
bolts. The walls of the tower are seven feet thick. Its lowest
apartment is a vaulted chamber, lighted by three arrow-slits. At the
south angle is a spiral stone staircase, leading to two upper
chambers.
Many of the stones of which the church is built, are Roman, and
exhibit reticulated tooling.
Near to Burgh is the site on which the castle of
sir Hugh de Morville, one of the murderers of KING EDWARD’S
Thomas à Becket, formerly stood. The adjoining MONUMENT.
field is called—‘Hang-man-tree,’ doubtless
because my lord had his gallows here, always ready for use. A
neighbouring enclosure bears a designation not less ominous—‘Spill-
blood-holm.’ But the most interesting historical memorial which the
neighbourhood of Burgh affords, is the monument to king Edward I.,
which stands on the marsh.
Longshanks had marshalled his army: his numerous host lay
encamped upon the sandy flat on the north of the town: the waters
of the Solway alone separated him from the objects of his
vengeance. Here the mighty Edward was called to enter into conflict
with an enemy whom he had often braved on the battle-field, but
who was now to approach him by a new method of assault. In this
struggle, his valour availed him nothing, his chivalrous hosts could
yield him no aid, and no devoted Eleanor was there to abstract from
his veins the subtle poison which the king of terrors had infused. On
Burgh-marsh the ‘ruthless king’ breathed his last. A monument,
represented in the vignette at the close of this part, marks the spot.
Another structure, on the opposite side of the TOWER OF
Firth, may be noticed by the traveller. The REPENTANCE.
history of the ‘Tower of Repentance’ is strikingly illustrative of the
disordered state of society in this district before the union of the two
kingdoms.
A chieftain from the northern side having made a successful inroad
into the English border, was crossing the Solway on his return, laden
with booty, when a sudden storm arose. In order to lighten his
labouring vessel, he threw his prisoners overboard in preference to
the cattle which he had stolen. The danger past, he was smitten
with remorse. In order to make such amends as he could, he built a
beacon-tower which overlooks the Solway, and to this day is called
the Tower of Repentance. Tradition avers that the penitent himself
carried all the stones used in its erection to the top of the hill. It is
not far from the town of Ecclefechan.
In passing along the village of Burgh, the observing visitor will notice
the large number of boulder-stones, some of them half a ton in
weight, which are strewed over the ground; several of them have
been used in forming the foundations of the cottages. They are of
granite, and in some distant age have been wrenched from the
summit of Criffel, the hill which lends so much beauty to the
landscape on the northern side of the Solway.
On the western side of the village of Dykesfield, which we next
encounter, is a common that contains several earthen ramparts and
temporary camps.
Between Dykesfield and the next station, Drumburgh, an extensive
marsh occurs, which even now is occasionally overflowed by the
waters of the Solway. Hodgson inclines to the belief, that the Wall ran
directly across it. Horsley, however, took a different view of the
subject.
From hence to Drumburgh Castle no vestige of the Wall is to be
seen; though I think it certain that the Wall did not pass through the
marsh, but by Boustead-hill and Easton, for both tradition and
matter of fact favour this course of it. The country people often
 strike upon the Wall, and could tell exactly several places through
which, by this means, they knew it had passed, and always by the
side of the marsh. Besides it is no way reasonable to suppose that
the Romans would build their Wall within tide-mark.
After careful inquiry, I am disposed to adopt EASTON-MARSH.
Horsley’s view; even now, stones which appear
to be Wall-stones, are turned up by the operations of the husbandmen
in the line which the Wall is supposed to have taken by Boustead and
Easton. It need not be a subject of surprise, that the Wall in this
district has been so thoroughly removed, as there is no quarry within
a convenient distance, and the Wall, therefore, has been the source
from which the inhabitants of the country have drawn their supply of
building stones. The Romans seem to have gone to Howrigg quarry,
which is not less than eight miles south of the Barrier, for their facing-
stones; those which they used for the interior of the Wall correspond
in character with the proceeds of Stone-pot-scar, a quarry on the
north shore of the Solway.
We must now part company with the Vallum. This wonderful earth-
work, which has outlived the accidents of seventeen centuries, and
which we have traced, with but few interruptions, from the modern
representative of Pons Ælii to this point, is not observed going beyond
it. As the Vallum falls short of the Wall at its eastern extremity by
about four miles, so it does at its western. Horsley, who wrote more
than a century ago, and who, consequently, had better opportunities
of judging than we can now have, says—
Whether Hadrian’s work (the Vallum) has been continued any
further than this marsh, or to the water-side beyond Drumburgh, is
doubtful. But I am pretty confident that it was not carried on so far
as the Wall of Severus at this end, any more than at the other. And I
can by no means yield to Mr. Gordon’s sentiments, that the one, for
a good space at each end, was built upon the foundation of the
other. However, it is certain that from the side of the marsh to the
west end of the Wall there is no appearance of Hadrian’s work, or
any thing belonging to it.
DRUMBURGH.
DRUMBURGH contains distinct remains of a small stationary camp.
This, if Watch-cross be rejected, was the sixteenth station of the Wall,
and consequently, the Axelodunum of the Notitia, which was garrisoned
by the first cohort of the Spaniards. The camp is on the grounds of
Richard Lawson, esq. The ramparts are well defined, as well as the
ditch which surrounds them. The whole area is covered with a
luxuriant sward, and its northern margin is shaded by some thriving
ash-trees. No portion of the Wall remains in its vicinity, but its present
proprietor remembers witnessing the removal of the foundation. The
northern rampart of the station did not come up to the Wall, but was
removed a few yards from it; probably the military way ran between
the station and the Wall. The station at Barr-hill, on the Antonine Wall,
is similarly situated.
South of the station is a well, enclosed by a circular wall of Roman
masonry. It is still in use, though the water is drawn from it by a
pump.
The mediæval castle, of which there are considerable remains, is a
very fine specimen of the ancient fortified manor-house. It is built of
Roman stones. Extensive alterations were made upon it in the reign of
Henry VIII. The habitable part of it is now occupied as a farm-house.

