Solution Manual for Discrete Mathematics and Its

Applications 8th Edition by Rosen install

download

https://testbankmall.com/product/solution-manual-for-discrete-
mathematics-and-its-applications-8th-edition-by-rosen/

Download more testbank from https://testbankmall.com

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Test Bank for Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications

8th Edition by Rosen

https://testbankmall.com/product/test-bank-for-discrete-mathematics-
and-its-applications-8th-edition-by-rosen/

testbankmall.com

Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications 7th Edition

Rosen Test Bank

https://testbankmall.com/product/discrete-mathematics-and-its-
applications-7th-edition-rosen-test-bank/

testbankmall.com

Discrete Mathematics and Applications 2nd Ferland Test

Bank

https://testbankmall.com/product/discrete-mathematics-and-
applications-2nd-ferland-test-bank/

testbankmall.com

Solution Manual for Mastering ArcGIS Pro, 1st Edition,

Maribeth Price

https://testbankmall.com/product/solution-manual-for-mastering-arcgis-
pro-1st-edition-maribeth-price/

testbankmall.com
Test Bank for Medical Dosage Calculations 9th Edition

https://testbankmall.com/product/test-bank-for-medical-dosage-
calculations-9th-edition/

testbankmall.com

2015 Jarvis Physical Examination and Health Assessment, 7

Edition Test Bank

https://testbankmall.com/product/2015-jarvis-physical-examination-and-
health-assessment-7-edition-test-bank/

testbankmall.com

Solution manual for Fundamentals of Python: Data

Structures 1st Edition by Lambert

https://testbankmall.com/product/solution-manual-for-fundamentals-of-
python-data-structures-1st-edition-by-lambert/

testbankmall.com

Solution Manual for Guide to Networking Essentials 6th

Edition by Tomsho

https://testbankmall.com/product/solution-manual-for-guide-to-
networking-essentials-6th-edition-by-tomsho/

testbankmall.com

Test Bank for Psychological Testing and Assessment, 8th

Edition : Cohen

https://testbankmall.com/product/test-bank-for-psychological-testing-
and-assessment-8th-edition-cohen/

testbankmall.com
Aerodynamics for Engineering Students 6th Edition Houghton
Solutions Manual

https://testbankmall.com/product/aerodynamics-for-engineering-
students-6th-edition-houghton-solutions-manual/

testbankmall.com
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

2-1
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

2-7 The income statement of a 2-11 Yes, costs such as salaries and
manufacturing company differs from the income depreciation can end up as part of assets on the
statement of a merchandising company in the balance sheet if they are manufacturing costs.
cost of goods sold section. A merchandising Manufacturing costs are inventoried until the
company sells finished goods that it has associated finished goods are sold. Thus, if some
purchased from a supplier. These goods are units are still in inventory, such costs may be
listed as ―purchases‖ in the cost of goods sold part of either Work in Process inventory or
section. Because a manufacturing company Finished Goods inventory at the end of the
produces its goods rather than buying them period.
from a supplier, it lists ―cost of goods
manufactured‖ in place of ―purchases.‖ Also, the 2-12 No. A variable cost is a cost that varies,
manufacturing company identifies its inventory in total, in direct proportion to changes in the
in this section as Finished Goods inventory, level of activity. The variable cost per unit is
rather than as Merchandise Inventory. constant. A fixed cost is fixed in total, but the
average cost per unit changes with the level of
2-8 The schedule of cost of goods activity.
manufactured lists the manufacturing costs that
have been incurred during the period. These 2-13 A differential cost is a cost that differs
costs are organized under the three categories between alternatives in a decision. An
of direct materials, direct labor, and opportunity cost is the potential benefit that is
manufacturing overhead. The total costs given up when one alternative is selected over
incurred are adjusted for any change in the another. A sunk cost is a cost that has already
Work in Process inventory to determine the cost been incurred and cannot be altered by any
of goods manufactured (i.e. finished) during the decision taken now or in the future.
period.

The schedule of cost of goods 2-14 No, differential costs can be either
manufactured ties into the income statement variable or fixed. For example, the alternatives
through the cost of goods sold section. The cost might consist of purchasing one machine rather
of goods manufactured is added to the than another to make a product. The difference
beginning Finished Goods inventory to determine between the fixed costs of purchasing the two
the goods available for sale. In effect, the cost machines is a differential cost.
of goods manufactured takes the place of the
Purchases account in a merchandising firm.

2-9 A manufacturing company usually has

three inventory accounts: Raw Materials, Work
in Process, and Finished Goods. A merchandising
company may have a single inventory account—
Merchandise Inventory.

2-10 Product costs are assigned to units as

they are processed and hence are included in
inventories. The flow is from direct materials,
direct labor, and manufacturing overhead to
Work in Process inventory. As goods are
completed, their cost is removed from Work in
Process inventory and transferred to Finished
Goods inventory. As goods are sold, their cost is
removed from Finished Goods inventory and
transferred to Cost of Goods Sold. Cost of Goods
Sold is an expense on the income statement.

2-2
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-1 (10 minutes)

1. Directing and motivating

2. Budgets
3. Planning
4. Precision; Timeliness
5. Managerial Accounting for Managers; Financial accounting
6. Managerial Accounting for Managers
7 Financial accounting; Managerial Accounting for Managers
8. Feedback
9. Controller
10. Performance report

2-3
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-2 (10 minutes)

1. The cost of a hard drive installed in a computer: direct materials.

2. The cost of advertising in the Puget Sound Computer User newspaper:

selling.

3. The wages of employees who assemble computers from components:

direct labor.

4. Sales commissions paid to the company’s salespeople: selling.

5. The wages of the assembly shop’s supervisor: manufacturing overhead.

6. The wages of the company’s accountant: administrative.

7. Depreciation on equipment used to test assembled computers before

release to customers: manufacturing overhead.

8. Rent on the facility in the industrial park: a combination of

manufacturing overhead, selling, and administrative. The rent would
most likely be prorated on the basis of the amount of space occupied by
manufacturing, selling, and administrative operations.

2-4
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-3 (15 minutes)

Product Period
Cost Cost
1.Depreciation on salespersons’ cars ........................ X
2.Rent on equipment used in the factory .................. X
3.Lubricants used for machine maintenance ............. X
4.Salaries of personnel who work in the finished
goods warehouse .............................................. X
5. Soap and paper towels used by factory workers at
the end of a shift ............................................... X
6. Factory supervisors’ salaries.................................. X
7. Heat, water, and power consumed in the factory ... X
8. Materials used for boxing products for shipment
overseas (units are not normally boxed) ............. X
9. Advertising costs .................................................. X
10. Workers’ compensation insurance for factory
employees......................................................... X
11. Depreciation on chairs and tables in the factory
lunchroom......................................................... X
12. The wages of the receptionist in the administrative
offices............................................................... X
13. Cost of leasing the corporate jet used by the
company's executives ........................................ X
14. The cost of renting rooms at a Florida resort for
the annual sales conference ............................... X
15. The cost of packaging the company’s product........ X

2-5
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-4 (15 minutes)

CyberGames
Income Statement

Sales...................................................... $1,450,000
Cost of goods sold:
Beginning merchandise inventory.......... $ 240,000
Add: Purchases .................................... 950,000
Goods available for sale........................ 1,190,000
Deduct: Ending merchandise inventory.. 170,000 1,020,000
Gross margin .......................................... 430,000
Selling and administrative expenses:
Selling expense .................................... 210,000
Administrative expense......................... 180,000 390,000
Net operating income.............................. $ 40,000

2-6
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-5 (15 minutes)

Lompac Products
Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured
Direct materials:
Beginning raw materials inventory........... $ 60,000
Add: Purchases of raw materials ............. 690,000
Raw materials available for use ............... 750,000
Deduct: Ending raw materials inventory .. 45,000
Raw materials used in production............ $ 705,000
Direct labor .............................................. 135,000
Manufacturing overhead............................ 370,000
Total manufacturing costs ......................... 1,210,000
Add: Beginning work in process inventory .. 120,000
1,330,000
Deduct: Ending work in process inventory.. 130,000
Cost of goods manufactured...................... $1,200,000

2-7
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-6 (15 minutes)

A few of these costs may generate debate. For example, some may argue
that the cost of advertising a rock concert is a variable cost because the
number of people who come to the rock concert depends on the amount
of advertising. However, one can argue that if the price is within reason,
any rock concert in New York City will be sold out and the function of
advertising is simply to let people know the event will be happening.
Moreover, while advertising may affect the number of persons who
ultimately buy tickets, the causation is in one direction. If more people buy
tickets, the advertising costs don’t go up.

