Techniques of Functional Analysis for

Differential and Integral Equations 1st Edition

Paul Sacks download

https://textbookfull.com/product/techniques-of-functional-
analysis-for-differential-and-integral-equations-1st-edition-
paul-sacks/

Download more ebook from https://textbookfull.com

We believe these products will be a great fit for you. Click
the link to download now, or visit textbookfull.com
to discover even more!

Functional and impulsive differential equations of

fractional order : qualitative analysis and
applications 1st Edition Stamov

https://textbookfull.com/product/functional-and-impulsive-
differential-equations-of-fractional-order-qualitative-analysis-
and-applications-1st-edition-stamov/

Functional Differential Equations: Advances and

Applications 1st Edition Constantin Corduneanu

https://textbookfull.com/product/functional-differential-
equations-advances-and-applications-1st-edition-constantin-
corduneanu/

Solution Techniques for Elementary Partial Differential

Equations Third Edition Constanda

https://textbookfull.com/product/solution-techniques-for-
elementary-partial-differential-equations-third-edition-
constanda/

Partial Differential Equations Mathematical Techniques

for Engineers 1st Edition Marcelo Epstein (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/partial-differential-equations-
mathematical-techniques-for-engineers-1st-edition-marcelo-
epstein-auth/
Wavelet Based Approximation Schemes for Singular
Integral Equations 1st Edition Madan Mohan Panja

https://textbookfull.com/product/wavelet-based-approximation-
schemes-for-singular-integral-equations-1st-edition-madan-mohan-
panja/

Boundary Integral Equations 2nd Edition George C. Hsiao

https://textbookfull.com/product/boundary-integral-equations-2nd-
edition-george-c-hsiao/

Ordinary Differential Equations and Boundary Value

Problems Volume I Advanced Ordinary Differential
Equations 1st Edition John R Graef

https://textbookfull.com/product/ordinary-differential-equations-
and-boundary-value-problems-volume-i-advanced-ordinary-
differential-equations-1st-edition-john-r-graef/

Non Local Partial Differential Equations for

Engineering and Biology Mathematical Modeling and
Analysis Mathematics for Industry 31 Nikos I.
Kavallaris
https://textbookfull.com/product/non-local-partial-differential-
equations-for-engineering-and-biology-mathematical-modeling-and-
analysis-mathematics-for-industry-31-nikos-i-kavallaris/

Elementary differential equations Second Edition

Roberts

https://textbookfull.com/product/elementary-differential-
equations-second-edition-roberts/
Techniques of Functional
Analysis for Differential and
Integral Equations
Mathematics in Science and
Engineering
Techniques of
Functional Analysis for
Differential and
Integral Equations

Paul Sacks
Department of Mathematics, Iowa State University,
Ames, IA, United States

Series Editor
Goong Chen
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

© 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek
permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements
with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency,
can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-811426-1

For information on all Academic Press publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Candice Janco

Acquisition Editor: Graham Nisbet
Editorial Project Manager: Susan Ikeda
Production Project Manager: Paul Prasad Chandramohan
Cover Designer: Alan Studholme

Typeset by SPi Global, India

Contents

Preface ix

1. Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral

Equations 1
1.1 Ordinary Differential Equations
1 .1 .1 Initial Value Problems 2
1.1.2 Boundary Value Problems 4
1.1 .3 Some Exactly Solvable Cases 4
1.2 Integral Equations 5
1.3 Partial Differential Equations 8
1 .3.1 First Order PDEs and the Method of Characteristics 9
1.3.2 Second Order Problems in ]R2 12
1.3.3 Further Discussion of Model Problems 15
1.3.4 Standard Problems and Side Conditions 20
1.4 Well-Posed and III-Posed Problems 22
1.5 Exercises 23

2. Vector Spaces 29
2.1 Axioms of a Vector Space 29
2.2 linear Independence and Bases 31
2.3 linear Transformations of a Vector Space 32
2.4 Exercises 33

3. Metric Spaces 35
3.1 Axioms of a Metric Space 35
3.2 Topological Concepts 37
3.3 Functions on Metric Spaces and Continuity 40
3.4 Compactness and Optimization 42
3.5 Contraction Mapping Theorem 45
3.6 Exercises 48
vi Contents

4. Banach Spaces 51
4.1 Axioms of a Normed linear Space 51
4.2 Infinite Series 53
4.3 linear Operators and Functionals 54
4.4 Contraction Mappings in a Banach Space 56
4.5 Exercises 57

5. Hilbert Spaces 59

5.1 Axioms of an Inner Product Space 59

5.2 Norm in a Hilbert Space 60
5.3 Orthogonality 62
5.4 P roj ec ti o n s 63
5.5 Gram-Schmidt Method 65
5.6 Bessel's Inequality and Infinite Orthogonal Sequences 66
5.7 Characterization of a Basis of a Hilbert Space 67
5.8 Isomorphisms of a Hilbert Space 69
5.9 Exercises 71

6. Distribution Spaces 75
6.1 The Space of Test Functions 76
6.2 T he Space of Distributions 76
6.3 Algebra and Calculus With Distributi ons 80
6.3.1 Multiplication of Distributions 80
6.3.2 Convergence of Distributions 81
6.3.3 Derivative of a Distribution 83
6.4 Convolution and Distributions 88
6.5 Exercises 92

7. Fourier Analysis 95
7.1 Fourier Series in One Space Dimension 95
7.2 Alternative Forms of Fourier Series 100
7.3 More Abou t C onver gen ce of Fourier Series 101
7.4 The Fourier Transform on ]RN 104
7.5 Further Properties of the Fourier Transform 107
7.6 Fourier Series of Distributions 111
7.7 Fourier Transforms of Distributions 114
7.8 Exercises 119

8. Distributions and Differential Equations 125

8.1 Weak Derivatives and Sobolev Spaces 125

8.2 Differential Equations in '0' 127
8.3 Fundamental Solutions 130
 Contents vii

8.4 Fundamental Solutions and the Fourier Transform 132

8.5 Fundamental Solutions for Some Important PDEs 136
8.6 Exercises 139

9. Linear Operators 141

9.1 linear Mappings Between Banach Spaces 141

9.2 Examples of linear Operators 142
9.3 linear Operator Equations 148
9.4 The Adjoint Operator 149
9.5 Examples of Adjoints 151
9.6 Conditions for Solvability of linear Operator Equations 153
9.7 Fredholm Operators and the Fredholm Alternative 154
9.8 Convergence of Operators 155
9.9 Exercises 156

10. Unbounded Operators 159

10.1 General Aspects of Unbounded linear Operators 159
10.2 The Adjoint of an Unbounded linear Operator 162
10.3 Extensions of Symmetric Operators 166
10.4 Exercises 168

11. Spectrum of an Operator 171

11.1 Resolvent and Spectrum of a linear Operator 171
11.2 Examples of Operators and Their Spectra 174
11.3 Properties of Spectra 177
11.4 Exercises 180

12. Compact Operators 1 83

12.1 Compact Operators 183
12.2 Riesz-Schauder Theory 188
12.3 The Case of Self-Adjoint Compact Operators 192
12.4 Some Properties of Eigenvalues 198
12.5 Singular Value Decomposition and Normal Operators 200
12.6 Exercises 201

13. Spectra and Green's Functions for Differential

Operators 205

13.1 Green's Functions for Second-Order ODEs 205

13.2 Adjoint Problems 209
13.3 Sturm-liouville Theory 212
13.4 laplacian With Homogeneous Dirichlet Boundary Conditions 215
13.5 Exercises 221
viii Contents

14. Further Study of Integral Equations 227

14.1 Singular Integral Operators 227
14.2 Layer Potentials 230
14.3 Convolution Equations 235
14.4 Wiener-Hopf Technique 236
14.5 Exercises 239

15. Variational Methods 243

15.1 The Dirichlet Quotient 243

15.2 Eigenvalue Approximation 247
15.3 The Euler-Lagrange Equation 249
15.4 Variational Methods for Elliptic Boundary Value Problems 250
15.5 Other Problems in the Calculus of Variations 254
15.6 The Existence of Minimizers 258
15.7 Calculus in Banach Spaces 259
15.8 Exercises 263

16. Weak Solutions of Partial Differential Equations 269

16.1 Lax Milgram Theorem
- 269
16.2 More Function Spaces 275
16.3 Galerkin's Method 280
16.4 Introduction to Linear Semigroup Theory 283
16.5 Exercises 291

Appendix 295
A.1 Lebesgue Measure and the Lebesgue Integral 295
A.2 Inequalities 298
A.3 Integration by Parts 301
A.4 Spherical Coordinates in JRN 302

Bibliography 305
Index 307
Preface

The purpose of this book is to provide a textbook option for a course in

modern methods of applied mathematics suitable for first year graduate students
in Mathematics and Applied Mathematics, as well as for students in other
science and engineering disciplines with good undergraduate-level mathematics
preparation. While the term “applied mathematics” has a very broad meaning,
the scope of this textbook is much more limited, namely to present techniques
of mathematical analysis which have been found to be particularly useful
in understanding certain kinds of mathematical problems which commonly
occur in the scientific and technological disciplines, especially physics and
engineering. These methods, which are often regarded as belonging to the realm
of functional analysis, have been motivated most specifically in connection with
the study of ordinary differential equations, partial differential equations, and
integral equations. The mathematical modeling of physical phenomena typically
involves one or more of these types of equations, and insight into the physical
phenomenon itself may result from a deep understanding of the underlying
mathematical properties which the models possess. All concepts and techniques
discussed in this book are ultimately of interest because of their relevance for
the study of these three general types of problems. Of course there is a great deal
of beautiful mathematics, which has grown out of these ideas, and so intrinsic
mathematical motivation cannot be denied or ignored.
The background the student will obtain by studying this material is sufficient
preparation for more advanced graduate-level courses in differential equations
and numerical analysis, as well as more specialized topics such as fluid
dynamics. The presentation avoids overly technical material from measure
and function theory, while at the same time maintaining a high standard of
mathematical rigor. This is accomplished by including careful presentation of
the statements of such results whose proofs are beyond the scope of the text,
and precise references to other resources where complete proofs can be found.
As the book is meant as textbook for a course, which is typically the basis for
a written qualifying examination for PhD students, a great many examples and
exercises are given.
The topics presented in this book have served as the basis for a two-semester
course for first year graduate students at Iowa State University. A normal
division is that Chapters 1–8 are covered in the first semester, and Chapters 9–16
in the second. A partial exception is Chapter 14, all of whose topics are optional
in relation to later material, and so may be easily omitted.

ix
x Preface

I would like to thank past and present friends and colleagues for many
helpful discussions and suggestions about the teaching of Applied Mathematics
at this level and points of detail in earlier drafts of this book: Tuncay Aktosun,
Jim Evans, Scott Hansen, Fritz Keinert, Howard Levine, Gary Lieberman,
Hailiang Liu, Tasos Matzavinos, Hien Nguyen, John Schotland, Mike Smiley,
Pablo Stinga and Jue Yan. All mistakes and shortcomings are of course my own
doing.

