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Sustainable Civil Infrastructures
Hugo Rodrigues
Amr Elnashai Editors
Advances and
Challenges in
Structural Engineering
Proceedings of the 2nd GeoMEast
International Congress and Exhibition
on Sustainable Civil Infrastructures,
Egypt 2018 – The Official International
Congress of the Soil-Structure
Interaction Group in Egypt (SSIGE)
Sustainable Civil Infrastructures
Editor-in-chief
Hany Farouk Shehata, Cairo, Egypt
Advisory Board
Khalid M. ElZahaby, Giza, Egypt
Dar Hao Chen, Austin, USA
Sustainable Infrastructure impacts our well-being and day-to-day lives. The
infrastructures we are building today will shape our lives tomorrow. The complex
and diverse nature of the impacts due to weather extremes on transportation and
civil infrastructures can be seen in our roadways, bridges, and buildings. Extreme
summer temperatures, droughts, flash floods, and rising numbers of freeze-thaw
cycles pose challenges for civil infrastructure and can endanger public safety. We
constantly hear how civil infrastructures need constant attention, preservation, and
upgrading. Such improvements and developments would obviously benefit from
our desired book series that provide sustainable engineering materials and designs.
The economic impact is huge and much research has been conducted worldwide.
The future holds many opportunities, not only for researchers in a given country,
but also for the worldwide field engineers who apply and implement these
technologies. We believe that no approach can succeed if it does not unite the
efforts of various engineering disciplines from all over the world under one
umbrella to offer a beacon of modern solutions to the global infrastructure. Experts
from the various engineering disciplines around the globe will participate in this
series, including: Geotechnical, Geological, Geoscience, Petroleum, Structural,
Transportation, Bridge, Infrastructure, Energy, Architectural, Chemical and
Materials, and other related Engineering disciplines.
Editors
123
Editors
Hugo Rodrigues Amr Elnashai
Polytechnic Institute of Leiria Division of Research
Leiria, Portugal University of Houston
Houston, TX, USA
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
v
vi Contents
Production of Building Bricks Using Cement Kiln Dust CKD Waste . . . 102
Ahmed H. Abdulkareem and Saadoon O. Eyada
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) for Strengthening
and Seismic Retrofitting of Historic Circular Masonry
Stone Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Sayed Hemeda
The Impact of Steel Fibers on the Properties of Self Compacting
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Hassan Ghanem, Yehia Obeid, Ayman Trad, and Mohamed Dandachy
Assessing the Potential Value of a SHM Deployment
on a Proposed Footbridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
David D. T. Nepomuceno, John Bennetts, Graham T. Webb,
Matt Langhorne, Mike Johnson, John H. G. Macdonald,
Theo Tryfonas, and Paul J. Vardanega
Seismic Demands Assessment of Tall Buildings: Theoretical Approach
and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Benazouz Chikh, Mustapha Remki, Abdelkader Benyoucef,
Youcef Mehani, Mohamed Hadid, and Abdelmounaim Mechaala
Verification of Mechanism on Improvement of Drying Shrinkage
or Air Permeability on Concrete Using Blast Furnace Slag Sand
Based on Pore Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Ryo Yoshida, Kazuhide Saito, and Chiaki Yoshizawa
Effect of Wet-Mat Curing Time on Chloride Permeability of Concrete
Bridge Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Hassan Ghanem, Ayman Trad, Mohamed Dandachy, and Adel ElKordi
The Effect of Underground Stories on the Dynamic Response
of High-Rise Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Lina Jaber, Yehya Temsah, Yasser El-Mossallamy,
and Fadi Hage Chehade
Engineering Properties of Self-compacting Concrete Containing
Class C Fly Ash and Processed Slag Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
H. P. Vageesh, C. P. Ramesh, T. Raghavendra, B. C. Udayashankar,
and A. Shashishankar
Across Wind Load Analysis Using CFD for Sustainable Design
of Tall Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
K. Shruti, P. N. Rao, and G. R. Sabareesh
Contents vii
ix
x About the Editors
1 Introduction
Old buildings have many factors that can affect their integrity such as being subjected
to earthquakes, or not being designed in the first place to endure lateral loads. This
could lead to structural failures. This the case with knowing that the cost of
demolishing and rebuilding is very high. Nevertheless, the economic costs become
measure due to delaying works and projects for individuals, companies and the gov-
ernment. Due to all what have been mentioned, it would be preferable to reinforce the
building instead of demolishing it. However, to repair a building, one needs first to
figure out the weak parts that need to be strengthened in a way that doesn’t require the
building to be evacuated if possible (Anagnostopoulos et al. 1996).