Cost Behavior
Cost (Measure of Activity) Variable Fixed
1.The cost of X-ray film used in the radiology lab at
Virginia Mason Hospital in Seattle (Number of X-rays
taken) .................................................................... X
2.The cost of advertising a rock concert in New York
City (Number of rock concert tickets sold) ................ X
3.The cost of renting retail space for a McDonald’s
restaurant in Hong Kong (Total sales at the
restaurant) ............................................................. X
4.The electrical cost of running a roller coaster at Magic
Mountain (Number of times the roller coaster is run) X
5.Property taxes paid by your local cinema theater
(Number of tickets sold).......................................... X
6.The cost of sales commissions paid to salespersons at
a Nordstrom store (Total sales at the store) ............. X
7.Property insurance on a Coca Cola bottling plant
(Number of cases of bottles produced) .................... X
8.The costs of synthetic materials used to make a
particular model of running shoe (Number of shoes
of that model produced) ......................................... X
9.The costs of shipping Panasonic televisions to retail
stores (Number of televisions sold) .......................... X
10.The cost of leasing an ultra-scan diagnostic machine
at the American Hospital in Paris (Number of
patients scanned with the machine)......................... X

2-8
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-7 (15 minutes)

Direct Indirect
Cost Cost Object Cost Cost
1. The wages of pediatric The pediatric
nurses department X
2. Prescription drugs A particular patient X
3. Heating the hospital The pediatric
department X
4. The salary of the head The pediatric
of pediatrics department X
5. The salary of the head A particular pediatric
of pediatrics patient X
6. Hospital chaplain’s A particular patient
salary X
7. Lab tests by outside A particular patient
contractor X
8. Lab tests by outside A particular department
contractor X

2-9
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-8 (15 minutes)

Differential Opportunity Sunk

Item Cost Cost Cost
1. Cost of the old X-ray machine ... X
2. The salary of the head of the
Radiology Department ............
3. The salary of the head of the
Pediatrics Department ............
4. Cost of the new color laser
printer ................................... X
5. Rent on the space occupied by
Radiology ..............................
6. The cost of maintaining the old
machine ................................ X
7. Benefits from a new DNA
analyzer................................. X
8. Cost of electricity to run the X-
ray machines ......................... X

Note: The costs of the salaries of the head of the Radiology Department
and Pediatrics Department and the rent on the space occupied by
Radiology are neither differential costs, nor opportunity costs, nor sunk
costs. These costs do not differ between the alternatives and therefore are
irrelevant in the decision, but they are not sunk costs because they occur
in the future.

2-10
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-9 (15 minutes)

1. Product cost; variable cost

2. Conversion cost
3. Opportunity cost
4. Prime cost
5. Sunk cost
6. Period cost; variable cost
7. Product cost; period cost; fixed cost
8. Product cost
9. Period cost
10. Fixed cost; product cost; conversion cost

2-11
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-10 (15 minutes)

Selling and
Cost Behavior Administrative Product
Cost Item Variable Fixed Cost Cost
1. Hamburger buns at a
Wendy’s outlet ........ X X
2. Advertising by a
dental office............ X X
3. Apples processed and
canned by Del
Monte..................... X X
4. Shipping canned
apples from a Del
Monte plant to
customers............... X X
5. Insurance on a Bausch
& Lomb factory
producing contact
lenses..................... X X
6. Insurance on IBM’s
corporate
headquarters .......... X X
7. Salary of a supervisor
overseeing
production of
printers at Hewlett-
Packard .................. X X
8. Commissions paid to
Encyclopedia
Britannica
salespersons ........... X X
9. Depreciation of factory
lunchroom facilities
at a General Electric
plant ...................... X X
10. Steering wheels
installed in BMWs .... X X

2-12
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-11 (30 minutes)

1.
Mason Company
Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured

Direct materials:
Beginning raw materials inventory .................. $ 7,000
Add: Purchases of raw materials ..................... 118,000
Raw materials available for use....................... 125,000
Deduct: Ending raw materials inventory .......... 15,000
Raw materials used in production ................... $110,000
Direct labor ...................................................... 70,000
Manufacturing overhead ................................... 80,000
Total manufacturing costs ................................. 260,000
Add: Beginning work in process inventory.......... 10,000
270,000
Deduct: Ending work in process inventory ......... 5,000
Cost of goods manufactured ............................. $265,000

2. The cost of goods sold section of Mason Company’s income statement:

Beginning finished goods inventory ............ $ 20,000
Add: Cost of goods manufactured .............. 265,000
Goods available for sale ............................. 285,000
Deduct: Ending finished goods inventory .... 35,000
Cost of goods sold ..................................... $250,000

2-13
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Exercise 2-12 (30 minutes)

1. a. Batteries purchased ........................................................ 8,000

Batteries drawn from inventory ....................................... 7,600
Batteries remaining in inventory ...................................... 400
Cost per battery.............................................................. × $10
Cost in Raw Materials Inventory at April 30 ...................... $4,000

b. Batteries used in production (7,600 – 100)....................... 7,500

Motorcycles completed and transferred to Finished Goods
(90% × 7,500) ............................................................ 6,750
Motorcycles still in Work in Process at April 30 ................. 750
Cost per battery.............................................................. × $10
Cost in Work in Process Inventory at April 30 ................... $7,500

c. Motorcycles completed and transferred to Finished Goods

(see above) ................................................................. 6,750
Motorcycles sold during the month
(70% × 6,750) ............................................................ 4,725
Motorcycles still in Finished Goods at April 30................... 2,025
Cost per battery.............................................................. × $10
Cost in Finished Goods Inventory at April 30 .................... $20,250

d. Motorcycles sold during the month (above)...................... 4,725

Cost per battery.............................................................. × $10
Cost in Cost of Goods Sold at April 30 .............................. $47,250

e. Batteries used in salespersons’ motorcycles...................... 100

Cost per battery.............................................................. × $10
Cost in Selling Expense at April 30 ................................... $ 1,000

2. Raw Materials Inventory—balance sheet

Work in Process Inventory—balance sheet
Finished Goods Inventory—balance sheet
Cost of Goods Sold—income statement
Selling Expense—income statement

2-14
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Problem 2-13 (30 minutes)

Note to the Instructor: There may be some exceptions to the answers below. The purpose of this
problem is to get the student to start thinking about cost behavior and cost purposes; try to avoid
lengthy discussions about how a particular cost is classified.
Manufacturing
Variable or Selling (Product) Cost
Administrative

Cost Item Fixed Cost Cost Direct Indirect

1. Property taxes, factory ................................ F X
2. Boxes used for packaging detergent
produced by the company......................... V X
3. Salespersons’ commissions .......................... V X
4. Supervisor’s salary, factory .......................... F X
5. Depreciation, executive autos ...................... F X
6. Wages of workers assembling computers ..... V X
7. Insurance, finished goods warehouses ......... F X
8. Lubricants for production equipment ............ V X
9. Advertising costs......................................... F X
10. Microchips used in producing calculators ...... V X
11. Shipping costs on merchandise sold ............. V X
12. Magazine subscriptions, factory lunchroom ... F X
13. Thread in a garment factory ........................ V X
14. Billing costs ................................................ V X*
15. Executive life insurance ............................... F X

2-15
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Problem 2-13 (continued)

Manufacturing
Variable or Selling (Product) Cost
Administrative
Cost Item Fixed Cost Cost Direct Indirect
16. Ink used in textbook production................... V X
17. Fringe benefits, assembly-line workers ......... V X**
18. Yarn used in sweater production .................. V X
19. Wages of receptionist, executive offices ....... F X
* Could be administrative cost.
** Could be indirect cost.