Paul Sacks
October 28, 2016
Chapter 1

Some Basic Discussion of

Differential and Integral
Equations

In this chapter we will discuss “standard problems” in the theory of ordinary

differential equations (ODEs), integral equations, and partial differential equa-
tions (PDEs). The techniques developed in this book are all meant to have
some relevance for one or more of these kinds of problems, so it seems best
to start with some awareness of exactly what the problems are. In each case
there are some relatively elementary methods, which the reader may well have
seen before, or which rely only on simple calculus considerations, which we
will review. At the same time we establish terminology and notations, and begin
to get some sense of the ways in which problems are classified.

1.1 ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

An nth order ordinary differential equation for an unknown function u = u(t)
on an interval (a, b) ⊂ R is any equation of the form
F(t, u, u , u , . . . , u(n) ) = 0 (1.1.1)
where we use the usual notations u , u , . . .
for derivatives of order 1, 2, . . .
and also u(n) for derivative of order n. Unless otherwise stated, we will assume
that the ODE can be solved for the highest derivative, that is, written in
the form
u(n) = f (t, u, u , . . . , u(n−1) ) (1.1.2)
For the purpose of this discussion, a solution of either equation will mean a real
valued function on (a, b) possessing continuous derivatives up through order
n, and for which the equation is satisfied at every point of (a, b). While it is
easy to write down ODEs in the form (1.1.1) without any solutions (e.g., (u )2 +
u2 + 1 = 0), we will see that ODEs of the type (1.1.2) essentially always have
solutions, subject to some very minimal assumptions on f .

Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811426-1.00001-5
© 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1
2 Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations

The ODE is linear if it can be written as

n
aj (t)u(j) (t) = g(t) (1.1.3)
j=0

for some coefficients a0 , . . . , an , g, and homogeneous if also g(t) ≡ 0. It

is common to use operator notation for derivatives, especially in the linear
case. Set
d
D= (1.1.4)
dt
so that u = Du, u = D(Du) = D2 u, etc., in which case Eq. (1.1.3) may be
given as

n
Lu := aj (t)Dj u = g(t) (1.1.5)
j=0

By standard calculus properties L is a linear operator, meaning that

L(c1 u1 + c2 u2 ) = c1 Lu1 + c2 Lu2 (1.1.6)

for any scalars c1 , c2 and any n times differentiable functions u1 , u2 .

An ODE normally has infinitely many solutions—the collection of all
solutions is called the general solution of the given ODE.
Example 1.1. By elementary calculus considerations, the simple ODE u = 0
has general solution u(t) = c, where c is an arbitrary constant. Likewise u = u
has the general solution u(t) = cet and u = 2 has the general solution u(t) =
t2 + c1 t + c2 , where c1 , c2 are arbitrary constants. 2

1.1.1 Initial Value Problems

The general solution of an nth order ODE typically contains exactly n arbitrary
constants, whose values may be then chosen so that the solution satisfies n
additional, or side, conditions. The most common kind of side conditions of
interest for an ODE are initial conditions,

u(j) (t0 ) = γj j = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 (1.1.7)

where t0 is a given point in (a, b) and γ0 , . . . , γn−1 are given constants. Thus
we are prescribing the value of the solution and its derivatives up through order
n − 1 at the point t0 . The problem of solving Eq. (1.1.2) together with the initial
conditions (1.1.7) is called an initial value problem (IVP). It is a very important
fact that under fairly unrestrictive hypotheses a unique solution exists. In stating
conditions on f , we regard it as a function f = f (t, y1 , . . . , yn ) defined on some
domain in Rn+1 .
 Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral Equations Chapter | 1 3

Theorem 1.1. Assume that

∂f ∂f
f, ,..., (1.1.8)
∂y1 ∂yn
are defined and continuous in a neighborhood of the point (t0 , γ0 , . . . , γn−1 ) ∈
Rn+1 . Then there exists  > 0 such that the IVP (1.1.2), (1.1.7) has a unique
solution on the interval (t0 − , t0 + ).
A proof of this theorem may be found in standard ODE textbooks (see,
e.g., [4] or [7]). A slightly weaker version of this theorem will be proved in
Section 3.5. As will be discussed there, the condition of continuity of the partial
derivatives of f with respect to each of the variables yi can actually be replaced
by the weaker assumption that f is Lipschitz continuous with respect to each of
these variables. If we assume only that f is continuous in a neighborhood of the
point (t0 , γ0 , . . . , γn−1 ) then it can be proved that at least one solution exists,
but it may not be unique, see Exercise 1.3. Similar results are valid for systems
of ODEs.
It should also be emphasized that the theorem asserts a local existence
property, that is, only in some sufficiently small interval centered at t0 . It has to
be this way, first of all, since the assumptions on f are made only in the vicinity
of (t0 , γ0 , . . . , γn−1 ). But even if the continuity properties of f were assumed to
hold throughout Rn+1 , then as the following example shows, it would still only
be possible to prove that a solution exists for points t close enough to t0 .
Example 1.2. Consider the first order IVP
u = u2 u(0) = γ (1.1.9)
for which the assumptions of Theorem 1.1 hold for any γ . It may be checked
that the solution of this problem is
γ
u(t) = (1.1.10)
1 − γt

which is only a valid solution for t < 1

γ, which can be arbitrarily small. 2
With more restrictions on f it may be possible to show that the solution exists
on any interval containing t0 , in which case we would say that the solution exists
globally. This is the case, for example, for the linear ODE (1.1.3).
Whenever the conditions of Theorem 1.1 hold, the set of all possible solu-
tions may be regarded as being parametrized by the n constants γ0 , . . . , γn−1 ,
so that as mentioned above, the general solution will contain exactly n arbitrary
parameters. In the special case of the linear equation (1.1.3) it can be shown that
the general solution may be given as

n
u(t) = cj uj (t) + up (t) (1.1.11)
j=1
4 Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations

where up is any particular solution of Eq. (1.1.3), and u1 , . . . , un are any n linearly
independent solutions of the corresponding homogeneous equation Lu = 0. Any
such set of functions u1 , . . . , un is also called a fundamental set for Lu = 0.
Example 1.3. If Lu = u + u then by direct substitution we see that u1 (t) =
sin t, u2 (t) = cos t are solutions, and they are clearly linearly independent. Thus
{sin t, cos t} is a fundamental set for Lu = 0 and u(t) = c1 sin t + c2 cos t is
the general solution of Lu = 0. For the inhomogeneous ODE u + u = et one
may check that up (t) = 12 et is a particular solution, so the general solution is
u(t) = c1 sin t + c2 cos t + 12 et . 2

1.1.2 Boundary Value Problems

For an ODE of degree n ≥ 2 it may be of interest to impose side conditions
at more than one point, typically the endpoints of the interval of interest. We
will then refer to the side conditions as boundary conditions and the problem of
solving the ODE subject to the given boundary conditions as a boundary value
problem (BVP). Since the general solution still contains n parameters, we still
expect to be able to impose a total of n side conditions. However we can see
from simple examples that the situation with regard to existence and uniqueness
in such BVPs is much less clear than for IVPs.
Example 1.4. Consider the BVP
u + u = 0 0 < t < π u(0) = 0 u(π ) = 1 (1.1.12)
Starting from the general solution u(t) = c1 sin t + c2 cos t, the two boundary
conditions lead to u(0) = c2 = 0 and u(π ) = c2 = 1. Since these are
inconsistent, the BVP has no solution. 2
Example 1.5. For the BVP
u + u = 0 0 < t < π u(0) = 0 u(π ) = 0 (1.1.13)
we have solutions u(t) = C sin t for any constant C, that is, the BVP has
infinitely many solutions. 2
The topic of BVPs will be studied in much more detail in Chapter 13.

1.1.3 Some Exactly Solvable Cases

Let us finally review explicit solution methods for some commonly occurring
types of ODEs.
● For the first order linear ODE
u + p(t)u = q(t) (1.1.14)
 Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral Equations Chapter | 1 5

define the so-called integrating factor ρ(t) = eP(t) where P is any function
satisfying P = p. Multiplying the equation through by ρ we then get the
equivalent equation
(ρu) = ρq (1.1.15)
so if we pick Q such that Q = ρq, the general solution may be given as
Q(t) + C
u(t) = (1.1.16)
ρ(t)
● For the linear homogeneous constant coefficient ODE
n
Lu = aj u(j) = 0 (1.1.17)
j=0

if we look for solutions in the form u(t) = eλt then by direct substitution
we find that u is a solution provided λ is a root of the corresponding
characteristic polynomial
 n
P(λ) = aj λj (1.1.18)
j=0

We therefore obtain as many linearly independent solutions as there are

distinct roots of P. If this number is less than n, then we may seek further
solutions of the form teλt , t2 eλt , . . . , until a total of n linearly independent
solutions have been found. In the case of complex roots, equivalent expres-
sions in terms of trigonometric functions are often used in place of complex
exponentials.
● Finally, closely related to the previous case, is the so-called Cauchy-Euler
type equation

n
Lu = (t − t0 )j aj u(j) = 0 (1.1.19)
j=0

for some constants a0 , . . . , an . In this case we look for solutions in the form
u(t) = (t−t0 )λ with λ to be found. Substituting into Eq. (1.1.19) we will find
again an nth order polynomial whose roots determine the possible values of
λ. The interested reader may refer to any standard undergraduate level ODE
book for the additional considerations which arise in the case of complex or
repeated roots.