The tranquillity of this region was not always what it now is.
Standing on the northern rampart of the station, Mr. Lawson, the
aged proprietor, directed the attention of the Pilgrim-party of 1849
to a small cottage on the opposite shore. ‘There,’ said he, ‘lived a
Scottish reaver, who in the days of my grandfather made, on
nineteen successive Easter-eves, a successful foray on the English
side. A twentieth time he prepared to go; his family remonstrated,
he however persisted, saying that this should be his last attempt.
Our people were prepared for him and slew him.’ Some of the party
asked ‘what notice did the law take of the transaction?’ 'None; the
law which could not protect a man, would not punish him for taking
the law into his own hands.'
Now, nearly arrived at the western extremity of the great Barrier, we
meet with but few traces of its characteristic masonry; enough,
however, remains to lure us pleasantly to our journey’s end.
In cutting the canal from Carlisle to the Solway Firth, in 1823, a
prostrate forest of oak was discovered, which belonged to an age
anterior to that of Hadrian. The engineer of the canal says—
A subterraneous forest was cut through in the PRIMEVAL FOREST.
excavation of the canal, near the banks of the
Solway Firth, about half a mile north-west of the village of Glasson,
and extending into Kirklands. The trees were all prostrate, and they
had fallen, with little deviation, in a northerly direction, or a little
eastward of it.—Some short trunks, of two or three feet in height,
were in the position of their natural growth; but although the trees,
with the exception of their alburnum and all the branches, were
perfectly sound, yet the extremity of the trunks, whether fallen or
standing, were so rugged, that it was not discoverable whether the
trees had been cut down, or had fallen by a violent storm. The level
upon which the trunks lay, was a little below that of high tides, and
from eight to ten feet below the surface of the ground they were
embedded in; which, excepting the superficial soil, is a soft blue
clay, having the appearance of marine alluvion.... Although the
precise period when this forest fell is not ascertainable, there is a
positive proof that it must have been long prior to the building of
the Wall because the foundations of the Wall passed obliquely over
it, and lay three or four feet above the level of the trees.—Arch. Æl.
ii. 117.
The forest extends over a considerable tract of ground. It is probable
that it was overthrown by a tempest from the south or south-west, at
a time when the sea occupied a lower level than it does at present.
The wood was so sound, that it was used in common with other oak
timber in forming the jetties at the outlet of the canal into the Solway
Firth. The president’s chair of the Society of Antiquaries, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, is formed of it.
At Port-Carlisle is a mound resembling an ancient British barrow,
called Fisher’s-cross. About half-a-mile to the westward of it is another
which has been somewhat encroached upon by the road that runs
along the margin of the Solway, and is denominated Knock’s-cross.
The proverb is common throughout Cumberland, 'As old as Knock’s-
cross.'
In the front of the Steam-packet hotel, Port-Carlisle, is built up the
fragment of a small Roman altar, bearing the inscription, SVIS MATRIBVS.
It is one of the numerous instances that we meet with, along the line
of the Wall, of altars dedicated to the Deæ Matres.
Between Port-Carlisle and Bowness, the site of
the Wall may be traced nearly the whole way; BOWNESS.
not unfrequently the foundations of it and its
fosse may be discerned. In one place some large stones resembling
those used in forming the gateways of the mile-castles will be noticed.
In Brand’s day some considerable portions of the Wall remained,
between these points. He says—
About three quarters of a mile to the east of Bowness, some
fragments of Severus’ Wall remain, of a great height; on measuring
one of them, we found it to be about eight feet high; it was bound
and overgrown with ivy in a most picturesque manner. The facing-
stones on both sides have been taken away.
On my first visit to Bowness, I saw a portion of it as Hodgson
describes it—
It is six feet high. Its rugged and weathered core, still hard as a
rock, is thickly bearded with sloe-thorn and hazel, and mantled
below with ivy and honey-suckle.
This interesting object has been entirely removed, which is the more
to be regretted, as no advantage has been gained by its destruction; it
served as a fence between two fields.
 H. Burdon Richardson, Delt. John Storey
Lith.
BOWNESS.