2-16
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Problem 2-14 (30 minutes)

Period
Product Cost (Selling
Manu- and Oppor-
Variable Fixed Direct Direct facturing Admin) tunity Sunk

Name of the Cost Cost Cost Materials Labor Overhead Cost Cost Cost
Rental revenue forgone, $30,000
per year..................................... X
Direct materials cost, $80 per unit . X X
Rental cost of warehouse, $500
per month ................................. X X
Rental cost of equipment, $4,000
per month ................................. X X
Direct labor cost, $60 per unit ....... X X
Depreciation of the annex space,
$8,000 per year ......................... X X X
Advertising cost, $50,000 per year. X X
Supervisor's salary, $1,500 per
month ....................................... X X
Electricity for machines, $1.20 per
unit ........................................... X X
Shipping cost, $9 per unit ............. X X
Return earned on investments,
$3,000 per year ......................... X

2-17
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Problem 2-15 (30 minutes)

Cost Behavior To Units of Product

Cost Item Variable Fixed Direct Indirect
1.Electricity to run production equipment .................... X X
2.Rent on a factory building ....................................... X X
3.Cloth used to make drapes ...................................... X X
4.Production superintendent’s salary........................... X X
5.Wages of laborers assembling a product .................. X X
6.Depreciation of air purification equipment used to
make furniture ..................................................... X X
7. Janitorial salaries .................................................... X X
8. Peaches used in canning fruit .................................. X X
9. Lubricants for production equipment........................ X X
10. Sugar used in soft drink production.......................... X X
11. Property taxes on the factory .................................. X X
12. Wages of workers painting a product ....................... X X
13. Depreciation on cafeteria equipment........................ X X
14. Insurance on a building used in producing
helicopters ........................................................... X X
15. Cost of rotor blades used in producing helicopters .... X X

2-18
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Problem 2-16 (45 minutes)

1.
Swift Company
Schedule of Cost of Goods Manufactured
For the Month Ended August 31

Direct materials:
Raw materials inventory, August 1................. $ 8,000
Add: Purchases of raw materials.................... 165,000
Raw materials available for use ..................... 173,000
Deduct: Raw materials inventory, August 31 .. 13,000
Raw materials used in production .................. $160,000
Direct labor..................................................... 70,000
Manufacturing overhead .................................. 85,000
Total manufacturing costs................................ 315,000
Add: Work in process inventory, August 1 ........ 16,000
331,000
Deduct: Work in process inventory, August 31.. 21,000
Cost of goods manufactured ............................ $310,000

2.
Swift Company
Income Statement
For the Month Ended August 31

Sales .............................................................. $450,000

Cost of goods sold:
Finished goods inventory, August 1 ............... $ 40,000
Add: Cost of goods manufactured ................. 310,000
Goods available for sale ................................ 350,000
Deduct: Finished goods inventory, August 31 . 60,000 290,000
Gross margin .................................................. 160,000
Selling and administrative expenses ................. 142,000
Net operating income ...................................... $ 18,000

2-19
Chapter 02 - Managerial Accounting and Cost Concepts

Problem 2-16 (continued)

3. In preparing the income statement for August, Sam failed to distinguish
between product costs and period costs, and he also failed to recognize
the changes in inventories between the beginning and end of the
month. Once these errors have been corrected, the financial condition
of the company looks much better and selling the company may not be
advisable.

2-20
Other documents randomly have
different content
advanced piano playing. His untimely death cut short a brilliant
career. His edition of Clementi’s Gradus and a collection of finger
exercises are invaluable to teachers and to students. Hans von
Bülow, born in 1830, died 1894, was intended for the law, although
he studied the piano as a boy under Friedrich Wieck. In 1850, he
became so absorbed in Wagner’s music that he abandoned all idea
of the law. He studied the piano with Liszt at Weimar, and soon
acquired a remarkable technic. He was never a pianist of the
virtuoso type; his strength lay in striving to reproduce the intention
of the composer as faithfully as possible. His interpretations of
Beethoven were especially famous, although he was progressive in
his tastes. In 1876, he made a tour in the United States, where he
did much to advance the cause of new music. As early as 1865 he
conducted performances of Wagner’s operas, and later his
association with orchestras at Meiningen and of the Berlin
Philharmonic Society placed his reputation as a conductor in the
front rank. He was extremely energetic in Wagner’s behalf and did
much to bring his works to a public hearing. His editions of Cramer’s
studies and Beethoven’s sonatas are of great value.
Among Liszt’s later pupils, one of the foremost is Eugen
D’Albert, born in 1864. He received his early training in England,
but in 1881, as a prize scholar, he studied with Liszt at Weimar. After
brilliant concert tours through Europe, he came to America, in 1889,
with Sarasate, where his ability was at once recognized. He has
since largely renounced the career of virtuoso for that of composer,
although he made a visit to the United States in 1905, giving a
number of recitals.
Moritz Rosenthal, possibly the most fully equipped virtuoso
technically now before the public, was born in 1862. At first a pupil
of Mikuli, a disciple of Chopin, and later of Joseffy, he came
ultimately to Liszt, with whom he studied for ten years. After
numerous European tours he came to the United States in 1888,
where he dazzled his audiences by his unusual command of technic.
He reappeared in America in 1896-97, and has since made triumphal
progress through Europe. As an interpreter he is less successful than
as a virtuoso. He is court pianist of Roumania. He has published a
collection of technical exercises with Ludwig Schytté.
Bernhard Stavenhagen, born in 1862, is another noted Liszt
pupil. He acted as Liszt’s secretary during his later years, and at the
same time received lessons. In 1890, he became court pianist at
Weimar. In 1894-95, he visited America. Since then he has acted as
conductor at Dresden and Munich.
Emil Sauer, another phenomenal pupil of Liszt, was born in
1862. At first a pupil of Nicholas Rubinstein, he studied with Liszt
from 1884 until the latter’s death. He possesses an extraordinary
technic, and is almost unrivalled for the extreme brilliancy of his
effects. He has received many decorations from various courts of
Europe. In 1897-98, he visited the United States, where he made a
sensation. Since 1901, he has been at the head of the piano
department in the Vienna Conservatory, giving his attention to pupils
in the artist department.
Among other talented pupils of Liszt may be mentioned Alfred
Reisenauer, Arthur Friedheim and Richard Burmeister, all of whom
have been heard in this country. The foregoing account does not
begin to enumerate all, merely the celebrated pupils of Liszt. Others
will be referred to in the course of this and the next lesson.
Belgian Pianists.—In piano playing, the Brussels Conservatory
is far below the level of the Paris Conservatory, although the director
Gevaërt has a world-wide reputation for his text-book on
orchestration, and the symphony concerts at the conservatory, led
by him, have a high place in orchestral standards. Nevertheless, in
the piano department two names deserve mention: Brassin and
Dupont. Louis Brassin (1840-1884) studied at the Leipzig
Conservatory under Moscheles, where he remained five years,
winning numerous prizes. In 1866, he became first piano teacher at
the Stern Conservatory in Berlin. Later he joined the Brussels
Conservatory, as professor of piano playing, where he taught from
1869-1878. In 1879, he accepted a position at the St. Petersburg
Conservatory, where he remained until his death, in 1884. Brassin
was not only known as a fine pianist and teacher, but also by his
transcriptions from “The Ring of the Nibelung.” He also composed
piano pieces and even two operettas. Auguste Dupont (1828-
1890) studied at the Liége Conservatory. After several years of
wandering life, he became professor of piano at the Brussels
Conservatory, a position which he held until his death, in 1890. He is
known also as a composer of graceful piano pieces, a concerto and a
concert-piece, in all of which the influence of Schumann is seen.
Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), famed both as composer and
pianist, was the son of an orchestral musician in Hamburg, whose
circumstances were of the humblest. As a child he developed
remarkable ability as a pianist, but his first lessons in composition
awakened an enthusiasm that absorbed his entire being. He was
comparatively unknown when at the age of twenty Schumann
brought him into public notice by hailing him as the successor of
Beethoven.
Unlike most composers, Brahms was mature from the very
beginning. His early works bear no trace of the uncertainty and
imitation generally associated with youth, and it was this remarkable
maturity that interested Schumann and gave point to his predictions
for the future of the young musician. Unaffected by the pomp and
glow of the ultra-romantic tendency initiated by Berlioz and
culminating at present in the works of Richard Strauss, he remained
true to the great classical school which rests on Bach and Palestrina.
Unlike the modern impressionistic school, his art is based on
essentially musical ideas and their contrapuntal treatment; it is
architectural rather than pictorial. In such a scheme, color is
subordinate to thematic interest, hence his instrumentation often
appears heavy and austere to those who look for the brilliancy and
tone painting of Liszt or Wagner. His music in general is founded on
Bach and Beethoven.
 Johannes Brahms.