Beam-column connections have been diagnosed as potentially vulnerable compo-
nents when Reinforced Concrete (R.C.) frame buildings are subjected to seismic loads,
Generally, older buildings are normally designed only for gravity loads. Such Build-
ings when subjected to seismic loading may be subjected to damage, and the most
affected parts are the structural beam- column joints, and particularly, the corner joints
or the exterior joints (Wernli 2004). The interior joints are also affected due to seismic
loads, but the damage is relatively smaller in magnitude. In addition, the accurate
seismic assessment of beam-column subassemblies has been an important objective for
many research groups over the years. Experimental and analytical research on different
aspects of these members by various research groups have provided numerous design
and assessment techniques with little consensus amongst these research groups.
In this paper, the feasibility of a novel strengthening solution using Fiber Rein-
forced Polymers (FRP) in increasing the seismic performance of exterior RC beam-
column joints is investigated. An experimental program was organized at the Arab
Academy For Science and Technology which includes several as-built specimens
representative of existing beam-column joint subassemblies with inadequate seismic
details that may exist in gravity load designed buildings. Of these specimens, the first
one was strengthened by using FRP, while the second one was not strengthened. The
two as-built specimens where loaded till failure in a step by step manner to identify the
gain in the beam- column joint capacity after strengthening while anther specimen was
used as a reference benchmark.
Prior to modern codes that include detailed information for designing structures under
seismic loads, older RC frame structures were designed only for gravity loads. This is
even the case when considering that the seismic active zones varied in the national
codes by time, such that some older structures are presently lying in active seismic
zones, though this was not the case in the past. Such existing RC frame structures,
though performing well under conventional gravity load case, could lead to ques-
tionable structural performance under earthquakes. In most cases, those structures are
vulnerable to any moderate or major earthquake, and thus need immediate assessment
and retrofitting to avoid a sudden full or partial collapse mechanism bringing consid-
erable losses in human lives and economic assets (Elmasry et al. 2016).
In this paper, objectives include developing an effective rehabilitation to strengthen
beam-column joints in older structures to improve their seismic performance in terms
of lateral strength and serviceability. Accordingly, An experimental program is pre-
pared for validating the suggested technique. By interpreting results and studying the
resulting advantages versus disadvantages, it is clearly shown that the proposed
Retrofitting Gravity Load Designed R.C Frames Using FRP 3
3 Literature Review
the expected loads and resultants at the perimeter of the joint region. The load distri-
bution, as shown in Fig. 2(B), can result in severe loading within the joint region. In
addition, the moment reversal in the beams and columns results in large shear forces
within the joint (Nilanjan 2007).
(A) Building frame with joint region (B) Detailed view of joint region
Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites comprise fibres of high tensile strength
within a polymer matrix such as epoxy. FRP composites are used in a lot of appli-
cations such as aircraft, helicopters, space-craft, satellites, ships, submarines, auto-
mobiles, chemical processing equipment, sporting goods and civil infrastructure
(Liyoung et al. (2002); Abhishek (2012) and Sreelatha (2013)). In general, one of the
advantages of using FRP products would be strengthening of the existing or new RC
structures with the possibility of application without disturbing the existing function-
ality of the structure (Liyoung et al. (2002) and Sreelatha (2013)). In addition, FRP
composites had proved to be extremely useful for strengthening of RC structures
against both normal and seismic loads as stated in previous research as shown earlier.