BOWNESS is the name of the low, bow-shaped

ness, or peninsula, at the extreme point of the TERMINATION OF
left bank of the Solway Firth. It is slightly THE WALL.
elevated above the surrounding country, as is
plainly seen when it is viewed from a distance. A little to the east of
the site of the station, the Solway is easily fordable at low water; but
no one, in the memory of the inhabitants of these parts, has forded
the estuary westward of the town. This circumstance would render
Bowness a fit place at which to terminate the Barrier Wall. With
difficulty the antiquary detects some slight traces of the walls of the
station, its southern lines near the church being those which are most
apparent. No quarry being within several miles of the spot, the Wall
and station have furnished the materials of which the church and
most of the habitations of the town are composed. A small altar built
up in the front of a barn in the principal street, has an inscription
importing that it was dedicated to Jupiter the best and greatest, by
Sulpicius Secundianus, the tribune of the cohort for the safety of our
lords, the emperors Galbus and Volusianus.
Bowness may be the Gabrosentum of the Notitia; Horsley reckoning
Watch-cross among the stations of the line, conceives it to be
Tunnocelum.
Over that beautiful expanse of waters bounded by the Criffel and
other Dumfriesshire hills, which we see from the somewhat elevated
beach that has formed the northern margin of the station, the eye of
the Roman sentinel must often have listlessly rolled, as he paced his
tedious hours away. The memory of Roman and Caledonian feuds
gives to the picture, as we now behold it, a charm enhanced by
contrast with the state of things which existed in ancient days. The
hills have the aspect which they formerly bore, CHANGE OF TIMES.
the waters of the Solway ebb and flow as they
were wont, the same clear sky spans the vault of heaven which was
outstretched in Roman days;—but then, the occupants of the opposite
shores scowled upon each other with deadly hate, and planned the
means of mutual slaughter. Stealthily they cast the net and threw the
leister into the margin of the sea, or when they openly appeared upon
the waters, it was in galleys armed for sanguinary aggression;—now,
with each returning tide, the fisherman plies his peaceful trade,
fearless of harm, and the inhabitants of both the northern and the
southern shore hail each other as friends and fellow-countrymen.
The Roman Barrier of the
Lower Isthmus.
 PART IV
THE SUPPORTING STATIONS OF THE WALL.

ltho’ we have now traversed the

line of the mural Barrier from one
extremity to the other, and
examined all the camps that lie
upon its track, we have met with
but seventeen or eighteen of the
twenty-three that are mentioned in
the Notitia as stations per lineam
Valli. According to Horsley, five
remain to be accounted for, and
according to Hodgson, who rejects
Watch-cross, six. These must be
sought for among the stations
which support the great Barrier on its northern or southern side. As
the names of the camps north of the Wall have been ascertained by
independent authority, and as they do not correspond with those of
the remaining stations of the Notitia, it is agreed SECONDARY FORTS
on all hands, that the list is to be completed OF THE NOTITIA.
from among the fortified places which support the Barrier on the
south. Without dwelling upon the reasons which have guided the
conjectures, (for they are but conjectures at the best), of the great
author of the Britannia Romana, and other antiquaries, in
appropriating the remaining names supplied by the Notitia, it may be
sufficient to say, that as the primary stations, so far as they have been
ascertained, are found to be arranged in that document in regular
consecutive order, beginning at the eastern extremity of the line, it is
conceived to be highly probable that a similar course has been
pursued with the secondary camps. If, therefore, we could correctly
ascertain which, of all the camps that dot the country in the southern
vicinage of the Wall, are mural stations, we might, with tolerable
plausibility, bestow upon them in their order the remaining names of
the Notitia roll. But this is a task of great difficulty, and considerable
uncertainty must necessarily attend the appropriation of the names
upon this principle.
An examination of the forts themselves, however, on both sides of the
Wall, is a task equally easy and instructive, and it is one which is
essential to a correct estimate of the strength of the principal
fortification—the Wall. Sir John Clark must have altogether overlooked
the existence of these supporting stations, when he wrote in the
following strain to his friend Gale:—
After all, I cannot but take notice of two things with regard to the
Wall, that have given me great matter of speculation. The first is,
why it was made at all, for it could never be a proper defence, and
perhaps at Bowness less than at any other place, since our
barbarian forefathers on the north side could pass over at low water,
and if the sea was higher or deeper than it is now, could make their
attacks from the north-east side by land.—The second is, why the
Scots historians, vain enough by nature, have not taken more pains
to describe the Wall, a performance which did their ancestors more
honour than all the trifling stories put together which they have
transmitted to us. It is true the Romans walled out humanity from
us; but it is as certain they thought the Caledonians a very
formidable people, when they at so much labour and cost built this
Wall; as before they had made a Vallum between the Forth and the
Clyde.
The Romans did not oppose to the enemy a THE BARRIER NOT A
single line of fortification only, which, by some NAKED WALL.
casual negligence on their part, or a sudden exertion of desperate
bravery on the side of their antagonists, might in a moment be
rendered useless. In addition to the Wall, stationary camps were
planted along its whole course, at a few miles distance from it, both to
the north and the south; so that, in reality, a triple line of fortresses
was opposed to the passage of an enemy from either quarter. These
subsidiary stations were connected with the garrisons on the Wall, and
to some extent with each other, by good roads. In maintaining a
surveillance over an enemy, whether to the north or the south of the
chief member of the fortification, in furnishing a secure retreat for the
soldiery when venturing beyond their line, and in stemming the first
shock of an onset, the importance of the out-stations cannot be over-
rated.
It is not contended that all the stations which THE SUPPORTING
are immediately on the north and south of the FORTS OF DIFFERENT
Wall were erected with the express view of ERAS.
supporting it. Several of them doubtless were, but others, there is
reason to believe, were made by Agricola, before the Wall was
projected or thought of. All that is necessary for us to admit is, that
they contributed materially to the strength of the main structure, and
as such, formed an important element in the calculations of the
engineer of the Wall.
In taking a cursory survey of the supporting stations of the line, it
may be well, first, to examine those which defended its eastern
extremity: next, those which are upon Watling-street—the great
channel of communication between the northern and southern
sections of Britain on the east side of the summit level: afterwards,
those which are on the Maiden-way—the road on the west of the
summit level: and reserve to the last, the important stations which
strengthened the works on the northern and southern shores of the
Solway.