His works for the piano are large and orchestral in style, and
demand a technic of their own, which was at first considered
unsuited to the nature of the instrument. Von Bülow remarks that
while in Bach we hear the organ, in Beethoven the orchestra, in
Brahms we hear both organ and orchestra. Notwithstanding their
dignity and nobility of conception, they won their way but slowly to
favor. Their newness of style and difficulty of execution estranged
both public and musicians. Though Brahms’ four symphonies have
become reasonably familiar, his piano works have not even yet
achieved widespread popularity. They comprise two concertos, three
sonatas, many variations, and a host of smaller pieces—ballades,
scherzos, intermezzos, capriccios, etc. Brahms never wrote for the
stage but was active in all other departments of music. His greatest
choral work is the “German Requiem,” composed in memory of his
mother, to texts selected by himself from the Scriptures and sung in
German, instead of in Latin, hence its name. He drew no little
inspiration from the Folk-song, which he uses not only in the form of
harmonies and rhythms distinctly based on Folk melodies, but in
literal quotations serving as themes in several of his instrumental
compositions. This contact with the people through their songs gives
particular freshness and vigor to much of Brahms’ music, as well as
a sturdy Teutonic character that stamps it as distinctively national in
spirit.
It is perhaps too soon to deliver an authoritative judgment as to
the ultimate rank that Brahms will take among the great composers
of the past. There is no doubt, however, that he is one of the
commanding figures of the last century and that he has enriched the
world with a mass of noble music, all of which deserves to be known
for its elevation and consummate mastery of detail.

Russian Pianists.
Of a somewhat independent development from Liszt, although
much influenced by his personality and his method, was Anton
Rubinstein, born in 1829, died in 1894. He studied the piano at
Moscow with Villoing, who gave him so thorough a training that he
had no other teacher. From 1840, after concerts in Paris, he had
universal recognition as a pianist. Further European tours increased
his fame. He lived successively in Berlin and Vienna, and later
returned to St. Petersburg. In 1872-73, he made a remarkable tour
through America, arousing an enthusiasm only equalled in later
years by Paderewski. Although he passed most of his life in constant
activity as a composer, he directed the Russian Symphony Concerts
in St. Petersburg. As early as 1862 he founded the St. Petersburg
Conservatory, which has had a prominent place in Russian music. He
was a complete master of the piano, his technic was gigantic,
although his vitality of interpretation was so intense that details
paled before it. His historical recitals covering the entire literature of
the piano were his most conspicuous achievements as a pianist. He
may be regarded as second only to Liszt, and in some respects he
even surpassed him. He was disappointed at not being accorded
high rank as a composer, as well as a pianist.
His brother, Nicholas Rubinstein, born in 1835, died in 1881,
although not so distinguished a pianist, and a composer of slight
account, exerted almost as strong an influence on Russian music. A
pupil of Kullak, he founded the Russian Musical Society at Moscow,
in 1859, and in 1864 the Moscow Conservatory, which has been
exceedingly active in Russian musical affairs. He directed the
Moscow Conservatory until his death; he was an intimate adviser of
Tchaikovsky, while his worth as a teacher may be guessed from the
prominence of his pupils, Karl Klindworth, Emil Sauer and Alexander
Siloti, possibly the foremost Russian pianist today.
Mili Balakireff, born in 1836, has been a considerable force in
Russian music, besides being a capable pianist. After studying
physics and mathematics at the University of Kazan, he turned to
music. In 1862, he founded a Free School of Music in St. Petersburg.
Among his associates were César Cui, Nicholas Rimsky-Korsakoff,
Alexander Borodine and others. He has done much to aid the Neo-
Russian school of composition. His piano music is effective and
highly colored, especially his fantasy on Georgian themes, “Islamey.”
Alexander Siloti, undoubtedly the most widely-known of
Russian pianists, born at Charcow, 1863, was a pupil in piano playing
of Nicholas Rubinstein, at the Moscow Conservatory. From 1883-
1886, he studied with Liszt. His technic is enormous; while not
intensely magnetic, his intellectual grasp of music is remarkable. He
made an American tour in 1898, when he introduced much Russian
piano music that was new. Although Siloti has taught at the Moscow
Conservatory, he has lived of late years at Leipzig and Paris.
 Among other Russian pianists are Vassili Sapellnikoff, born
1868, a pupil of Kessler, Louis Brassin, Sophie Menter; Vassili
Safonoff, a pupil of Leschetizky and Zaremba in St. Petersburg,
since 1887 director of the Moscow Conservatory, and more lately a
conductor; Sergei Rachmaninoff, born 1873, a pupil of Siloti, not
only a brilliant pianist but also a composer of originality; Alexander
Scriabine, born 1872, a pupil of Safonoff, who has made successful
European tours, and like Rachmaninoff, has composed much for his
instrument.
Two German pianists, Henselt and Klindworth, were so associated
with Russian music as to warrant their mention here. Adolph
Henselt, born 1814, died 1889, at one time a pupil of Hummel, was
for the most part self-taught. He passed most of his life in St.
Petersburg, giving lessons and playing frequently in public. He also
had an official position as music inspector. As a pianist, Henselt was
exceedingly eminent, and may be ranked next to Rubinstein and von
Bülow, although in later years nervousness prevented his playing in
public. His etudes are distinct additions to the technical resources of
the piano, his arrangements of Cramer etudes with second piano
accompaniment are praiseworthy.
Karl Klindworth, born 1830, was a pupil of Nicholas Rubinstein
and later, of Liszt. After living in London, he became professor of
piano playing at the Moscow Conservatory, from 1868-1884. Later he
settled in Berlin, became conductor of the Philharmonic Society, and
opened a conservatory with von Bülow, which was merged with that
of Scharwenka in 1893. Klindworth’s edition of Chopin is in some
respects the best. He has also edited Beethoven’s sonatas, and he
prepared the piano score of the entire “Ring of the Nibelung.”