1.2 INTEGRAL EQUATIONS

In this section we discuss the basic set-up for the study of linear integral
equations. See, for example, [16, 22] as general references in the classical theory
of integral equations. Let  ⊂ RN be an open set, K a given function on  × 
and set
6 Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations


Tu(x) = K(x, y)u(y) dy (1.2.20)

Here the function K is called the kernel of the integral operator T, which is
linear since Eq. (1.1.6) obviously holds.
A class of associated integral equations is then

λu(x) − K(x, y)u(y) dy = f (x) x ∈  (1.2.21)

for some scalar λ and given function f in some appropriate class. If λ = 0
then Eq. (1.2.21) is said to be a first kind integral equation, otherwise it is
second kind. Let us consider some simple examples which may be studied by
elementary means.
Example 1.6. Let  = (0, 1) ⊂ R and K(x, y) ≡ 1. The corresponding first
kind integral equation is therefore
 1
− u(y) dy = f (x) 0 < x < 1 (1.2.22)
0
For simplicity here we will assume that f is a continuous function. The left-
hand side is independent of x, thus a solution can exist only if f (x) is a constant
function. When f is constant, on the other hand, infinitely many solutions will
exist, since we just need to find any u with the given definite integral.
For the corresponding second kind equation,
 1
λu(x) − u(y) dy = f (x) (1.2.23)
0
a solution, if one exists, must have the specific form u(x) = (f (x) + C)/λ
for some constant C. Substituting into the equation then gives, after obvious
algebra, that
 1
C(λ − 1) = f (y) dy (1.2.24)
0
Thus, for any continuous function f and λ = 0, 1, there exists a unique solution
of the integral equation, namely
1
f (x) f (y) dy
u(x) = + 0 (1.2.25)
λ λ(λ − 1)
In the remaining case that λ = 1, it is immediate from Eq. (1.2.24) that a solution
1
can exist only if 0 f (y) dy = 0, in which case u(x) = f (x) + C is a solution for
any choice of C. 2
This very simple example already exhibits features which turn out to be
common to a much larger class of integral equations of this general type.
These are
 Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral Equations Chapter | 1 7

● The first kind integral equation will require much more restrictive conditions
on f in order for a solution to exist.
● For most λ = 0 the second kind integral equation has a unique solution for
any f .
● There may exist a few exceptional values of λ for which either existence or
uniqueness fails in the corresponding second kind equation.
All of these points will be elaborated and made precise in Chapter 12.
Example 1.7. Let  = (0, 1) and
 x
Tu(x) = u(y) dy (1.2.26)
0
corresponding to the kernel

1 y<x
K(x, y) = (1.2.27)
0 x≤y
The corresponding integral equation may then be written as
 x
λu(x) − u(y) dy = f (x) (1.2.28)
0
This is the prototype of an integral operator of so-called Volterra type, see
Definition 1.1 below.
In the first kind case, λ = 0, we see that f (0) = 0 is a necessary condition
for solvability, in which case the solution is u(x) = −f  (x), provided that f is
differentiable in some suitable sense. For λ = 0 we note that differentiation of
Eq. (1.2.28) with respect to x gives
1 f  (x)
u − u= (1.2.29)
λ λ
This is an ODE of the type (1.1.14), and so may be solved by the method given
there. The result, after some obvious algebraic manipulation, is

ex/λ 1 x (x−y)/λ 
u(x) = f (0) + e f (y) dy (1.2.30)
λ λ 0
Note, however, that by an integration by parts, this formula is seen to be
equivalent to
 x
f (x) 1
u(x) = + 2 e(x−y)/λ f (y) dy (1.2.31)
λ λ 0

Observe that Eq. (1.2.30) seems to require differentiability of f even though

Eq. (1.2.31) does not, thus Eq. (1.2.31) would be the preferred solution formula.
It may be verified directly by substitution that Eq. (1.2.31) is a valid solution of
Eq. (1.2.28) for all λ = 0, assuming only that f is continuous on [0, 1]. 2
8 Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations

Concerning the two simple integral equations just discussed, there are again
some features which will turn out to be generally true.
● For the first kind equation, there are fewer restrictions on f needed for
solvability in the Volterra case (1.2.28) than in the non-Volterra case
(1.2.23).
● There are no exceptional values λ = 0 in the Volterra case, that is, a unique
solution exists for every λ = 0 and every continuous f .
Finally let us mention some of the more important ways in which integral
operators, or the corresponding integral equations, are classified:
Definition 1.1. The kernel K(x, y) is called
● symmetric if K(x, y) = K(y, x)
● Volterra type if N = 1 and K(x, y) = 0 for x > y or x < y
● convolution type if K(x,y) = F(x − y) for some function F
● Hilbert-Schmidt type if × |K(x, y)|2 dxdy < ∞
● singular if K(x, y) is unbounded on  × 
Important examples of integral operators, some of which will receive much
more attention later in the book, are the Fourier transform

1
Tu(x) = e−ix·y u(y) dy (1.2.32)
(2π )N/2 RN
the Laplace transform
 ∞
Tu(x) = e−xy u(y) dy (1.2.33)
0
the Hilbert transform
 ∞
1 u(y)
Tu(x) = dy (1.2.34)
π −∞ x−y
and the Abel operator
 x u(y)
Tu(x) = √ dy (1.2.35)
0 x−y

1.3 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

An mth order partial differential equation (PDE) for an unknown function u =
u(x) on a domain  ⊂ RN is any equation of the form
F(x, {Dα u}|α|≤m ) = 0 (1.3.36)
Here we are using the so-called multiindex notation for partial derivatives which
works as follows. A multiindex is vector of nonnegative integers
 Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral Equations Chapter | 1 9

α = (α1 , α2 , . . . , αN ) αi ∈ {0, 1, . . . } (1.3.37)

In terms of α we define

N
|α| = αi (1.3.38)
i=1
the order of α, and
∂ |α| u
Dα u = (1.3.39)
∂xα11 ∂xα22 . . . ∂xαNN
the corresponding α derivative of u. For later use it is also convenient to define
the factorial of a multiindex
α! = α1 !α2 ! . . . αN ! (1.3.40)
The PDE (1.3.36) is linear if it can be written as

Lu(x) = aα (x)Dα u(x) = g(x) (1.3.41)
|α|≤m

for some coefficient functions aα .

1.3.1 First Order PDEs and the Method of Characteristics

Let us start with the simplest possible example.
Example 1.8. When N = 2 and m = 1 consider
∂u
=0 (1.3.42)
∂x1
By elementary calculus considerations it is clear that u is a solution if and only
if u is independent of x1 , that is,

u(x1 , x2 ) = f (x2 ) (1.3.43)

for some function f . This is then the general solution of the given PDE, which
we note contains an arbitrary function f . 2
Example 1.9. Next consider, again for N = 2, m = 1, the PDE
∂u ∂u
a +b =0 (1.3.44)
∂x1 ∂x2
where a, b are fixed constants, at least one of which is not zero. The equation
amounts precisely to the condition that u has directional derivative 0 in the
direction θ = a, b , so u is constant along any line parallel to θ. This in turn
leads to the conclusion that u(x1 , x2 ) = f (ax2 − bx1 ) for some arbitrary function
f , which at least for the moment would seem to need to be differentiable. 2
10 Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations

The collection of lines parallel to θ , that is, lines ax2 − bx1 = C

obviously play a special role in the previous example, they are the so-called
characteristics, or characteristic curves associated to this particular PDE. The
general concept of characteristic curve will now be described for the case of a
first order linear PDE in two independent variables (with a temporary change of
notation)
a(x, y)ux + b(x, y)uy = c(x, y) (1.3.45)
Consider the associated ODE system
dx dy
= a(x, y) = b(x, y) (1.3.46)
dt dt
and suppose we have some solution pair x = x(t), y = y(t) which we regard as
a parametrically given curve in the (x, y) plane. Any such curve is then defined
to be a characteristic curve for Eq. (1.3.45). The key observation now is that if
u(x, y) is a differentiable solution of Eq. (1.3.45) then
d
u(x(t), y(t)) = a(x(t), y(t))ux (x(t), y(t)) + b(x(t), y(t))uy (x(t), y(t))
dt
= c(x(t), y(t)) (1.3.47)
so that u satisfies a certain first order ODE along any characteristic curve. For
example, if c(x, y) ≡ 0 then, as in the previous example, any solution of the
PDE is constant along any characteristic curve.
We now use this property to construct solutions of Eq. (1.3.45). Let ⊂ R2
be some curve, which we assume can be parametrized as

x = f (s), y = g(s), s0 < s < s1 (1.3.48)

The Cauchy problem for Eq. (1.3.45) consists in finding a solution of

Eq. (1.3.45) with values prescribed on , that is,
u(f (s), g(s)) = h(s) s0 < s < s1 (1.3.49)
for some given function h. Assuming for the moment that such a solution u
exists, let x(t, s), y(t, s) be the characteristic curve passing through (f (s), g(s)) ∈
when t = 0, that is,

∂t = a(x, y) x(0, s) = f (s)
∂x
∂y (1.3.50)
∂t = b(x, y) y(0, s) = g(s)

We must then have

∂
u(x(t, s), y(t, s)) = c(x(t, s), y(t, s)) u(x(0, s), y(0, s)) = h(s) (1.3.51)
∂t
This is a first order IVP in t, depending on s as a parameter, which is guaranteed
to have a solution at least for |t| <  for some  > 0, provided that c is
 Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral Equations Chapter | 1 11

continuously differentiable. The three relations x = x(t, s), y = y(t, s), z =

u(x(t, s), y(t, s)) generally amounts to the parametric description of a surface
in R3 containing . If we can eliminate the parameters s, t to obtain the surface
in nonparametric form z = u(x, y) then u is the sought after solution of the
Cauchy problem.