TYNEMOUTH.—The Castle and Priory stand upon a peninsula so

strong and so easily defended, that it could not have escaped the
attention either of the aboriginal Britons or the Romans. The altar,
which was erected by the fourth cohort of the Lingones,
has been already described (p. 109). Another lettered stone, found
along with it, is here represented.
 GYRVM CVMBAS
ET TEMPLVM
FECIT C IV
MAXIMINVS
LEG VI VI
EX VOTO

About the reading of the first line of this

inscription, which Brand translates, ‘a circular
harbour for the shipping,’ there is some
uncertainty; but there is no doubt about the other lines, which import
that—

Caius Julius Maximinus, of the Sixth Legion, victorious,

in the performance of a vow, erected this temple.

The mere circumstance of its selection as the site of a temple, proves

this to have been a place of some importance in the Roman age. The
name of the builder of the temple fixes, with a near approach to
precision, the date of its dedication. Caius Julius Verus Maximinus was
a Thracian shepherd of great personal strength; he attracted at an
early period of his life the notice of Septimius Severus, and under
Caracalla attained to the rank of centurion. On the assassination of
Alexander Severus, in 235, he assumed the purple, and was himself
assassinated in 238. He probably accompanied Septimius Severus into
Britain, and on this occasion erected the temple commemorated by
this inscription. The following amusing account of the personal
qualifications of Maximinus, is given in Dr. William Smith’s admirable
Dictionary of Biography and Mythology.
His height exceeded eight feet, but his person was not ungraceful,
for the size and muscular developement of his limbs were in
proportion to his stature, the circumference of his thumb being
equal to that of a woman’s wrist, so that the bracelet of his wife
served him for a ring.... The remarkable magnitude of his eyes
communicated a bold and imposing expression to his features. He
was able single-handed to drag a loaded wagon, could with his fist
knock out the grinders, and with a kick break the leg of a horse;
 while his appetite was such, that in a day he could eat forty pounds
of meat, and drink an amphora of wine. At least such are the
statements of the ancient writers.
Nearly all traces of the camp at Tynemouth have been erased. Some
years after the modern well near the entrance into the castle was
sunk, another of wide diameter, and cased with masonry, was
discovered, in consequence of the falling in of its covering; it is
supposed to be Roman, but was again closed by order of the
commander of the garrison, before it could be properly inspected.
The mediæval remains at Tynemouth are of MEDIÆVAL REMAINS.
great interest. The castellated gateway which
formerly defended the approaches to the priory precincts has been
sadly mutilated by tasteless renovators, but the ecclesiastical
buildings, which have happily been left to the mercy of the elements,
exhibit even in their ruins, much of their original beauty. The church-
yard, affords a resting place to many who for years had been tossed
upon the restless ocean, and to some who, venturing into the briny
flood in search of health and pleasure, met with an untimely end.
Friendly tomb-stones, speak of them; some names, however, are in
danger of being forgotten.
The murdered body of Oswin king of Deira, was deposited in the
church-yard of this monastery. Here too, were buried Malcolm
Canmore king of Scotland—the friend of the Saxon—and his son,
prince Edward, so named after his maternal ancestor the Confessor;
they were both slain in the same fatal battle fought near Alnwick, A.D.
1094. Queen Margaret, through whom her present majesty, queen
Victoria, derives her Saxon blood, survived the slaughter of her
husband and son but a few days.
BLAKE-CHESTERS, at the high end of North
Shields, is the site of another camp. Waterville, BLAKE-CHESTERS.
the residence of George Rippon, esq., is within
its bounds. Several carved stones, much worn by the weather, are on
the ground, and many Roman building-stones may be observed in the
contiguous fences.
These are not the only camps which were situated on the east coast
north of the Wall. Hodgson says—
From the Wall northward, are numerous small square camps,
strengthened with deep ditches, scattered over the country, as if they
had been intended for rural purposes.[128] A line of them may still be
traced through the parishes of Long-Benton, past Cramlington, into
the Plessy grounds.
There is every probability that the site of Morpeth castle was fortified
by the Romans. Some portions of the curtain-wall still standing have
been pronounced by competent judges to be of Roman masonry.
SHIELDS LAWE.—The southern shore of the
estuary of the Tyne was as well protected as the FORT AT SOUTH
northern. A camp, comprehending several acres, SHIELDS.
stood upon the slightly elevated headland at
South Shields called the Lawe. The excellence of the situation, as a
post of observation, is proved by the acts of the pilots who have
planted a beacon and erected many of their residences upon it. In
1798, the foundations of many old walls, which obstructed the plough,
were removed. The lowest course of some of them consisted ‘of rough
whinstone, evidently brought from the shore, as the barnacles were
still adhering to them.’ The remains of a hypocaust were discovered at
the same time. Several coins were also found, and as some of them
were of the reign of Valentinian (A.D. 380), it may be presumed that
the station was in use only a short time before the desertion of Britain
by the Romans. An altar, despoiled of its inscription, which was found
in this station, is preserved in the library at Durham.
The ancient military-way called the Wreckendike terminated at this
station. Until a recent period, one branch of it could be traced by Lay-
gate, the Dean-bridge, and Jarrow-slake, to Gateshead-fell. It also led
to Lanchester, Binchester, and the South.
JARROW.—At nearly the same distance from the
camp on the Lawe, on the south side of the STATION AT JARROW.
river, as Blake-chesters is from Tynemouth, on
the north, the site of another Roman fort occurs. Hodgson, who first
drew attention to it, says—
At Jarrow, an oblong square of about three acres, with its corners
rounded off, overlooking the estuary of Jarrow-slake, and fronting
on the south the bank of the navigable stream called the Don, is, on
good grounds, supposed to have been the site of a station or
fortified town of the Romans. Under-ground foundations of a wall of
strong masonry mark out its area on every side, and include within
them the site of the present church and church-yard, and some
ragged remains of the ancient monastery of Jarrow. In digging up
part of the remains of these walls in 1812, a silver denarius of Aulus
Vitellius was found embedded in mortar in the heart of the wall; and
when the road was formed past Jarrow-row, in 1803, two square
pavements of Roman brick were discovered.
Two inscribed stones have been found here
which give strength to the opinion that
Jarrow was a Roman station. One of them,
now at Somerset-house, is shewn in the
wood-cut. As Brand observes, it is interesting
as containing the name of our island at
length. It has been read—