French Pianists.
In presenting the famous French pianists, Charles Henri
Valentine Alkan, born 1813, died 1888, must not be forgotten. A
brilliant pianist, he claims our attention chiefly on account of his
etudes, introducing novel and extremely difficult problems of
technic. Musically his studies cannot be compared with those of
Chopin or Liszt, but they merit attention, particularly in the modern
editions.
Although Camille Saint-Saëns is known chiefly as a composer,
he was, during his early years, a remarkable pianist. His
contributions to piano literature, five concertos, etudes and smaller
pieces, are all valuable.
A group of Paris Conservatory professors constitute the most
distinguishing teaching talent in France today. Further than that,
Paris is one of the great centres of piano playing in Europe. Its
teachers follow their own traditions, yet have assimilated from Liszt.
The oldest of these is Georges Mathias (b. 1826), pupil of
Chopin, Kalkbrenner and the Paris Conservatory, who has been
professor of piano playing since 1862. E. Delaborde, a pupil of
Alkan, Moscheles and Liszt, has taught at the Paris Conservatory
since 1873. One of the most successful teachers now living is Louis
Dièmer, born 1843, a pupil of Marmontel. Winning the first piano
prize at the age of thirteen, he succeeded his former teacher in
1888. Dièmer has turned out many first prizes; he has an
impeccable technic; he has done much to foster interest in the
harpsichord, the oboe d’amore and other obsolete instruments. He
has published valuable collections of old French harpsichord music,
besides original works. A Conservatory teacher well-known in
America is Raoul Pugno, born 1852. A pupil of the Paris
Conservatory, he obtained first prizes in piano playing, organ and
harmony. He came to America in 1897-98 with Ysaye and others,
and again in 1902. He has taught at the Paris Conservatory since
1897. He has a superb technic, and is versatile as an interpreter. He
has also composed much. A teacher of unusual insight into technic is
Isidor Philipp, born 1863, a pupil of Mathias, Saint-Saëns and
others. He possesses a flawlessly accurate technic, and has
appeared frequently in public, although he devotes the greater part
of his energy to teaching. He has published many valuable sets of
exercises, collections of difficult passages, some transcriptions and
original pieces. He has been professor at the Conservatory since
1904.
Louis Breitner, a pupil of the Milan Conservatory, Anton
Rubinstein and Liszt, has lived for many years at Paris as pianist and
teacher. He also has visited America. Among the younger French
pianists are Leon Delafosse, Edouard Risler, an eclectic pianist, a
pupil of Dièmer, D’Albert and Stavenhagen.

References for Lessons XLVII and XLVIII.

Fay.—Music Study in Germany.
Walker.—My Musical Memories.
Lahee.—Pianists of the Past and Present.
Grove’s Dictionary.—Article on Pianoforte Players.
Finck.—Paderewski and His Art.
Leschetizky.—Autobiography.
Mason.—Memories of a Musical Life.
Lenz.—The Great Virtuosos of our Time.

Questions.
Who were the earliest of Liszt’s pupils?
Name some later pupils of Liszt.
Who are the leading exponents of the Belgian school?
Whose principles did Brahms follow?
What are the characteristics of his works?
What was Anton Rubinstein’s chief characteristic as a pianist?
Whom did Nicholas Rubinstein assist greatly?
By what piano piece is Balakireff best known?
What Russian pianist has visited America?
Name two young Russian composer pianists.
Give some account of Henselt.
 Who made the piano score of Wagner’s “Ring of the Nibelung”?
Name some successful teachers of the piano at the Paris
Conservatory. Which one has twice visited America? Which has
published many valuable sets of exercises?
 LESSON XLVIII.
Pianists and Teachers Since Liszt. II.