Example 1.10. Let denote the x axis and let us solve

xux + uy = 1 (1.3.52)

with u = h on . Introducing f (s) = s, g(s) = 0 as the parametrization of , we

must then solve
⎧
⎪
⎨ ∂t = x
∂x
x(0, s) = s
∂y
∂t = 1 y(0, s) = 0 (1.3.53)
⎪
⎩∂
∂t u(x(t, s), y(t, s)) = 1 u(0, s) = h(s)

We then easily obtain

x(t, s) = set y(t, s) = t u(x(t, s), y(t, s)) = t + h(s) (1.3.54)

and eliminating t, s yields the solution formula

u(x, y) = y + h(xe−y ) (1.3.55)

The characteristics in this case are the curves x = set , y = t for fixed s, or
x = sey in nonparametric form. Note here that the solution is defined throughout
the x, y plane even though nothing in the preceding discussion guarantees that.
Since h has not been otherwise prescribed we may also regard Eq. (1.3.55)
as the general solution of Eq. (1.3.52), again containing one arbitrary
function. 2
The attentive reader may already realize that this procedure cannot work
in all cases, as is made clear by the following consideration: if c ≡ 0 and is
itself a characteristic curve, then the solution on would have to simultaneously
be equal to the given function h and to be constant, so that no solution can
exist except possibly in the case that h is a constant function. From another,
more general, point of view we must eliminate the parameters s, t by inverting
the relations x = x(s, t), y = y(s, t) to obtain s, t in terms of x, y, at least
near . According to the inverse function theorem this should require that the
Jacobian matrix
∂x ∂y 
a(f (s), g(s)) b(f (s), g(s))
∂t ∂t = (1.3.56)
∂x
∂s
∂y
∂s
f  (s) g (s)
t=0

be nonsingular for all s. Equivalently the direction f  , g should not be parallel

to a, b , and since a, b must be tangent to the characteristic curve, this
amounts to the requirement that itself should have a noncharacteristic tangent
12 Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations

direction at every point. We say that is noncharacteristic for the PDE (1.3.45)
when this condition holds.
The following precise theorem can be established, see, for example, Chapter
1 of [19], or Chapter 3 of [11]. The proof amounts to showing that the method
of constructing a solution just described can be made rigorous under the stated
assumptions.
Theorem 1.2. Let ⊂ R2 be a continuously differentiable curve, which is
noncharacteristic for Eq. (1.3.45), h a continuously differentiable function on
, and let a, b, c be continuously differentiable functions in a neighborhood of
. Then there exists a unique continuously differentiable function u(x, y) defined
in a neighborhood of which is a solution of Eq. (1.3.45).
The method of characteristics is capable of a considerable amount of
generalization, in particular to first order PDEs in any number of independent
variables, and to fully nonlinear first PDEs, see the references just mentioned
previously.

1.3.2 Second Order Problems in R2

In order to better understand what can be known about solutions of a potentially
complicated looking PDE, one natural approach is to try to obtain another
equation which is equivalent to the original one, but is somehow simpler in
structure. We illustrate with the following special type of second order PDE in
two independent variables x, y:
Auxx + Buxy + Cuyy = 0 (1.3.57)

where A, B, C are real constants, not all zero. Consider introducing new coordi-
nates ξ , η by means of a linear change of variable
ξ = αx + βy η = γ x + δy (1.3.58)

with αδ − βγ = 0, so that the transformation is invertible. Our goal is to make a

good choice of α, β, γ , δ so as to achieve a simpler looking, but equivalent PDE
to study.
Given any PDE and any change of coordinates, we obtain the expression
for the PDE in the new coordinate system by straightforward application of the
chain rule. In the case at hand we have
∂u ∂u ∂ξ ∂u ∂η ∂u ∂u
= + =α +γ (1.3.59)
∂x ∂ξ ∂x ∂η ∂x ∂ξ ∂η
2   
∂ u ∂ ∂ ∂u ∂u
= α + γ α + γ
∂x2 ∂ξ ∂η ∂ξ ∂η
2u
(1.3.60)
2∂ ∂ 2u 2
2∂ u
=α + 2αγ + γ
∂ξ 2 ∂ξ ∂η ∂η2
 Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral Equations Chapter | 1 13

with similar expressions for uxy and uyy . Substituting into Eq. (1.3.57) the
resulting PDE is
auξ ξ + buξ η + cuηη = 0 (1.3.61)
where
a = α 2 A + αβB + β 2 C (1.3.62)
b = 2αγ A + (αδ + βγ )B + 2βδC (1.3.63)
c = γ 2 A + γ δB + δ 2 C (1.3.64)
We now seek to make special choices of α, β, γ , δ to achieve as simple a form
as possible for the transformed PDE (1.3.61).
Suppose first that B2 − 4AC > 0, so that there exist two real and distinct
roots r1 , r2 of Ar2 + Br + C = 0. If α, β, γ , δ are chosen so that
α γ
= r1 = r2 (1.3.65)
β δ
then a = c = 0, and αδ − βγ = 0, so that the transformed PDE is simply, after
division by a constant, uξ η = 0. The general solution of this second order PDE
is easily obtained: uξ must be a function of ξ alone, so integrating with respect
to ξ and observing that the “constant of integration” could be any function of η,
we get
u(ξ , η) = F(ξ ) + G(η) (1.3.66)
for any differentiable functions F, G. Finally reverting to the original coordinate
system, the result is
u(x, y) = F(αx + βy) + G(γ x + δy) (1.3.67)
an expression for the general solution containing two arbitrary functions.
The lines αx + βy = C, γ x + δy = C are called the characteristics for
Eq. (1.3.57). Characteristics are an important concept for this and some more
general second order PDEs, but they don’t play as central a role as in the first
order case.
Example 1.11. For the PDE
uxx − uyy = 0 (1.3.68)
we have − 4AC > 0 and the roots r satisfy − 1 = 0. We may then choose,
B2 r2
for example, α = β = γ = 1, δ = −1, to get the general solution
u(x, y) = F(x + y) + G(x − y) (1.3.69)
2
Next assume that B2 − 4AC = 0. If either of A or C is 0, then so is B, in
which case the PDE already has the form uξ ξ = 0 or uηη = 0, say the first of
these without loss of generality. Otherwise, choose
14 Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations

B
α=− β=1 γ =1 δ=0 (1.3.70)
2A
to obtain a = b = 0, c = A, so that the transformed PDE in all cases may be
taken to be uξ ξ = 0.
Finally, if B2 − 4AC < 0 then A = 0 must hold, and we may choose
2A −B
α=√ β=√ γ =0 δ=1 (1.3.71)
4AC − B 2 4AC − B2
in which case the transformed equation is
uξ ξ + uηη = 0 (1.3.72)
We have therefore established that any PDE of the type (1.3.57) can be
transformed, by means of a linear change of variables, to one of the three simple
types,
uξ η = 0 uξ ξ = 0 uξ ξ + uηη = 0 (1.3.73)
each of which then leads to a prototype for a certain larger class of PDEs. If we
allow lower order terms
Auxx + Buxy + Cuyy + Dux + Euy + Fu = 0 (1.3.74)
then after the transformation (1.3.58) it is clear that the lower order terms remain
as lower order terms. Thus any PDE of the type (1.3.74) is, up to a change of
coordinates, one of the three types (1.3.73), up to lower order terms, and only
the value of the discriminant B2 − 4AC needs to be known to determine which
of the three types is obtained.
The preceding discussion motivates the following classification: The PDE
(1.3.74) is said to be:
● hyperbolic if B2 − 4AC > 0
● parabolic if B2 − 4AC = 0
● elliptic if B2 − 4AC < 0
The terminology comes from an obvious analogy with conic sections, that is, the
solution set of Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 is respectively a hyperbola,
parabola, or ellipse (or a degenerate case) according as B2 − 4AC is positive,
zero, or negative.
We can also allow the coefficients A, B, . . . , G to be variable functions of x, y,
and in this case the classification is done pointwise, so the type can change. An
important example of this phenomenon is the so-called Tricomi equation (see,
e.g., Chapter 12 of [14])

uxx − xuyy = 0 (1.3.75)

which is hyperbolic for x > 0 and elliptic for x < 0. One might refer to the
equation as being parabolic for x = 0 but generally speaking we do not do this,
 Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral Equations Chapter | 1 15

since it is not really meaningful to speak of a PDE being satisfied in a set without
interior points.
The preceding discussion is special to the case of N = 2 independent
variables—in the case of N ≥ 3 there is no such complete classification. As
we will see there are still PDEs referred to as being hyperbolic, parabolic, or
elliptic, but there are others which are not of any of these types, although these
tend to be of less physical importance.

1.3.3 Further Discussion of Model Problems

According to the previous discussion, we should focus our attention on a
representative problem for each of the three types, since then we will also gain
considerable information about other problems of the given type.

Wave Equation
For the hyperbolic case we consider the wave equation
utt − c2 uxx = 0 (1.3.76)
where c > 0 is a constant. Here we have changed the name of the variable y
to t, following the usual convention of regarding u = u(x, t) as depending on a
“space” variable x and “time” variable t. This PDE arises in the simplest model
of wave propagation in one space dimension, where u represents, for example,
the displacement of a vibrating medium from its equilibrium position, and c is
the wave speed.
Following the procedure outlined at the beginning of this section, an
appropriate change of coordinates is ξ = x + ct, η = x − ct, and we obtain
the expression, also known as d’Alembert’s formula, for the general solution,
u(x, t) = F(x + ct) + G(x − ct) (1.3.77)
for arbitrary twice differentiable functions F, G. The general solution may be
viewed as the superposition of two waves of fixed shape, moving to the right
and to the left with speed c.
The IVP for the wave equation consists in solving Eq. (1.3.76) for x ∈ R and
t > 0 subject to the side conditions
u(x, 0) = f (x) ut (x, 0) = g(x) x∈R (1.3.78)
where f , g represent the initial displacement and initial velocity of the vibrating
medium. This problem may be completely and explicitly solved by means of
d’Alembert’s formula. Setting t = 0 and using the prescribed side conditions,
we must have
F(x) + G(x) = f (x) c(F  (x) − G (x)) = g(x) x∈R (1.3.79)
16 Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations

x
Integrating the second relation gives F(x) − G(x) = 1c 0 g(s) ds + C for some
constant C, and combining with the first relation yields
  
1 1 x
F(x) = f (x) + g(s) ds + C
2 c 0
   (1.3.80)
1 1 x
G(x) = f (x) − g(s) ds − C
2 c 0
Substituting into Eq. (1.3.77) and doing some obvious simplification we obtain

1 1 x+ct
u(x, t) = (f (x + ct) + f (x − ct)) + g(s) ds (1.3.81)
2 2c x−ct
We remark that a general solution formula like Eq. (1.3.77) can be given for
any PDE which is exactly transformable to uξ η = 0, that is to say, any hyperbolic
PDE of the form (1.3.57), but once lower order terms are allowed such a simple
solution method is no longer available. For example, the so-called Klein-Gordon
equation utt − uxx + u = 0 may be transformed to uξ η + 4u = 0 which
unfortunately cannot be solved in so transparent a form. Thus the d’Alembert
solution method, while very useful when applicable, is limited in its scope.