DIFFVSIS PROVINCIIS IN BRITANNIA AD VTRVMQVE

OCEANVM EXERCITVS FECIT.—

The army erected this, on the extension of the Roman dominion in

Britain, from the western to the eastern sea.
The other stone has formed part of an altar erected in honour of the
adopted sons of Hadrian.
The church of Jarrow is a simple building, but it contains some
undoubted Saxon work. Within the walls of the ancient monastery,
some portions of which exist, the venerable Bede passed his useful
and unostentatious life. Of him, Surtees, the Historian of Durham,
observes—
 The lamp of learning, trimmed by the hand of a single monastic who
never passed the limits of his Northumbrian province, irradiated
from the cell of Jarrow, the Saxon realm of England with a clear and
steady light; and when Bede died, history reversed her torch, and
quenched it in deep night.
This venerable man died, A.D., 735, in the act of completing a
translation into Anglo-Saxon of the Gospel of St. John. His name
would have been worthy of all reverence, even had he done nothing
more than give to his countrymen the Scriptures in their vernacular
tongue. It must however be confessed that ‘he fell on evil times,’ and
that his works embody many of the errors and superstitions of the
period.
WARDLEY.—An ancient entrenchment containing
an area of upwards of six acres, may yet be WARDLEY.
observed at Wardley, in the parish of Jarrow,
nearly opposite to Wallsend. Hodgson, who resided for several years
in this neighbourhood, was not able to learn that any Roman
antiquities were ever found in it. He was disposed, however, to think
that it belonged to the Roman era. It may have been a summer
encampment of the garrison at Wallsend, and as such, would
contribute not a little to their comfort, and the defence of the river.
Wardley, there is some reason to suppose, is the Wredelau of the
chroniclers, where the body of St. Cuthbert became immoveable, and
where the wandering monastics received the revelation which directed
them to Durham.
Such were the strongholds by which the garrisons on the eastern
extremity of the Wall were assisted in maintaining their ground
against the foe.
Watling-street, running north and south, crossed the Wall at about
twenty miles from its termination at Wallsend. The modern turnpike-
road between Corbridge and West-Woodburn adheres very closely to
its track, and occasionally the ancient ditches protecting it on both
sides are to be seen. Its stations were probably planted by Agricola,
but were not on that account less useful to the soldiers of the Barrier.
Our examination of them must be brief.