One of the greatest living teachers in authority and breadth of

influence is Theodor Leschetizky, born in 1831. A pupil of Czerny,
he began to teach at the age of fifteen, having played in public since
1842. He became a teacher in the St. Petersburg Conservatory,
where he taught for many years. Soon after 1880 he settled in
Vienna, where he has lived ever since. Since the success of his pupil
Paderewski, Leschetizky has been the most sought-after teacher in
the world. He has been obliged to have assistants to prepare pupils
for him. Students have come to Vienna from all parts of the world. A
brilliant pianist, he has written piano music and even an opera, but
his merit as a teacher is due to the foundation given him by Czerny,
who acquired his traditions from Beethoven, to the keenness of his
ability to prescribe for the individual needs of the pupil and the
simplicity and directness of his “method.” His pupils have met with
great success, although he has not yet produced a second
Paderewski.
Ignaz Paderewski, probably the greatest pianist since Liszt,
although like him excelled in some respects by others, was born in
1859. A pupil of the Warsaw Conservatory, he also studied at Berlin.
He taught piano at the Warsaw Conservatory from 1878-83, and also
at Strassburg. Later he went to Leschetizky for a thorough course of
study. After his début at Vienna, in 1887, he conquered by degrees
Paris and London. His first visit to America was in 1891, when he
carried all before him. Since then he has visited the United States
three times, he has traveled over all Europe, and has visited
Australia with overwhelming success, financial and artistic. His most
noticeable qualities are a magnetic personality, a virtuoso technic,
the color and piquant rhythm of his playing, and the poetry and
deep human intensity of his interpretations. He has written several
sets of pieces for the piano, a concerto, and a fantasy with
orchestra, and an opera. His generous gift of the endowment of
triennial prizes to American composers is an admirable instance of
his warm-heartedness.
Josef Slavinski, born 1865, who studied with Stroeble, Anton
Rubinstein and finally Leschetizky, is a pianist of great ability who
came to the United States in 1873, and again in 1901. Other
Leschetizky pupils are Ossip Gabrilowitsch, born 1878, also a
pupil of Anton Rubinstein and the St. Petersburg Conservatory, who
came to America in 1900 and 1902; Mark Hambourg, born in
1879, who first studied with his father, and after a tour of the United
States in 1900, has had brilliant successes in Europe and England;
Martinus Sieveking, born 1867, a pupil of Röntgen at Leipzig, who
visited America in 1895 and again in 1896-97 and afterwards went
to Vienna. There are many other brilliant pupils of Leschetizky, but
the foregoing are some of the best known.
Paderewski has not taught, as a rule, since his great triumphs as
a virtuoso, but he has made exceptions. Sigismond Stojowski,
born 1870, was a pupil of the Paris Conservatory, where he won first
prizes in piano playing and composition. Later he studied with
Paderewski, and lived as pianist, teacher and composer in Paris. In
1905, he accepted the position of head of the piano department at
the Institute of Musical Art, New York City. Antoinette
Szumowska-Adamowska was born in 1868. She studied at
Warsaw, and later, for several years, with Paderewski. She has made
successful appearances in Europe and America. Later she accepted a
position at the New England Conservatory, in Boston, U. S. A.
Another pianist of great ability who has profited by Paderewski’s
suggestions is Harold Bauer, born in 1873. A student of the violin,
as well as of the piano, he did not consider making a career as a
piano virtuoso until encouraged by Paderewski. In 1892, he studied
with Paderewski, although he is largely self-taught, for his
individuality and musical style show slight effects of Paderewski’s
influence. Bauer’s technic is superb, although he is not a virtuoso
pure and simple. His interpretations are healthy and vigorous, and
especially faithful to the composers’ intentions. His repertory is
enormous. He has made several extremely successful tours to the
United States. He has traveled also widely in Europe as well as to
South America. Bauer is one of the most eminent of living artists.
Among Norwegians, Edvard Grieg, born 1843, is a remarkable
interpreter of his own individual works. Christian Sinding and
Wilhelm Stenhammar also deserve mention.
The Italians have not produced many remarkable pianists,
nevertheless, several are well known. Chief among them is
Giovanni Sgambati, born 1843, a pupil of Liszt. Sgambati has
composed charming music for the piano, as well as chamber-music,
a concerto and symphony. He is director of the Academy of St.
Cecilia, at Rome. Giuseppe Buonamici, born 1846, a pupil of the
Munich Conservatory and of von Bülow, has done much to promote
music in Florence. He has been connected with several musical
societies in that city, and has been active as a teacher. His editions
of Beethoven’s sonatas, of Bertini’s etudes, and a treatise on scale
playing are of great value to the student. The most prominent Italian
pianist, who has lived a cosmopolitan life, is Feruccio Busoni, born
in 1866. Early in life he became a member, as a pianist, of the
Bologna Philharmonic Academy, after a severe test. In 1888, he
accepted a position at the Helsingfors Conservatory. In 1890, he won
the Rubinstein prize as composer and pianist. Subsequently he
taught the piano in the Moscow Conservatory, and later he was
connected with the New England Conservatory at Boston. Since then
he has lived in Europe as a pianist and conductor of ultra-modern
music. Busoni has one of the most formidable technics of any pianist
living. He has edited Bach’s “Well-Tempered Clavichord,” with many
helpful technical suggestions, also the smaller preludes and
inventions; he has made masterly transcriptions of Bach’s organ
works for the piano, of a fantasy for organ by Liszt, the same
composer’s “Mephisto Waltz,” etc. He re-visited America in 1904.
Stephen Heller, born 1814, died 1888, was much influenced by
Chopin. He was a talented pianist, who will be remembered chiefly
by his studies, and a few other pieces, which have decided
educational value.
Among other living pianists who escape classification for one
reason or another are Moritz Moszkowski, born 1854, a pupil of
the Dresden, Kullak and Stern Conservatories; while a successful
pianist and teacher, he is known chiefly for his fluent and graceful
piano music, although he has composed works in larger forms.
Franz Rummel, born 1853, died 1901, a pupil of Brassin and the
Brussels Conservatory, toured Europe and visited America several
times; he taught at the Stern Conservatory in Berlin; Rafael
Joseffy, born 1853, went to the Leipzig Conservatory, he then
studied with Carl Tausig and later with Liszt; of late years he has
taught at the National Conservatory at New York. His concert
appearances have invariably been successful, although he has
devoted himself largely to teaching. A pianist of especial distinction
is Vladimir de Pachmann, born in 1848, a pupil of the Vienna
Conservatory; in spite of a brilliant début he retired for many years’
study; on reappearing he gave concerts over all Europe, and has
made several visits to America; his chief triumphs have been as the
inimitable interpreter of Chopin; Leopold Godowsky, born 1870,
appeared as a prodigy at the age of nine; he studied at the
Hochschule in Berlin, made European tours, and studied with Saint-
Saëns from 1887 to 1890; he taught at conservatories in
Philadelphia and Chicago; in 1902, he returned to Europe, where he
has given concerts constantly with phenomenal success. A composer
of piano pieces, he has devised many extraordinary versions of
Chopin’s studies.
Among English pianists, Frederic Lamond, a pupil of the Raff
Conservatory, of von Bülow and Liszt, and Leonard Borwick, a
pupil of Mme. Schumann, are the best known, although there are
many pianists of rising reputation.
Two young pianists deserving of especial recognition are Ernst
von Dohnanyi and Josef Hofmann. Dohnanyi, born 1877, is a pupil
of Kessler and D’Albert. In 1898, he won a double success as pianist
and composer with a piano concerto. In 1900, he made a brilliant
tour in America. Since then he has devoted himself largely to
composition. Josef Hofmann was a pupil of his father, and later, of
Anton Rubinstein. He played the piano when six years old; in public
at the age of nine. In the following year he gave fifty-two concerts in
the United States. After retiring for study under Rubinstein, he
reappeared a mature artist. He has since visited America several
times. Hofmann has an unusual technic; his individuality is not
striking, but he is an artist of conspicuous merit.

American Pianists.
The rapid progress of music in America renders it impossible to
do justice to piano playing in this country. However, the pioneer
work of William Mason, a pupil of Moscheles, Dreyschock and
Liszt, active as pianist and teacher, the author of “Touch and
Technic” and other technical treatises; of B. J. Lang, a pupil of his
father, F. C. Hill, Salter and Alfred Jaell, an active pianist, teacher,
and conductor, of W. S. B. Mathews, Otto Dresel, Ernst Perabo, and
others, was of great importance. Later Carl Baermann, a Liszt
pupil, Carl Faelten, William Sherwood, also a Liszt pupil, Carl
Stasny, Arthur Whiting, Edward MacDowell and many others have
continued the work so ably begun. Edward MacDowell is easily
the most noted American composer-pianist. His technical equipment,
personality, and interpretative gifts justly entitle him to this
distinction. A pupil of Mme. Carreño, Marmontel and Carl Heymann,
he has had thorough training. His pianistic career has been limited
by his efforts as a composer, and by his work as Professor of Music
at Columbia, which position he resigned in 1904, as well as his
activity as a teacher. His studies, concertos and smaller pieces show
great individuality of technical style, besides being among the most
valuable contributions to piano literature since Liszt. MacDowell has
appeared with leading orchestras in this country; he has given many
recitals, including a tour of the United States in 1904.