Heat Equation
Another elementary method, which may be used in a wide variety of situations,
is the separation of variables technique. We illustrate with the case of the initial
and boundary value problem
ut = uxx 0<x<1 t>0 (1.3.82)
u(0, t) = u(1, t) = 0 t>0 (1.3.83)
u(x, 0) = f (x) 0<x<1 (1.3.84)
Here Eq. (1.3.82) is the heat equation, a parabolic equation modeling, for
example, the temperature in a one-dimensional medium u = u(x, t) as a function
of location x and time t, Eq. (1.3.83) are the boundary conditions, stating that
the temperature is held at temperature zero at the two boundary points x = 0
and x = 1 for all t, and Eq. (1.3.84) represents the initial condition, that is, that
the initial temperature distribution is given by the prescribed function f (x).
We begin by ignoring the initial condition and otherwise looking for special
solutions of the form u(x, t) = φ(t)ψ(x). Obviously u = 0 is such a solution,
but cannot be of any help in eventually solving the full stated problem, so we
insist that neither of φ or ψ is the zero function. Inserting into Eq. (1.3.82) we
obtain immediately that
φ  (t)ψ(x) = φ(t)ψ  (x) (1.3.85)
must hold, or equivalently
φ  (t) ψ  (x)
= (1.3.86)
φ(t) ψ(x)
 Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral Equations Chapter | 1 17

Since the left side depends on t alone and the right side on x alone, it must be that
both sides are equal to a common constant which we denote by −λ (without yet
at this point ruling out the possibility that λ itself is negative or even complex).
We have therefore obtained ODEs for φ and ψ
φ  (t) + λφ(t) = 0 ψ  (x) + λψ(x) = 0 (1.3.87)
linked via the separation constant λ. Next, from the boundary condition (1.3.83)
we get φ(t)ψ(0) = φ(t)ψ(1) = 0, and since φ is nonzero we must have ψ(0) =
ψ(1) = 0.
The ODE and side conditions for ψ, namely
ψ  (x) + λψ(x) = 0 0 < x < 1 ψ(0) = ψ(1) = 0 (1.3.88)
is the simplest example of a so-called Sturm-Liouville problem, a topic which
will be studied in detail in Chapter 13, but this particular case can be handled
by elementary considerations. We emphasize that our goal is to find nonzero
solutions of Eq. (1.3.88), along with the values of λ these correspond to, and as
we will see, only certain values of λ will be possible.
Considering first the case that λ > 0, the general solution of the ODE is
√ √
ψ(x) = c1 sin λx + c2 cos λx (1.3.89)

The first boundary

√ condition ψ(0) = 0 implies that c2 = 0 while the second
gives c1 sin λ √ = 0. √have c1 = 0, since otherwise ψ = 0,
We are not allowed to
so instead sin λ = 0 must hold, that is, λ = π , 2π , . . . . Thus we have found
one collection of solutions of Eq. (1.3.88), which we denote ψk (x) = sin kπ x,
k = 1, 2, . . . . Since they were found under the assumption that λ > 0, we
should next consider other possibilities, but it turns out that we have already
found all√possible solutions of Eq. (1.3.88). For example, if we suppose λ < 0
and k = −λ then to solve Eq. (1.3.88) we must have ψ(x) = c1 ekx + c2 e−kx .
From the boundary conditions

c1 + c2 = 0 c1 ek + c2 e−k = 0 (1.3.90)

we see that the unique solution is c1 = c2 = 0 for any k > 0. Likewise we can
check that ψ = 0 is the only possible solution for k = 0 and for nonreal k.
For each allowed value of λ we obviously have the corresponding function
φ(t) = e−λt , so that
uk (x, t) = e−k
2π 2t
sin kπx k = 1, 2, . . . (1.3.91)
represents, aside from multiplicative constants, all possible product solutions of
Eqs. (1.3.82), (1.3.83).
To complete the  solution of the initial and boundary value problem, we
observe that any sum ∞ k=1 ck uk (x, t) is also a solution of Eqs. (1.3.82), (1.3.83)
as long as ck → 0 sufficiently rapidly, and we try to choose the coefficients ck
to achieve the initial condition (1.3.84). This amounts to the requirement that
18 Techniques of Functional Analysis for Differential and Integral Equations

∞

f (x) = ck sin kπx (1.3.92)
k=1
hold. For any f for which such a sine series representation is valid, we then have
the solution of the given PDE problem
∞

ck e−k
2π 2t
u(x, t) = sin kπ x (1.3.93)
k=1
The question then becomes to characterize this set of f ’s in some more straight-
forward way, and this is done, among many other things, within the theory
of Fourier series, which will be discussed in Chapter 7. Roughly speaking the
conclusion will be that essentially any reasonable function can be represented
this way, but there are many aspects to this, including elaboration of the precise
sense in which the series converges. One other fact concerning this series which
we can easily anticipate at this point, is a formula for the coefficient ck : If we
assume that Eq. (1.3.92) holds, we can multiply both sides by sin mπ x for some
integer m and integrate with respect to x over (0, 1), to obtain
 1  1
cm
f (x) sin mπx dx = cm sin2 mπx dx = (1.3.94)
0 0 2
1
since 0 sin kπx sin mπ x dx = 0 for k = m. Thus, if f is representable by a sine
series, there is only one possibility for the kth coefficient, namely
 1
ck = 2 f (x) sin kπx dx (1.3.95)
0

Laplace Equation
Finally we discuss a model problem of elliptic type,
uxx + uyy = 0 x2 + y2 < 1 (1.3.96)
u(x, y) = f (x, y) x2 + y2 = 1 (1.3.97)
where f is a given function. The PDE in Eq. (1.3.96) is known as Laplace’s
∂2 ∂2
equation, and is commonly written as u = 0 where  = ∂x 2 + ∂y2 is the
Laplace operator, or Laplacian. A function satisfying Laplace’s equation in some
set is said to be a harmonic function on that set, thus we are solving the bound-
ary value problem of finding a harmonic function in the unit disk x2 + y2 < 1
subject to a prescribed boundary condition on the boundary of the disk.
One should immediately recognize that it would be natural here to make use
of polar coordinates (r, θ ), where according to the usual calculus notations,

y
r = x2 + y2 tan θ = x = r cos θ y = r sin θ (1.3.98)
x
and we regard u = u(r, θ ) and f = f (θ ).
 Some Basic Discussion of Differential and Integral Equations Chapter | 1 19

To begin we need to find the expression for Laplace’s equation in polar

coordinates. Again this is a straightforward calculation with the chain rule, for
example,
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂θ
= + (1.3.99)
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂θ ∂x
x ∂u y ∂u
= − 2 (1.3.100)
x + y ∂r
2 2 x + y ∂θ
2

∂u sin θ ∂u
= cos θ − (1.3.101)
∂r r ∂θ
∂u
and similar expressions for ∂y and the second derivatives. The end result is

1 1
uxx + uyy = urr + ur + 2 uθθ = 0 (1.3.102)
r r
We may now try separation of variables, looking for solutions in the special
product form u(r, θ ) = R(r)(θ ). Substituting into Eq. (1.3.102) and dividing
by R gives
R (r) R (r)  (θ )
r2 +r =− (1.3.103)
R(r) R(r) (θ )
so both sides must be equal to a common constant λ. Therefore R and  must
be nonzero solutions of

 + λ = 0 r2 R + rR − λR = 0 (1.3.104)

Next it is necessary to recognize that there are two “hidden” side conditions
which we must make use of. The first of these is that  must be 2π periodic,
since otherwise it would not be possible to express the solution u in terms of
the original variables x, y in an unambiguous way. We can make this explicit by
requiring

(0) = (2π )  (0) =  (2π ) (1.3.105)

As in the case of Eq. (1.3.88) we can search for allowable values of λ by

considering the various cases λ > 0, λ < 0, etc. The outcome is that nontrivial
solutions exist precisely if λ = k2 , k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , with corresponding solutions
being, up to multiplicative constant,

1 k=0
ψk (x) = (1.3.106)
sin kx or cos kx k = 1, 2, . . .