CHEW-GREEN.—Here, close upon the Scottish border, is an extensive

Roman camp; investigation is necessary to decide whether it was of a
temporary or permanent character; it is probably only an earthen
entrenchment.
BREMENIUM, or High Rochester, is a station of
considerable interest. It stands upon Watling- HIGH-ROCHESTER.
street, at about twenty two miles north of the
Wall. Between Rochester and Chew-green the pavement of the Roman
road may be distinctly traced for many miles together. The site on
which the station stands is high and much exposed; but, in a military
point of view, it is very strong. On all sides the ground slopes from it,
but on the north it sinks so rapidly, as to give it the protection of a
bold breastwork. The walls of the station are stronger than those of
the forts on the line of the Wall; they are not only thicker, but are
composed of larger stones. A moat has BREMENIUM.
surrounded the camp; on the east side, which is
by nature the weakest, two ditches have been formed, which there is
reason to believe were supplied with water. All the gateways may be
traced with considerable distinctness; the southern one has suffered
least from depredation. The interior of the station is filled with the
ruins of buildings; some of them would well repay examination. Of the
modern structures which have been raised within its area, two are
peel-houses or fortified dwellings of considerable strength. The
suburban buildings of the station have been situated on the west side,
where their foundations still appear. Here they would be protected by
the valley along which, at about a quarter of a mile’s distance, the
Sills-burn runs. The stones of the ramparts are strongly marked by the
diamond broaching. The station contains an area of four acres and
three roods.
At about half-a-mile distant from the station, in a south-east direction,
there have recently been discovered the foundations of some Roman
cippi or funeral monuments. They are close by the road, and as was
usually the case, on the south side of it. Three of them are square,
the fourth, which is the largest, is circular. The masonry of all of them
is remarkably fresh. The circular tomb has two courses of stones
standing, besides the flat stones which form the foundation. On
clearing out the interior, a jar of unburnt clay was found; it had no
bones in it. The natural soil was found to have been acted upon by
fire to the depth of more than a foot. Mixed with the rubbish was a
quantity of white ashes. A coin of Alexander Severus was found within
the area, a circumstance which strengthens the presumption that the
station was occupied by the Romans until a late period.
There are several temporary camps in this neighbourhood. Persons
well acquainted with the country, and who have noticed the peculiar
structure of Roman roads, give it as their opinion that a Roman way
has proceeded eastwards from Rochester by Yatesfield, Potts-
Durtrees, Yardhope, Holystone, and Glanton, in a direction which
renders it probable that it joined that branch of Watling-street which
traversed the eastern side of Northumberland, and is often inelegantly
termed the Devil’s-causeway.
Some distance south of the station, and near to the point at which
Watling-street crosses the modern high-way, (in front of Redesdale
cottage) the remains of an ancient lime-kiln were recently found. It
was situated on the slope of a rocky hill, and had been formed partly
by the excavation of the natural rock, and partly by regular courses of
masonry. In order to take advantage of the form of the ground, the
mouth for drawing out the lime was placed in front. The stones were
much reddened by the action of fire, and portions of lime were
adhering to them. There is excellent limestone near the kiln, and
several beds of coal are in the vicinity. Several heaps of rubbish, on
the line of Watling-street, where the coal crops out, render it probable
that this mineral was wrought by the Romans.
In ascertaining the Roman names of the THE ITINERARY OF
stations on the line of the Wall, reference has ANTONINE.
hitherto been made only to the Notitia Imperii. Another document has
come down to our time, of which we may now avail ourselves—the
Itinerary of Antonine. It does not mention any of the stations
immediately upon the Wall, but names some to the north and and
south of it. It is a sort of road-book of the whole Roman empire, and
is supposed to have been made by one of the emperors who bore the
name of Antoninus. Horsley thinks that Caracalla is best entitled to be
accounted its author. That part of it which relates to Britain contains
fifteen routes; the towns upon each are named, and the distances
from one to another given in Roman miles. The aid which such a
document gives in ascertaining the ancient designations of the
stations that occur in it is obvious. The first ‘Iter’ is entitled ‘A Route
from the Limit, that is, from the Wall, to Prætorium, 156 miles.’ It
begins thus—
From Bremenium to XX miles.
Corstopitum
To Vindomora IX ”
To Vinovia XIX ”
The second ‘Iter’ also begins at the Wall, and goes to the Ritupian-
port, Richborough, 481 miles.
The first portion only, of it also, bears upon our present investigation.
From Blatum Bulgium to Castra XII miles.
Exploratorum
To Luguvallium XII ”
To Voreda XIV ”
The tenth ‘Iter,’ which is from Glanoventa to Mediolanum, 150 miles,
begins with towns which are supposed to be in the vicinity of the Wall.
From Glanoventa to XVIII miles.
Galava
To Alione (or XII ”
Alionis)
That Rochester is the Bremenium of the first route, is established by the
discovery of an altar in it, which professes to be erected by the
duplares of the exploratory troops stationed at Bremenium. In no
position would exploratory troops be more needed than here, and no
place could be more appropriately fixed upon as the starting point of
an ‘Iter’ than this. Several of the inscriptions belonging to this station
bear the name of Caracalla. Both Bremenium and Habitancum seem to
have undergone important repairs in the time of this emperor.
Eight miles south of High Rochester, and on the line of Watling-street,
is another Roman station.
HABITANCUM is the name which Camden, and
Horsley, on the authority of a stone found near HABITANCUM.
the station, and which was inspected by them
both, agree in bestowing upon the modern Risingham.
The position of Habitancum will strike a stranger with surprise. Instead
of occupying an eminence, it is placed in a valley, and close upon the
banks of the Rede. Hills environ it, though not very closely, on every
side. They who, in early spring, have been exposed on the
neighbouring heights to the sleety shower, will know the reason of the
selection. The climate of Risingham is peculiarly mild. The west wind
blows with the steadiness of a trade wind, and the harsh east seldom
descends into this favoured valley. The village of Woodburn is on the
opposite side of the river. The lines in ‘Rokeby’ well characterize the
spot, though its wood is fast disappearing—
Where Rede upon his margin sees
Sweet Woodburn’s cottages and trees.