Women Pianists.
Of the many distinguished women pianists since Liszt, the most
eminent was Mme. Clara Schumann, a pupil of her father,
Friedrich Wieck. She played in public from the age of thirteen,
winning instant recognition. Her marriage to Schumann diminished
her public activity, but after his death in 1856, she resumed her
career. She taught at the Hoch Conservatory at Frankfort, besides
playing in public in Europe and England. Among other famous
women pianists were Madame Clauss-Szavardy, Mme. Arabella
Goddard Davidson, and Mme. Sophie Menter. Mme. Teresa
Carreño, a pupil of L. M. Gottschalk and G. Mathias, has had a
remarkable career as concert-pianist. Mme. Essipoff, a pupil of
Wielhorski and Leschetizky, taught for many years at the St.
Petersburg Conservatory, after brilliant concert tours. Miss Fanny
Davies, a pupil of Reinecke and Mme. Schumann, Mme. Roger-Miclos
and Mlle. Clotilde Kleeberg, pupils of the Paris Conservatory, are all
pianists of distinction. In this country Miss Adele aus der Ohe, a
pupil of Kullak and Liszt, Mme. Bloomfield-Zeisler, a pupil of von
Wolfssohn and Leschetizky, and Mme. Helen Hopekirk, a pupil of
the Leipzig Conservatory and of Leschetizky, now a teacher at the
New England Conservatory, and Mme. Szumowska-Adamowska,
before mentioned as a pupil of Paderewski, are all pianists of great
ability.
In conclusion, it may be stated that while Liszt’s pupils have done
much to carry on the traditions which he originated, much has also
been accomplished for the advancement of pianistic art by
Leschetizky and his pupils, a remarkable group of teachers at the
Paris Conservatory, and by such independent pianists as de
Pachmann, Busoni, Siloti, Godowsky, Bauer and Hofmann, while
many able conservatories and private teachers in America are
enabling the American pianist to compete favorably with Europe.
Questions.
Who is the best-known piano teacher of today?
Name some of his famous pupils. Which one instituted prizes for
American composers?
Name some pianists who have profited by Paderewski’s advice.
Which one has made successful tours of America?
Name the most famous Italian pianists. Which one has made
masterly transcriptions of Bach and Liszt?
What pianist has made a specialty of Chopin?
What young pianist has made an especially brilliant impression in
America?
Name the pioneer pianists of America.
Who is the most famous of American composer pianists?
Name some talented women pianists.
Suggestions for a Review of Lessons XLI to XLVIII.
This period is of great interest to the student, as the greater part
of the piano literature in use today is the work of composers
belonging to the Romantic and Post-Classical schools. It must not be
forgotten that in studying the history of music the object is to learn
to know the music of the best composers, not merely certain facts
and dates in the lives of these composers. The works cited in the
lessons give a wide latitude in the matter of choice and a clear idea
of the contribution of the different composers.
Lesson XLI.—1. Take a composition by each of the composers
mentioned and show its distinctive qualities. 2. Show the deeper,
fuller, more poetic character of the compositions of Field as
compared with Clementi.
 Lesson XLII.—1. Give a sketch of Schubert the man. 2. Name the
special qualities of Schubert’s music. Why does he belong to the
Romantic school?
Lesson XLIII.—1. What is the nature of Weber’s contribution to
music? 2. What are the special qualities of Mendelssohn’s works?
Lesson XLIV.—1. Compare Schumann’s work in the short pieces
and in the large forms. In which was he the more successful? 2. Give
an analysis of some of his short pieces.
Lesson XLV.—1. In what forms did Chopin do his best work?
Mention some pieces as illustrations. 2. In what ways did he show
national spirit? Mention pieces.
Lesson XLVI.—1. Give a sketch of the important factors in the
making of Liszt the pianist. 2. What influence did he exert on music?
Lesson XLVII.—1. Compare Rubinstein and Liszt. 2. What
influence did Brahms exert on music?
Lesson XLVIII.—1. Make a list of the various pianists and classify
them as to nationality and school.
 LESSON XLIX.
The Art-Song. Oratorio after Mendelssohn.

