FORM 4 CSEC CHEMISTRY SECTION A PRINCIPLES IN CHEMISTRY

STRUCTURE AND BONDING – ALLOTROPES OF CARBON NOTES

ALLOTROPES
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Allotropes are different crystalline or molecular forms of the same element in the same
physical state.
TABLE 1: EXAMPLES OF ELEMENTS THAT EXHIBIT ALLOTROPY
ELEMENT ALLOTROPE IMAGE
Sulphur Monoclinic
Sulphur

Rhombic
Sulphur

Phosphorous Red
Phosphorous

White
Phosphorous

Black
Phosphorous

Carbon Diamond

Graphite

Oxygen Molecular
Oxygen- O2

Ozone- O3
 FORM 4 CSEC CHEMISTRY SECTION A PRINCIPLES IN CHEMISTRY
STRUCTURE AND BONDING – ALLOTROPES OF CARBON NOTES

Giant Molecular Structure/Macromolecular

Macromolecular/ Giant Molecular Structures have a 3D network of covalent bonds.
Diamond and graphite are both Giant Molecular Structures made up of carbon atoms ONLY.
Structure of Diamond
 Made up of carbon atoms only
 Each carbon atom covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral
arrangement.
Carbon
atoms

Strong covalent
bonds

FIGURE 1 STRUCTURE OF DIAMOND

How to draw the structure of diamond

Learn to draw the diagram given above. Do it in the following stages:

Step 1: Step 3:

Step 2:
Step 4:
FORM 4 CSEC CHEMISTRY SECTION A PRINCIPLES IN CHEMISTRY
STRUCTURE AND BONDING – ALLOTROPES OF CARBON NOTES

Physical Properties of Diamond

 Has a very high melting point (almost 4000°C). A lot of energy is required to break down the network of
strong carbon-carbon covalent bonds.

 Very hard because of the strong covalent bonding throughout makes it difficult to scratch the surface of
the crystal. Diamond is one of the hardest substance.

 Doesn’t conduct electricity due to the absence of mobile electrons which are all used up in covalent
bonding. RE: Each carbon atom is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms.

 Is insoluble in water and organic solvents. The network of covalent bonds are too strong to allow solvent
molecules to form strong bonds with the individual atoms.

 Transparent

Uses of Diamond based on physical property

 Diamond is hard making it ideal to use for the edges of cutting tools such as drilling bits
 Diamond is used as glass cutters because it is one of the hardest substance.

Graphite
Draw the structure of graphite

Carbon
atoms

Weak van der

Waals’ forces

Strong covalent
bonds
FIGURE 1 GRAPHITE
Structure of graphite
 In graphite each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane.
 The carbon atoms form six-membered hexagonal rings that link up to form flat layers/sheets.
 The hexagonal rings are arranged in parallel layers with weak forces of attraction called Van der Waals’
forces between the atoms in each layer.
 The layers can easily slide away from each other when a force is applied. For this reason, graphite is
smooth and slippery.
FORM 4 CSEC CHEMISTRY SECTION A PRINCIPLES IN CHEMISTRY
STRUCTURE AND BONDING – ALLOTROPES OF CARBON NOTES

FIGURE 2 STRUCTURE OF GRAPHITE

Properties of graphite
 High melting point
The strong covalent bonds between the atoms in each layer are strong, and a lot of heat energy is required to
break these bonds when graphite melts. This explains why graphite has a very high melting point (3652 oC)
 Conducts electricity
Not all the electrons in graphite are used in bonding, there are some free (mobile) electrons which enable
graphite to conduct electricity.
 Soft, Smooth and slippery
The Van der Waals’ forces of attraction between the atoms in each layer is weak. The layers can easily slide
away from each other when a force is applied. For this reason, graphite is smooth and slippery.

 Insoluble in water and organic solvents

The network of covalent bonds is too strong to allow solvent molecules to form strong enough bonds with
the individual atoms.
Uses of graphite with respect to physical properties
 To make pencil points – because it is soft, smooth and slippery – weak Van der Waals’ forces between
hexagonal layers allowing the layers to slide over each other.

 Electrodes – good electrical conductor – the fourth electron between the layers is delocalised. It is a free
electron and these free electrons between the layers allows graphite to conduct electricity.
FORM 4 CSEC CHEMISTRY SECTION A PRINCIPLES IN CHEMISTRY
STRUCTURE AND BONDING – ALLOTROPES OF CARBON NOTES

 Lubricant, like oil– soft, smooth and slippery - weak Van der Waals’ forces between hexagonal layers
allowing the layers to slide over each other.