If one is willing to use the complex valued solutions, we could replace

sin kx, cos kx by e±ikx for k = 1, 2, . . . .
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
"Yes, sir."
A light began to dawn upon Stephens. Backus undoubtedly had a
grudge against him.
"Did he put you up to this?" he asked.
Felipe was silent.
"Answer me; mind you, your life's at stake."
"Partly he did."
"Partly, you say. What do you mean? Who else?"
"Partly myself."
"You young scallywag! What did you want to kill me for?"
Felipe hesitated, but he felt the knee of the man who had him down
begin to press harder again. "Because of Josefa," he said, with
evident reluctance.
"Explain yourself, you idiot. Because of Josefa? Why, it was I who
saved her. Don't you know that much?"
"You took her away," said Felipe sulkily.
"Of course I did, you ninny. What would you have had me do? Leave
her with her father to be beaten to death? You're a plumb idiot."
"You needn't have taken her, though, for yourself," rejoined the boy.
"Oh, you make me tired!" said Stephens; "if that's all you've got to
kill me for, get up." He released the young Indian, taking care,
however, to retain possession of the belt and pistol and knife. Felipe
scrambled to his feet rather unsteadily.
"I've a mind to boot you all the way back to the pueblo," said
Stephens disgustedly; "not for trying to blow the top of my head off,
though you deserve it for missing me at only four feet away, but for
being such a loony idiot as to think that. By Jimini! I haven't got
language to say what I think of you. Why, you—you—you galoot!
when did you ever know me go to carrying on with any of the
women in the pueblo? You ought to know me better by this time."
Felipe looked abashed.
"You all but did for yourself," he went on,—"that is, if you'd only
known it; and I'm not sure that you haven't now. Why, I took her
over from her family thinking to give her to you, but I'm dashed if I
know whether I'd ought to now. There's too many blanked fools in
this world already to make it worth while to help to set more of 'em
going. However, we'll see what she's got to say about you. If she
has a fancy for marrying an escaped lunatic, I suppose she'll have to
have her way. Come, I'm going back to the fire; walk through that
door there and we'll go in. Here, take your belt, but I'm dashed if
you're to be trusted with a loaded pistol any more than if you were a
three-year-old baby." He raised the Colt above his head and rapidly
discharged the five loaded chambers one after another in the air.
It was the report of those shots that attracted the attention of the
storekeeper far off on the hillside. The two entered the cave-
dwelling, Felipe holding himself very stiffly as he moved.
"I don't wonder you're stiff," said the American, observing him; "I
must have pretty near squeezed the life out of you, and serves you
right." He was still very angry.
"It isn't that," said Felipe, feeling his dignity assailed; "my shoulder is
very sore; I have a bullet wound in it."
"The mischief, you have," said Stephens. "I suppose you got that
from the cacique. I guess it must have hurt you some when I was
mauling you just now." His voice softened a bit. "Of course I couldn't
know about that"; he was actually apologising already to his would-
be murderer. "Here, bring it to the light of the fire and let me see it."
Felipe squatted down with his right shoulder towards the blaze.
"H'm, yes, an ugly place, rather," examining it carefully, "but it's
been well done up"; he smelt it, "you've got that carbolic on it; good
stuff for a gunshot wound, in my opinion. Say, where d'you get any
round here?"
"Mr. Backus," answered the boy.
"Oh, from him. Seems to me he's been having a good deal to say to
you lately. Who dressed this for you?" He replaced the bandage.
"Mr. Backus."
"Well, he understands gunshot wounds pretty well, but you take my
advice and don't have any more to do with him for the present. He
aint good company for young gentlemen with no more brains than
you—Hullo! what's that? Didn't you hear something out yonder?"
A faint cry appeared to come from a distance.
"It sounds like a man," said Felipe.
The cry was repeated; it seemed like the word "Help!"
"Come on," cried Stephens, snatching his Winchester from the case
and running into the darkness in the direction from which the sound
seemed to come. Felipe followed him.
"Help!" came again more distinctly.
In another minute they were on the spot where the body of a man
lay writhing on the ground face downwards. Stephens stooped and
raised him, and beheld his enemy, Backus.
He let him drop on the ground again as if he had unexpectedly
picked up a snake, and sprang back grasping his rifle at the ready.
Could this be some infernal trap? Had Felipe been deceiving him?
"Did you lie to me?" There was a dangerous ring in his voice. "I
asked you if you were alone, and you said you were, and here's the
man who's your confederate, by your own confession."
"Before God, I didn't know he was here," cried the boy very
earnestly. "What's the matter with him? He's dying."
"He deserves to die," said the prospector, looking down at him.
"Whiskey," moaned Backus brokenly; "I'm snake-bit."
"Snake-bit, are you?" said the prospector, still suspicious. "Well, if
you are that's rather rough on you. Where are you struck?"
"In the face," said the wretched man. "For God's sake help me; this
pain's maddening. I'm going to die."
"Lift his head up, Felipe," said Stephens, "and let me see the place.
Great Scot! I should say you were snake-bit, and powerful bad, too,"
he added, as the young Indian lifted the head of the fallen man and
turned it so as to show the face. It was a ghastly sight! The whole of
the left cheek and side of the head were swollen out of all
recognition, and the puffed and strained skin was so discoloured that
it looked like a mass of livid bruises.
His first suspicion had been that the cunning storekeeper had set
Felipe on him, and then, finding that the Indian had failed in his
murderous attack, had adopted the heartless but too common ruse
of shamming sick, in order to get his antagonist at a disadvantage.
Stephens had sprung backward, and was standing now with his
Winchester, ready at any moment to pump lead into his would-be
murderers; but the awful condition of his enemy was proof sufficient
that there was no sham about this case. Holding his rifle in one
hand, he advanced, and with the other aided Felipe to raise the
fallen man to a sitting posture.
"When did it happen?" he asked.
"Just now."
The stricken man's breathing was painfully laboured, and he spoke
with extreme difficulty, so that it was hard to understand him.
"Have you any whiskey?" Stephens inquired.
"No."
"Have you done anything for it?"
"No."
"There's nothing you could have done that I know of," said
Stephens; "I was thinking whether I could try to lance it for you, but
I'm afraid of cutting an artery. Of course, Felipe, it isn't possible that
you could have any whiskey?"
"No, indeed, Sooshiuamo," said the boy; "how could I?"
"No, no, of course you couldn't," said the prospector; "and I haven't
any neither. If we had a quart of whiskey here we might be able to
save him. The only thing we can do is to keep him moving. Look
here, Felipe, you lift him under the right shoulder and I'll lift him
under the left; we must walk him around. Now then, up!" Between
them they raised the unhappy man to his feet.
"Come on," cried Stephens, "hold him up. Steady now."
They walked forward as steadily as they could in the direction of the
cave-dwelling, Backus staggering along between them. His legs went
through the motions of walking almost mechanically, but his weight
rested entirely on his two supporters, and he was a heavy man to
carry.
"Stick to it, Felipe," said Stephens, "it's the only chance for him.
Keep him going." They reached the cave. "Set him down here a
minute before the fire," said Stephens, putting aside his rifle, and
with both hands lowering the patient to the ground, after spreading
his blanket for him to lie on. Backus was in a state of appalling
collapse; the swelling increased so rapidly that it seemed as if his
head must burst; the inflamed skin was horribly mottled with red
and green and yellow, and a cold sweat broke out on him. Stephens
knelt beside him and felt his pulse; it was rapid, fluttering, and
feeble.
Felipe looked on, awestruck and speechless. That the prospector
should try to preserve the life of his enemy did not appeal to him at
all; it seemed to him only one more of the unaccountable things
these Americans did. But the frightful state of the storekeeper, and
the agonising pains he was suffering were the work of the dread
reptile he had been taught to reverence from his earliest days. The
gods were angry with Backus, and this was their doing.
Stephens felt that the stricken man's hands were growing deadly
cold. He sprang up. "Come on, Felipe!" he exclaimed, rising quickly
again to his feet. "He's at the last gasp, I think. We must try to walk
him up and down again. It's the one thing we can do."
They raised him to his feet once more, Stephens putting his right
arm round his waist, and steadying him with the other, and, Felipe
aiding, they walked him to and fro on the meadow, trying to
counteract the fatal lethargy produced by the bite.
"He must have got an awful dose of poison into him," said Stephens,
as they struggled along with their now nearly unconscious burden. "I
guess it must have been a snake that had been lying up for the
winter, and had only just come out now the warm weather's
beginning. They're worst of all then; their poison-bag has a full
charge in it."
But Felipe made no answer; he was not affected by the scientific
question as to how many drops of venom there might be in a
serpent's poison-gland. For him the question was, "Had the god
struck to kill? or would he be content to punish and pardon?" But as
he looked at the lolling head and dragging limbs of the victim he felt
that the god had struck to kill.
At this moment the moon sank beneath the horizon.
"I guess he's come to the jumping-off place," said Stephens, as
Backus sank into absolute unconsciousness. "Let's carry him right
back to the fire."
Once more they laid him down beside that prehistoric hearth, and
the ruddy glow lit up the horrid spectacle of his distorted face. They
tried to warm him and keep the life in him a little longer; but it was
in vain. The laboured breath came slower and slower; the feeble
pulse waxed fainter and fainter; the chill hand of death was there,
and nought that they could do was of any avail; and after a little
while Stephens was aware that the thing that lay in front of the fire
was but a disfigured corpse.
Between them, he and Felipe raised it, and laid it at one side of the
dwelling, and covered it from sight with the blanket. When they
returned to the fire, they stood there side by side gazing at the
embers in a long silence. They stood as it were in the presence of
death, and neither the white man nor the red had any mind to break
the solemnity of the scene.
Suddenly there came a low, rustling, slithering sound from the
stones in the corner behind them, as a large snake glided out across
the floor, and swiftly vanished into the darkness without.
Stephens gave an involuntary shudder. "That brute must have been
in the corner there all the time I was here," he said.
"Yes, Sooshiuamo," answered Felipe in an awestruck voice, "he was
there, but he did not touch you. Now he has gone to tell his brother
who struck your enemy that he is dead. The snakes must be your
friends; they do not hurt you; they only kill your enemies for you";
and as if impelled to penitence by what he regarded as a
supernatural warning, he turned to the prospector and poured out in
a flood a full confession of all he had heard and seen and suspected
of Backus's schemes, and of his dealings with the Navajos.
Stephens listened aghast. Mahletonkwa certainly had told him that
his message to the governor had been stopped, but he had been
loath to believe that a white man could play such a treacherous
game, and side with savages against his own countryman. It was
natural for the American to prefer to think that the Navajo had lied;
but, if Felipe spoke true, the wretched man who lay dead before
them had really and actually sold him into the hands of the Navajos.
Then arose the question—what had been his object? There might be
more dangers around, more plots that Felipe knew nothing of? "I
never liked him, it's true, but why should he play such a mean trick
merely for that? If he really did destroy my letters asking for the
soldiers, he must have done it that very hour that I gave them to
him. It wasn't till the next day that I knocked him into the ditch, so
he couldn't have done it out of revenge for that blow I gave him. I
wonder, now, if he could have kept a grudge against me for that old
wound at Apache Cañon? Some folks find it mighty hard to forgive."
"Well," he continued aloud, addressing Felipe, "I sha'n't bear any
malice against you, young 'un. I reckon that—well—that fellow just
used you, and you aint much more to blame than an idiot—pity you
hadn't got more sense; but that's enough—I'll never think of it
again."
Felipe looked up at him with dumb gratitude in his eyes.
"And now," said the prospector, when the misunderstanding between
them had been thus settled, "the morning star is up, and it will be
dawn directly. We must take the body down to San Remo that it may
be buried by his own people."
He went out to the meadow and brought up the horse and put the
saddle on him. With no small difficulty they lifted the corpse on to it
and made it fast there, and then, with Felipe at the horse's head,
and Stephens holding the sad burden in place, they made their way
back to the trail, and so down once more from the sierra to the
village.
 CHAPTER XXVII
AULD ACQUAINTANCE