Notwithstanding the secluded nature of the situation, it is not

destitute of military strength. The Rede defends it on the north, which
was the point of greatest danger; and, excepting on the south, where
an out-post seems to have been maintained, an enemy could be
descried long before approaching the camp.
The walls of the station have been constructed of the same strong
masonry as those of Bremenium. Owing to the excellence of the stone,
the marks of the tool upon them are peculiarly distinct. In the hill
behind the station, called the Bell-knowe, the ancient quarrymen have
left numerous wedge-holes and other indications of their labours.
Although a fosse usually surrounded the ramparts of a station, and
although sir Walter Scott has sung of—
The moated mound of Risingham,

Risingham does not appear to have been RISINGHAM.

defended in this way. In company with the owner of the property, who
had a little before thorough-drained the ground bordering on the
south and east sides of the camp, I sought in vain for any traces of a
fosse. The ruins of the interior would yield a rich harvest to the careful
explorer. Recent excavations have revealed some chambers of great
interest; but, with the exception of those near the south-east corner,
they have been removed as soon as displayed. Some of the buildings
were evident restorations of prior structures: a circumstance which
confirms the conclusion deduced from other considerations, that the
station was long occupied by the Romans. After being deserted, a
portion of its north rampart has been carried away by the river. Until
recently, the remains of the bridge by which Watling-street crossed
the Rede, on the west side of the station, were distinctly visible. The
soil which covers the camp is peculiarly rich, being replete with animal
matter. Many important antiquarian treasures have been procured
from this spot. The large slab, six feet long, which forms the ground-
work of the initial letter at the beginning of this part, was found
among the ruins of the south gateway. The inscription mentions the
restoration of the gate with the walls of the station (PORTAM CUM MURIS
VETUSTATE DILAPSIS). The upper part, which is lost, probably contained
the name of Severus; in what remains, some of the titles of Caracalla
appear. Geta’s name seems to have been erased. The stone is now at
Newcastle. Another very fine slab found at this station, is at
Cambridge. Some of the altars discovered here will be described in the
last part.
Horsley is naturally surprised that Habitancum is not named in the
Antonine Itinerary. One conjecture in which he indulges, in order to
account for this is, ‘that the station might be neglected before the
reign of Caracalla,’ which is proved to be unfounded by the slab
already referred to, and by the discovery last year of some large
fragments of inscriptions, mentioning that emperor by his title
Adiabenicus. A second supposition which he entertains may be the
correct one. He says—
Possibly Risingham might be looked on as too near to
Rochester, to make it another mansion in this route. And
though two places are sometimes set down in the same iter,
which are at no greater distance, yet other circumstances
might render this proper at one place, and not so at another.