Development of the Art-Song Idea.—A most significant

phase of musical activity is that centred around the art-song for solo
voice. In the period before the opera, choral singing was the
principal medium for vocal music. With the Opera came a style of
composition from which was developed the principle of the Aria, the
latter dominating both Opera and Oratorio for many years, as the
form for an art-song for a solo voice. In this form, as we have seen,
the production of vocal effects, the making of attractive melody, and
the opportunity for virtuosic display were sought first of all. It was
not until the beginning of the 19th century, when Schubert’s peculiar
genius asserted itself, that we meet what can be truly called the art-
song, a form of composition without the artificiality of the operatic
aria and with higher musicianly and artistic qualities than those that
mark the people’s song. Several tendencies contributed to bring this
about. Gluck’s theories and practice led both composers and people
to pay closer attention to the text and to its delivery. The
development of instrumental music, particularly the principles of
thematic treatment, led composers to the inventing of new melodic
and rhythmic figures that should serve as the basis of
accompaniments of higher artistic quality than those founded on
some variation of the Alberti bass figure. Piano technic had greatly
improved, and so had the instrument. And it may also be said that
the verse of this period was better suited for a dramatic musical
setting than the formal, often stilted and artificial lyrics of earlier
days, with their shepherds and shepherdesses and constant
reference to pastoral and classical life.
 Italian, French and English Forms.—A study of musical
conditions in Italy, France, Germany and England shows a different
style of the solo song in each country, each having some distinctive
feature that maintains today, and one that may be said to
characterize the song-idea of that people. The Italians were so taken
with the opera and in the course of its development it so fully
embodied the national love for sweet, graceful melody that a species
of art-song apart from the opera had little or no chance to shape
itself. The French Chanson has never yielded place to the methods
which distinguish the modern art-song. The French language has
certain qualities which seem to call for a treatment that centres the
attention in the voice part rather than on the song as a whole,
according to the German idea. Yet French composers have produced
and still make most beautiful and charming songs which
unmistakably embody the national characteristics, clearness, polish
and an effective singing melody. The old English Ballads are pieces
of narrative verse; but the term has been used so freely and for
almost every kind of verse that it is not possible to give it a precise
definition. Thomas Morley, in a work on music, which he published in
1597, mentions “songs which, being sung to a dittie may likewise be
danced”; in 1636, in a book called “The Principles of Musicke,” the
author, Butler, refers to “the infinite multitude of Ballads set to
sundry pleasant and delightful tunes by cunning and witty
composers, with country dances fitted to them.” The principles of
musical construction and the character of the text are such that we
do not find in the English ballad the true germ of the art-song.
The German “Lied”, a poem intended for singing, as it came
from the hands of the great poets, such as Goethe and Heine, seems
to have afforded to composers the inspiration to the making of a
style of song that should have the value of a musical setting in full
consonance with the character of the text. As instrumental music
developed, the Volkslied, the people’s song, the natural medium for
expression, gradually disappeared. Yet composers made use of it as
a medium, such masters as Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Weber
giving attention to it, although the demand for a simple, clear
melody, due to the dominance of the Italian opera, and for an
accompaniment that was always much subordinated, prevented the
art-song (Kunstlied) from taking a high place. Since then the
accompaniment has been given more and more prominence, less
attention being paid to pure melody and more to the value of
harmony and rhythm as the means for characteristic color and
expression. Melody, which is made up of a succession of phrases,
cannot furnish a sequence of sharp effects so readily as can well
contrasted chords; hence the old idea of tune changed as harmony
became better understood. The methods of song composers vary,
and a classification is made by German writers: A song that has
simple form and tune akin to that of the Folk-song is called
“Volksthümlich”; one that has the same tune to the different stanzas
is called strophic; one that is carefully worked out, the music
illustrating every shade of meaning and emotion is called
“Durchcomponirt”; a narrative song is called a “Ballad” or “Ballade.”
The great masters in song composition are Schubert, Schumann,
Franz and Brahms.
Schubert as a Song Writer.—A consideration of Schubert’s
education and his general make-up shows clearly why he should
seek outlet for self-expression in song rather than in the large
instrumental forms. We find that he was not systematically educated
in musical science, like Mozart, Beethoven or Weber, and that he was
by nature very spontaneous and amenable to external influences.
Such a composer is particularly open to the effect of a poem and will
turn to the small song form rather than to the elaborate instrumental
forms. Many of Schubert’s songs were written on the spur of the
moment in response to an impulse from reading a chance bit of
verse. The first reading of the poem usually gave the complete idea,
both tune and accompaniment; whether it should have the simple
folk-song character, a more declamatory style, strophic or the more
elaborate form, depended upon the character of the text. It is
fortunate for music that he was brought into contact with some of
the finest lyrics in the field of poetry, such as called forth his highest
powers in melody, harmony, rhythm, modulation, declamation and
recitative, for he aimed to the very fullest extent possible to
heighten the thought of the text by the emotional power of music. It
is a phase of Schubert’s genius that some of his finest songs were
written before he had reached his majority.
Schumann and His Songs.—Schumann brought to song
writing a different type of mind from that of Schubert, more poetic,
more gloomy, more emotional, a fine literary training, a faculty for
expression in word as well as in tone, a fund of new forms of
expression in instrumental music, particularly the piano, so that we
find in his songs certain elements that indicate development toward
a more highly organized structure. Schumann was highly intellectual,
hence we find in his songs a close union of voice and instrumental
parts in working out the fundamental conception of the poet’s
meaning; and so deeply does he carry out this plan that the
accompanist must enter most thoroughly into the singer’s part, and
vice versa, that the full effect be brought out; as compared with the
songs of Schubert and Mendelssohn we can say that the latter are
the “verses set to tunes, while Schumann’s songs are poems in
music.” The piano part of a Schumann song contains the atmosphere
of the poem, is an attempt to heighten the meaning by suggesting
thoughts and feelings which the words, spoken or sung, cannot
express; sometimes it is an entirely independent composition, and
carries out to a final close the thought left unfinished by the voice,
thus avoiding the conventional ending, by the singer, on the tonic
chord. Schumann’s effort was to express his own reading of the
poet’s lines by the musical means that seemed to him best suited to
the purpose. To this end he refused to allow himself to be bound by
conventional treatment, either of voice or instrument.
Robert Franz (1815-1892) combined in his songs the
romanticism and general methods of Schumann, with a polyphonic
treatment inspired by his deep study of Bach. He wrote to various
styles of verse, hymns, love-songs, lyrics of the field, the forest, the
hunter, the soldier, and though his songs lack the tender, passionate,
melodious quality of Schubert’s and the deep poetic feeling of
Schumann’s, they are nevertheless models of perfect, even elaborate
workmanship in which the composer follows with great faithfulness
the mood of the poet; Schumann, on the contrary, seems to project
his own interpretation of the poem into his music, while Schubert
seems to grasp the emotion at its highest moment and the song
pours out as the spontaneous expression of the singer.
Three Modern Writers.—Of modern writers, those who
contributed most to the development of the art-song are Wagner,
Brahms and Richard Strauss, the first-named by his style and
treatment of the voice and the instrumental part rather than by his
songs, which are few in number. Brahms wrote nearly two hundred
songs, varying in character and quality, and using a highly-developed
accompaniment, often intricate in its construction, complicated in
rhythm and restless in harmonic support, employing all the
resources which his mastery of chromatic harmony placed at his
disposal. He frequently wrote in the style of the Folk-song, making
use of its simple melodic quality, enriching it, however, by his great
skill in elaboration in the accompaniment. Brahms’ songs are great
favorites on concert programs. Richard Strauss (b. 1864) is the
leading composer of today, and has used in his songs the principles
that distinguish his large works. These songs are very difficult, both
for voice and accompaniment, and are full of tonal coloring, for
Strauss has adapted to the miniature form of the song the means of
harmonic and rhythmic effects which he uses so powerfully in his
orchestral scores. When well sung and well played, the hearer
cannot but be absorbed by the wealth of musical effects of the
highest emotional and picturesque quality displayed in Richard
Strauss’ songs. In a full study of songs and song writers, many more
names would be mentioned; those selected for consideration in this
lesson represent those who have contributed most significantly to
the development of the modern art-song.
Oratorio Composers after Mendelssohn.—The later history
of the Oratorio requires some consideration at this point. After
Mendelssohn, many of the leading composers of Europe turned their
attention to this form of composition, influenced, in many instances,
by the splendid opportunities for production offered by the strong
choral organizations and festival associations of Germany and
England, as well as by the great advances made in orchestral
playing, which gave to composers resources far beyond those at the
hand of Mendelssohn and his predecessors. We may mention,
among the Germans, Schumann, whose “Paradise and the Peri”
was produced in 1843; Liszt, who was much attracted to sacred
subjects, wrote two oratorios, “The Legend of St. Elizabeth” and
“Christus”; Rubinstein, who used his great skill in tone painting
with orchestral masses in “Paradise Lost” and in his sacred opera
“The Tower of Babel”; Brahms, whose “German Requiem” is a
standard work to be done well only by thoroughly disciplined vocal
and instrumental forces; and Dvořák, who has shown great power
in his “Stabat Mater.” Among the French writers most prominent in
this form of composition are Berlioz, whose “Requiem” is a colossal
work in which he drew upon all the resources of the orchestra to
heighten the powerful, dramatic character of the text; Gounod, who
wrote his remarkable works, “The Redemption” and “Mors et Vita”
for English production; Saint-Saëns, whose “Noël,” a Christmas
work, is oratorio in style and construction, although small in
dimensions; and César Franck, the most modern of all, whose
“Beatitudes” has been made the subject of much discussion. English
composers, following the lead of Handel and Mendelssohn, have
given great attention to this form. Bennett, the friend of
Mendelssohn, produced a beautiful work, “The Woman of Samaria”;
Costa, an Italian by birth, spent a great part of his professional life
in England; hence his oratorio, “Eli,” may be classed with English
works; Sullivan wrote two oratorios, “The Prodigal Son” and “The
Light of the World”; Macfarren’s “St. John the Baptist” and
Mackenzie’s “Rose of Sharon” can be classed among oratorios. The
most eminent in this form at the present day is Elgar, “The Dream
of Gerontius” and “The Apostles.” Young Italy has lately shown
interest in this form, the most noteworthy being the Abbé Perosi,
who is under the patronage of the Pope. In the United States the
leading representatives are J. K. Paine, of Harvard University, with
the oratorio “St. Peter,” Dudley Buck, “Golden Legend,” and H. W.
Parker, “Hora Novissima.”
 The Cantata.—More popular even than the Oratorio with choral
societies is the Cantata, both sacred and secular, and the great
increase in strong choral organizations, particularly in England,
Germany, France and the United States, has resulted in the
production of a number of splendid works which show dramatic
power and the highest skill in handling voices and instruments.
These works contain opportunities for the use of the finest quality of
melody, variety of rhythm, solid harmonic or the more fluent
polyphonic style, richness of harmonic coloring and every accessory
in the way of tone painting by the orchestra, which such masters as
Berlioz and Wagner pointed out. The important works are too many
to be mentioned here; only the composers’ names can be given. In
Germany, Brahms, Bruch, Dvořák, Gade, Goetz, Hiller, Hofmann,
Rheinberger; in France, Berlioz and Massenet; in England, Bennett,
Corder, Cowen, Macfarren, Mackenzie, Smart, Sullivan, Coleridge-
Taylor among the younger men; in the United States, Buck, Foote,
Chadwick, Gilchrist, Paine, H. W. Parker, and Carl Busch.

References.
Finck.—Songs and Song Writers.
Grove’s and Riemann’s Dictionaries.—Articles on composers
mentioned,
on Song, Lied, Volkslied, Chanson, Oratorio and
Cantata.
Parry.—Evolution of the Art of Music, Chapter XIII.
Upton.—Standard Oratorios. Standard Cantatas.

Questions.
Compare the Aria and the Song.
Mention the characteristics of the Italian, French and English
people’s songs.
What are the characteristics of the German Lied?
Give a sketch of Schubert as a song writer.
Give a sketch of Schumann as a song writer.
 Compare the two.
Give a sketch of Franz as a song writer.
Compare him with Schubert and Schumann.
Who are eminent among modern song writers?
Mention the special characteristics of each.
Name the leading composers of Oratorio after Mendelssohn, and
their works.
What is the difference between an oratorio and a cantata?
What composers have done successful work in this line?
Songs of the leading composers, classic and modern, should be
studied. The lessons on Schubert, Schumann, Liszt, etc., mention
notable songs. Analyze an oratorio by one of the composers
mentioned in this lesson, also one or more cantatas.
 Felix Weingartner. Gustav Mahler.
Richard Strauss. Siegmund Hausegger.