The sun was already well up in the eastern sky when the strange
funeral procession entered San Remo. The news of the event spread
like wildfire, and friendly hands were ready to aid Stephens in lifting
down the dead man's corpse at the door of what yesterday had been
his home, while kind-hearted women full of sympathy went into the
house to break the tidings to her whose hearth was made desolate.
Then a dreadful sound broke upon his ears; it was the cry of agony
that told that the wife knew that she was a wife no more but a
widow. It was a piercing cry, that wounded the hearts of all who
heard it, for the ring of mortal pain was there.
Unaccustomed to all violent appeals to feeling, Stephens found this
heart-rending wail unbearable. Duty to the dead claimed him no
longer, and he must hurry away.
"Thanks, friends," he said to the Mexicans who had aided him to lift
the body down, "a thousand thanks for your kindness in this aid.
Adios, amigos, I must be going. Adios." He led the horse, now
lightened of his burden, away from the door, Felipe following. He
could not mount in the saddle which Death had just vacated; it
seemed to him as if it would be a sort of sacrilege. That agonised
cry of the bereaved woman haunted him still. Loathing Backus
though he did, this evidence that to one soul, at least, in this
incomprehensible world, he had been all in all, struck home to him.
Likely enough the man had been good to her, scoundrel though he
was; but what an amazing thing must be this bond of marriage that
could thus link heart to heart, even when one of the pair was no
better than a treacherous coward.
At Don Nepomuceno's he found Manuelita, but not alone. Not only
were her aunt and Juana there—that was of course—but the visits of
interested friends had not yet ceased, seeing that everyone naturally
wanted to hear the exciting story from her own lips. And now it
came the American's turn to entertain the company; while food was
being hospitably prepared for him, he had to come in and sit down
among the ladies, and give some account of what had befallen him
while searching for the bones of the murdered prospector. He passed
over Felipe's attempt on his life in silence and merely spoke of
having met him at the old ruined pueblo, where they heard through
the darkness the cry of the dying victim of the rattlesnake, and
vainly endeavoured to help him to resist the fatal venom. He told the
tale at length, and with a freedom and fulness of detail that
surprised himself. But all the time there was one thing present
before his mind, and that was the very thing that he could whisper
no word of to the eager circle around him; it must be kept for one
and one only; but ever as he talked his eyes sought those of the
Mexican girl, not once but many times, and they spoke to her silently
and ardently.
"What is it that has come to him?" she asked herself. "Here is a look
in his eyes to-day that never was there before. Perhaps he has a
secret to keep—or to tell; perhaps he has found that mine that he is
always searching for." She blushed and looked down as she caught
his glance flashed quickly upon her. Her heart told her that he had a
secret to tell—but that it did not concern any mine of silver or gold.
Again their eyes met, and again unwillingly they parted; it seemed
dangerous to look longer, as if the meaning that they had for each
other must betray itself to all around. And this was the man that she
had been deeming cold and hard! "Hombre muy frio," as her aunt
had called him. "Cold as the snows of his own frozen North," as her
father had said—said it of him! Perhaps so, perhaps he had been
cold, but if it were so, the ice had melted now.
Stephens lingered over his story longer than he had intended;
questions flowed in upon him, and he had to answer them and fill in
many things that he had omitted, for the storekeeper's strange and
dreadful end was a matter that excited intense interest. He half
hoped that by exciting their curiosity he might impel these people to
go away and visit the house of the deceased in order to learn what
more they could. Anything to make them move. But nothing seemed
to have the desired effect. The more he told them the more they
wanted to know. The chance to see the girl alone and tell her what
was in his heart seemed to grow more remote than ever. He ached
to speak to her, were it but a few words—a few words he told
himself were all that were needful, so little did he know of love—and
yet the opportunity was denied.
At last in despair he rose; he would go away himself for a little and
then return. Perhaps meantime the visitors might disperse. "I have
to take my leave now, ladies," he said, excusing himself. "It is
already the hour for the mail to arrive from Santa Fé, and I am
expecting letters of importance. I do not know how they will manage
in view of the unhappy death of the postmaster, but I had better be
there to see what is to be done about opening the mail-bag. By your
permission, then, Don Nepomuceno," and he bowed himself out.
The words he had come to say to her were still unsaid. The thought
occurred to him as he moved away,—should he speak to the girl's
father? To speak to the girl's father first would be quite the correct
thing according to Mexican fashions; or, rather, if he wanted to do
the thing in proper style, he should go and get a friend to take a
message to her father for him. But no; he was not a Mexican, and
why should he adopt their fashions in this? He was an American, and
he would woo his wife in American style for himself.
Faro started to come with him, but was ordered back.
"Stay where you are, old man, till I come for you. I see you're not so
tender-footed as you were, but you stay here." He felt a sort of
prejudice against taking the dog to the house of mourning. He hated
to go there at all, but he had to have his mail and there was no
other way to get it. And he would see if he could find out anything
about the fate of the letters he had entrusted to Backus.
He went out and saddled up Morgana, who put her pretty head
round and pretended to bite him as he pulled on the latigo strap to
draw the cinch.
"Easy, old lady, now; come, none of that"; as she nearly nipped him.
"Pedro's been giving you too much of Don Nepomuceno's corn, I'm
thinking, and it's got into your head." He slung his Winchester into
its case under the off-stirrup leather, and swinging himself into the
saddle departed on his errand.
The mail waggon had just drawn up as usual before the door of the
post-office, now shut and locked, and the stage-driver was leading
his team around the back of the house towards the stable as
Stephens came in sight. Two passengers had dismounted from the
waggon, and were stretching their tired limbs and looking
disconsolately at the closed house with its shuttered window, which
seemed to offer small promise of a meal.
Stephens loped forward with the idea of relieving their discomfiture.
As he did so one of the figures seemed strangely familiar. "Was it—
could it be possible? No. Yes. By George, it was!" With a shout of
welcome he sprang off the mare, slipping her bridle over the saddle-
horn, and reached out both hands to the newcomer.
"Rocky! well, by gum!"
"Jack, old pard! why, you haint changed a mite!"
Stephens and Rockyfeller shook hands for about three minutes by
the clock.
"Say," said Stephens, when the first greetings were over, "what
brings you down here so sudden-like? Thar aint nothing wrong?"
"Not with me," answered Rocky; "I got your telegram, though, and it
struck me that as you thought it worth while telegraphing for them
dollars, you might p'r'aps be in some sort of a fix, so as I happened
to be free and foot-loose I just jumped on the cars as far as South
Pueblo, and took the stage, and here I am. And I was curious to see
how you were making it down here. You're looking A1, I will say.
New Mexico kinder seems to agree with you. Say, look at here,"—he
dropped his voice slightly,—"how about them velvet-eyed Mexican
señoritas? Aint none of them been too much for you yet?" He gave
his former partner a rallying look as he spoke.
"Ah, I may have a word to say to you about that presently," rejoined
the other in a guarded tone. "But say, you're going to stop here, aint
you? You're not bound for Wingate?"
"No, of course I'm not," laughed Rocky, "not unless you turn me
adrift. I've come down to see you—that is, if it's quite convenient." It
was characteristic of Rocky that it only now occurred to him that if
his former partner had started an establishment down here a casual
visitor might be de trop. "Of course," he added hastily, "I can go on
to Wingate with the stage, quite well, along with my friend here,
Doctor Benton. Excuse me, Doctor,"—he turned to his fellow-
traveller, who had been regarding the meeting of the two old friends
with no other interest than considering how it affected his chances
of getting a meal,—"allow me to introduce you two gentlemen.
Doctor, this is my old friend, Mr. John Stephens, at present a resident
of this neighbourhood. Jack, this is Doctor Benton, who is doctor to
the Post at Fort Wingate and is now on his way there."
The army doctor and the prospector exchanged greetings.
"Perhaps, Mr. Stephens," said the doctor, who was uncommonly
hungry, "you can inform me of what I am anxious to discover,
namely, what possibility there is of our getting a meal here before
proceeding."
Stephens explained that the keeper of the stage station had just
been killed by a rattlesnake. "But I think," he continued, "that if you
will put yourself in my hands I can manage to procure you a meal
with some friends of mine near here. I'd like to ask you to come up
to my place at Santiago, but the stage don't wait but an hour here,
and there wouldn't be time, as it's a good three miles off." He
paused and hesitated for a moment. "I should like to say that these
friends of mine are Mexicans," he added; "there are no Americans
resident in this part of the Territory." The fact was, that he felt
slightly embarrassed for two reasons. He was afraid that Doctor
Benton would try to offer payment to Don Nepomuceno for his meal,
which wouldn't do at all; and he wanted to explain to Rocky his
footing in the house, and his position with regard to Manuelita,
before taking him there, so as to shut off beforehand any further
unseasonable jests about velvet-eyed señoritas. But to explain this
to him before a stranger like Doctor Benton was an impossibility. He
must contrive somehow to get a chance to speak to Rocky for a few
minutes alone.
His eye fell upon Felipe, who had followed him from the Sanchez
house. "See here, young 'un," he said, "I wish you'd go back to Don
Nepomuceno's for me, and tell him, with my compliments, that two
friends of mine have just come, and that by his permission I should
like to bring them to his house, and that I should be very much
obliged if he could give them something to eat. Off you go. We'll
follow you."
Felipe was off like a shot.
"That'll be all right now, I guess," said Stephens, looking after his
retreating figure, "but if you'll excuse me a moment, Doctor Benton,
before we follow him, I've got to see about my mail first. I expect
there may be something of importance for me, but I feel there may
be a little difficulty about getting it, seeing that the responsible
postmaster's dead, and the poor woman in yonder,"—he dropped his
voice slightly,—"who represents him now, is in no condition to
transact business. I guess I'll go and speak to the stage-driver first.
Will you come around with me, Rocky?"
"Why, the mail-bags are in here," cut in the doctor, pointing to the
stage, "and the driver never has the key. You'll have to get it out of
the widow, somehow, I expect."
"Ah," said the prospector suddenly, a fresh idea flashing across him,
"you might be able to tell me perhaps about one thing that I'm
curious to know. You are just from headquarters at Santa Fé, Doctor,
aren't you?"
The doctor nodded assent.
"Well, do you know of any detail of soldiers being despatched in this
direction to look after the Navajos? There's a band of Navajos have
left their reservation, and there was very serious trouble with them
here some four days back, and I wrote to the governor and the
general who is in command of the troops at Santa Fé to ask for
protection for the citizens here. I wrote by the last mail that went in
from here on this same stage, driven by this man. I know that he
must have delivered a letter I gave him addressed to the First
National Bank of Santa Fé, because I had enclosed in it a telegram
to my old pard here, and the bank forwarded it to him all O. K. But
I'm a little doubtful as to what became of those letters to the
governor and the general. I want to know why those soldiers weren't
sent."
"Hm-m," said the army doctor; "it so happens that I was conversing
with both Governor Stone and General Merewether only yesterday
before starting, and we were talking about the route by here to
Wingate, and the difficulty of the Rio Grande being in flood, but they
never said a word about any report of trouble with the Navajos."
"You don't say!" said Stephens; "and you didn't pass any troops on
the road anywhere along?"
"Certainly not," said the other; "in fact, if any troops had been
coming this way, I should probably have accompanied them. But I
am in a position to state that no detail of troops of any kind has left
Santa Fé for a week or more."
"Well, I'm dashed!" said the prospector; "they would have said
something to you about it, sure, if they ever got my letters." He was
silent.
"Mahletonkwa must have told the straight truth for once in his life,"
he reflected, "and that rascal of a postmaster must have actually had
the face to burn those letters I gave him, and, what's more, now
he's dead we'll never prove it on him in God's world. Not that it
would be any use if we could. The mischief's done now so far as he
could do it, but it's the last he'll ever do, sure. The letter I gave the
stage-driver was all right. He couldn't get at that."
Stephens never knew how near his letter to the Bank, with the
telegram for Rocky, had come to sharing the fate of the others. But
the stage-driver, though he might talk and bluster, had no real
motive for destroying it, and he did have a healthy fear of the Post-
Office Department. Mr. Backus had a motive, and did not share the
other's wholesome dread of his official superiors.
While Stephens was pondering over the fate of his letters, he slipped
one hand in an absent-minded way into his side pocket, and there
he stumbled on exactly what he most wanted at that moment, a
good excuse for taking Rocky apart. The first thing his fingers had
encountered was the paper containing the specimens of the outcrop
at the Lone Pine rock that he had brought away with him. Excellent!
here was the very thing; he produced it somewhat mysteriously, and
handing it to Rocky, said apologetically to the other man, "One
moment by your leave, Doctor, if you please. There's something here
I want just to have my old partner look at," and he drew Rocky a
little to one side.
"Why, certainly," said the Doctor, turning round and proceeding to
climb into the stage; "I'll just see if I can rout out that mail-bag for
you before the stage-driver comes."
"I wanted to tell you, Rocky, about my friends at this house where
I'm taking you," began Stephens hurriedly, in a low voice; "I don't
want you to make any error: there's a girl there that I think—" But
his ex-partner, who had already opened the paper, interrupted him
with the greatest excitement.
"Why, burn my skin!" he exclaimed, "do you know what you've got
hold of here? You've got some of that same ore they've gone crazy
over up at Mohawk. Didn't you spot the horn silver in it? If you've
got a good lode of this stuff, by thunder, you've got a soft thing! Is it
a good vein? If it's three or four foot wide you'll just have the world
by the tail."
"That so?" said his friend, "you don't say! I guess I must have
stumbled on to that hidden mine of the Indians I've been hunting
for, at last. But that'll keep."
Rocky, remembering his old friend's former ardour in prospecting,
was amazed at the cool way in which he took the news that he had
made this highly valuable strike.
"Look at here, Rocky; the thing I was really aiming to say to you,"
continued Stephens, his colour rising as he spoke, "was about that
young lady,"—at this Rocky's lips curved into a knowing smile and
his eyes twinkled;—"don't laugh, old man, I'm dead in earnest over
this thing, and I think a heap of her. She's a lady, mind you, right
down to the ground."
"Why, to be sure, she must be," cut in Rocky, with portentous
seriousness, though his eyes danced with merriment; "she wouldn't
be your style no other way. You always was high-toned, Jack; I'll say
that for you."
"That's all right," returned Stephens, colouring more furiously than
ever; he knew he was blushing, though the experience was entirely
strange to him, and he was dreadfully ashamed of not being able to
help it. "But indeed I'm not joking, Rocky. Her family's not very rich,
but they're kind of way-up people, I want you to understand, old
Spanish blood and that sort of thing; not any of the low-down, half-
caste Indian stock, you know."
"That so?" said Rocky, keenly; "wal', I'm glad to hear it. I thought
Mexicans was all one quality straight through—leastways, all I ever
seen were." Rocky's knowledge of the race was limited to the bull-
whackers of the big waggon-trains on the freighting roads, and
Mexican stock was considerably below par by his estimate.
"That's where you got off wrong," said Stephens eagerly, "for there's
a few families here in New Mexico that's just as good as anybody, if
it comes to that—Bacas and Armijos and—and Sanchez—" he
hesitated a little.
"Say," cut in Rocky, "look at yonder! Who are them ducks a-coming
up the road? They 're riding as if all blazes was loose. Some of the
First Families of New Mexico, eh?" Rocky was sarcastic. He knew
Indians when he saw them.
"By George!" exclaimed Stephens in considerable excitement, "it's
those accursed Navajos back here again."
Out of a whirling cloud of red dust and flying horsehoofs emerged
the well-known figures of Mahletonkwa, Notalinkwa, and the rest of
the gang. They reined up before the shut door of the store, and
most of them sprang off their horses.
"They've not gone back to their reservation," said Stephens
indignantly. "We'd ought to have had the soldiers here by now, and
put them right back. I'm all for doing things by law and order, me,
and it's the soldiers' business anyway. But it's getting to be time
something was done. It's an infamous shame they should be allowed
to fly around like this and bulldoze everybody; and, what's more, I'm
getting tired of it."
The Indians were talking and laughing in a loud, excited manner,
and Mahletonkwa began to pound on the closed door of the store
with his fist.
"That's a sockdologer," said Rocky, "him knocking at the door I
mean, with the eagle-feathers in his head-dress." Mahletonkwa was
a big man physically; his stature would have been remarkable even
in a crowd of Western men, perhaps the tallest men, on an average,
of any on the face of the globe. "Say, do you mean to tell me that
these are wild Indians, and you leave 'em around here loose?"
"They're worse than wild Indians just now," said Stephens, whose
eyes were beginning to glow like hot coals; "they're Indians with
liquor enough in them to make 'em crazy for more, and ready for
any devilment."
"Say, Mahletonkwa," he called out, raising his voice and advancing a
step, "quit that hammering, will you! There's trouble in the house,
and you mustn't disturb them."
The Indian took no more notice of him than a striking clock might
have done, but went on pounding with loud, continuous blows on
the resounding wood.
"Stop it, will you!" cried Stephens, springing forward; "don't you
hear me? There's a dead man in there, I tell you, and a poor woman
mourning."
"I want more whiskey," said Mahletonkwa excitedly, and he beat the
door with both hands.
The next moment Stephens had him by the shoulders and whirled
him around, and with a push sent him staggering half a dozen yards
from the house.
The Indian recovered himself, wheeled sharp round, and with a yell
of rage drew his knife and bounded upon Stephens. He, too, drew
his to defend himself, but as he did so Rocky sprang between them,
pulling his Derringer. Alas! the Indian's knife was quicker than the
pistol; he grappled Rocky instead of Stephens, and stabbed him in
the breast. Down went Rocky with a crash upon the ground, the
pistol dropping unfired from his nerveless fingers, and the blood
poured from his mouth.
 CHAPTER XXVIII
ELEVEN TO ONE