It is not improbable that the two stations may have been under one
command. The exposed situation of Bremenium would render it highly
desirable that the exploratores, after having battled for a season with
the elements and the Caledonians, should be allowed a period of
comparative relief in some more sheltered spot, such as Habitancum.
CORSTOPITUM is the next place that occurs in
this ‘iter,’ in which it is set down as being twenty CORSTOPITUM.
miles from Bremenium. At the distance of about
twenty-three English miles from the camp of High Rochester, and on
the line of Watling-street, are now to be found the remains of the
station of Corchester.
This, which is a little to the west of the town of CORCHESTER.
Corbridge, is doubtless the ancient Corstopitum.
The station, which is now entirely levelled, and can with difficulty be
traced, has stood upon a gently swelling knoll on the north bank of
the Tyne. A bridge, the foundations of which the floods of seventeen
centuries have spared, connected it with the opposite bank of the
river; the remains of this bridge are precisely similar in appearance to
those on the North Tyne at Cilurnum. The bridge has crossed the river
obliquely, a circumstance which corroborates the opinion formerly
expressed, that the bridges in these parts consisted of horizontal
roadways, supported upon piers—unless, indeed, we suppose that the
Romans were acquainted with the construction of the skew-arch.
Hutchinson states, that a ‘military way passes from this place south-
west through Dilston Park, over Hexham Fell to Old Town in Allendale,
and meets with the Maiden-way at Whitley Castle.’ Abundance of
medals, inscriptions, and other Roman antiquities, have been found at
Corchester. Pieces of Roman bricks and pots are spread over the
surface of the ground. The church at Corbridge has been raised at the
expense of the station. Horsley conceives that this fort was
abandoned before the compilation of the Notitia, as it is not
mentioned in that document. It is about two miles south of the Wall.
The large altar which is figured in the initial letter at the beginning of
this volume, formed, in Horsley’s days, the shaft of the market-cross
at Corbridge. It is now on the stairs of the entrance-tower, at the
castle of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The inscription is defaced, but the
carving on both sides remains; on the one side is a soldier, armed—
the representative probably of war; on the other is a warrior, having
laid aside his weapons, dragging an amphora of wine—a picture,
emblematic of peace. The singular use made of this heathen relic
suggests the insertion here of the story of the ‘Fairy stone,’ as it is still
told in this neighbourhood.
A Roman altar in the vicinity of Bywell was, during the ‘troublesome
times’ of 1715, put to a use little contemplated either by the
ancients or moderns. It was employed as the post-office of the non-
juring gentry of the district. The parties, wishing to keep up a
correspondence with each other, arranged to deposit their
communications in a hollow of the altar. In the gray of the morning
little girls clad in green, and trained to the task, approached the
stone with a dancing step, and, having got the letters, retired with
antic gestures. So well did they perform their part that they were
mistaken for fairies, and the object of their visits was not discovered
for a long time afterwards. The stone was known by the name of
the Fairy stone.
But the greatest curiosity which has been CORBRIDGE LANX.
discovered at Corstopitum, is the silver lanx, or
dish, which is represented on the next page. A piece of plate so
massive, is of rare occurrence in the stations of the North. It is in the
possession of the duke of Northumberland. There is an accurate cast
of it in the Newcastle Museum of Antiquities.
'It was found (says Mr. Robert Cay, in a letter of 4th March 1734)
near Corbridge, by some ignorant poor people who have cut off the
feet in such a vile barbarous manner, that they have broke two holes
through the table, and a small piece off one of the corners too.' It is
19½ inches long, and 15 broad; it weighs about 150 ounces. The
rim of the plate rises nearly an inch above the interior. The figures
have been punched into form. Gale’s conjecture as to its use is
probably the correct one. ‘This is big enough (he says) to contain
the exta of a sheep, or other small victims, which seems to me to be
the likeliest employment for it, and that it was one of these
sacrificing utensils that Virgil calls Lances:

Lancibus et pandis fumantia reddimus exta.’

 The principal figures on the plate are probably, those of Diana,
Minerva, Juno, Vesta, and Apollo.
On the left side of the design is Diana, armed with a bow and arrow.
Below her feet is an urn with water flowing from it; in front of her, is
an altar with an offering, of a globular form, upon it, and below the
altar, is a dog of the greyhound species, looking up to the goddess.
The next figure is Minerva. She wears a helmet, and her breast is
adorned with the Gorgon’s head. A spear is in her left hand. The
thumb and first two fingers of her right hand are uplifted, as if in
the act of bestowing a benediction.
The next figure is supposed to be Juno, though no symbol is given
by which she can be decisively distinguished. Her right hand is
uplifted in a manner similar to Minerva’s. At her feet lies a dead
buck.
Vesta succeeds. She is seated; part of her peplus or mantle is drawn
over her head; the two fore-fingers of her left hand, which is
apparently resting upon her bosom, are upraised. Beneath the
goddess is an altar with the fire burning.
On the right of the piece is Apollo, standing under a canopy. His
bow is in his left hand, a flower in his right. His lyre is on the ground
by his side, and a griffin is below him.
An eagle and some other birds are among the branches of the tree
in the upper part of the piece.
Under the whole representation some recondite meaning is probably
concealed, which can only be a subject of conjecture. (See
Hodgson’s Northumberland, II. iii. 246.)
Two important altars, with Greek inscriptions have been found at
Corbridge. One is dedicated to the Tyrian Hercules; the other, which is
represented in the adjoining wood-cut, to Astarte, the Ashtaroth of
the Scriptures.
 GREEK ALTAR.

ΑΣΤΑΡΤΗΣ Of Astarte,
ΒΩΜΟΝ Μ’ The altar
ΕΣΟΡΑΣ You see,
ΠΟΥΛΧΕΡ Μ’ Pulcher
ΑΝΕΘΗΚΕΝ replaced.

Josephus tells us, that Hiram king of Tyre, built two temples, which he
dedicated to these deities. The Israelites, in forsaking the living God,
not unfrequently betook themselves to the abominations of the
Sidonians.
... With these in troop
Came Astoreth, whom the Phœnicians call’d
Astarte, queen of heaven, with crescent horns;
To whose bright image nightly by the moon
Sidonian virgins paid their vows and songs,
In Sion also not unsung,...
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