At sight of Rocky bleeding at his feet, something seemed suddenly

to snap in Stephens's brain, and the secret rage that had been
consuming him for days blazed out. This was open war at last, and
the Navajos themselves had begun it. It was their own choice.
"So now then," said he, "they shall have it."
Almost before Mahletonkwa could draw his dripping blade from his
victim's body, the American's strong grasp seized him and swung
him violently round. Stephens's right hand gripped the hilt of his
great hunting-knife, and with it he dealt the red man one terrible
stroke as with a sword. All the strength of his arm and all the wrath
of his soul went into that mighty sweep of the blade, and he felt the
keen edge shear right through bone and muscle as it clove the
doomed man's breast asunder and split his heart in twain. The dying
yell of the Indian rent the air with so piercing a sound that the
women in the Sanchez house, three furlongs off, heard it, and
sprang trembling to their feet. With both his hands the American
raised his stricken foe aloft and flung him clear away, a corpse
before he touched ground.
It was all over in five seconds; but Stephens knew it could not end
there. This was no final blow in a single combat, it was rather the
first in one where the odds were still ten to one against him.
Mahletonkwa's followers were swiftly unslinging their guns, save four
who had sprung to their horses, whether to fight or fly he could not
tell. Like a flash the American's ready six-shooter was out from his
belt. Notalinkwa was nearest him, his gun already at his shoulder;
but the too careful Indian paused a moment on his aim to make
sure, and that pause was fatal. As the American's pistol came up
level the hammer fell, and Notalinkwa, shot through the heart,
pitched heavily forward, and lay there prone on the brown earth,
biting it convulsively in the strong death-agony.
With the rapidity of lightning the deadly weapon spoke again, and
again, and again, and as each jet of smoke and flame leapt from the
muzzle, each bullet, true to its mark, laid an enemy low. If Stephens
thought at all during those breathless seconds in which he sent foe
after foe to his last account, it was but to say to himself, "Quick,
now, quick! Be quick, but sure!"
Navajo rifle-balls whistled by him, but he felt no fear; there was no
room for that, for his whole soul now was bent upon one passionate
purpose,—to kill, kill, kill.
As the fourth Navajo dropped to his fourth shot, he saw the rest run,
and gave one wild shout of triumph, and even as his voice rang out
his fifth barrel went off, and down dropped yet another of the gang.
It seemed as though he could not miss a single shot to-day.
"Oh, Doctor," he cried, "oh, Doctor! quick here, Rocky's hurt!" but he
did not turn his head as he shouted to him to help his wounded
friend.
The four Indians who had already mounted were off and away, and
Kaniache, the last of those who had turned to fight when
Mahletonkwa was slain, had now lost heart and was springing to
horse to follow them. What chance was there to fight against a man
like this, on whom no Navajo rifle-balls seemed to have any effect,
but whose own unerring bullets slew a victim at each shot? He was
no mere man, but an avenging fury.
Alas for Kaniache! the resolve to fly came too late. As he reached
the saddle Stephens raised his six-shooter for the last time, and the
foresight came into the V-notch of the hammer just below the red
man's shoulder blade as he turned to flee. The last of the six
cartridges spoke, once more the jet of flame and smoke leaped from
the muzzle, and Kaniache dropped forward on the neck of his steed,
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com