Moreover, most of the elements of a structure can be applicably strengthened with FRP
composite materials. Currently, this method has been applied to strengthen structural
elements as columns, beams, walls, slabs (Nikita et al. (2015), Sasmal et al. (2011) and
Obaidat et al. (2010)). This means in fact that FRP composites can take up the majority
of the forces developed in a structure as long as they are transmitted by the
strengthened element to the composite one as tensile stresses. Furthermore, strength-
ening with externally bonded FRP fabric has shown to be applicable to many kinds of
structures. The use of external FRP reinforcement may be classified in: (i) Flexural
strengthening, (ii) Improving the ductility of compression members, and (iii) Shear
strengthening. Furthermore, Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP), Carbon Fibre-
Reinforced Plastic (CRP), or Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Thermoplastic (CFRTP) are
extremely strong and light FRP which contain carbon fibres. This is the case where
carbon fibres give CFRP its strength and rigidity in terms of increasing the ultimate
stress and elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and alu-
minium, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on
Retrofitting Gravity Load Designed R.C Frames Using FRP 5
the layouts of the carbon fibre and the proposition of the carbon fibres relative to the
polymer. Advantages for CFRP include high tensile strength, high strength to weight
ratio, low weight to volume ratio, excellent fatigue behaviour, and quicker application
(Naveeena and Ranjitham (2016)). Thus, CFRP composites are able to strengthen beam
column joints in terms of the shear capacity and ductility.
5 Experimental Program
The ongoing experimental program includes several RC beam-column joints that are
subjected to forces (variable load) applied by setting two opposite forces at the spec-
imen beam tip by keeping the column fixed at the specimen top and bottom ends. Two
as-built specimens where loaded till failure in a step by step manner to identify the gain
in the beam-column joint capacity after strengthening while anther specimen was used
as reference benchmark.
6 Design of Specimens
Exterior as-built beam-column joints were designed for the experimental campaign,
characterized by the amounts of longitudinal steel reinforcement in the beams and
columns. Figure 3 depicts the geometry and the rebar configuration of the strengthened
and unstrengthened specimens. For the unstrengthened specimen, the structural
dimensions of the studied beam-column joint, as shown in Fig. 3a, are summarized in
having a vertical column with a cross section of 300 mm 300 mm intersecting a
horizontal beam with a 300 mm 300 mm cross section. The height of the specimen
is 1300 mm and the beams extend by 500 mm before and after the joint. The longi-
tudinal reinforcement of the column is 8 T16 rebar as shown in Fig. 3, and the shear
reinforcement is 8 mm diameter stirrups with a spacing of 75 mm to avoid beam shear
failure and to direct the stresses concentrations to the connection zones. The beam steel
reinforcement is 4 T16 rebar as shown in Fig. 3, and the shear reinforcement is 8 mm
diameter stirrups with a spacing of 75 mm. The reason for having excessive shear
reinforcement in the beam and the column is to enforce the shear cracks to be initiated
within the beam-column joint zone rather than in the beam or the column. The cubic
strength of concrete is 20 MPa which is typical in GLD older structures, while the yield
strength of the steel reinforcement is 360 MPa.
In addition, the strengthened specimen is shown in Fig. 4. The concrete dimensions
and reinforcement details of this retrofitted specimen are the same as the unstrength-
ened specimen. However, in this specimen, CFRP sheets diagonally reinforce the
beam- column joint. In addition, webbed built up angles and covering plates, as shown
in Fig. 5, are used as a bearing for the CFRP sheets to get wrapped around the columns
at the beam-column connection. The thickness of the CFRP sheet is considered
0.13 mm. The modulus of elasticity (E) for CFRP is taken as 24000 MPa in the
longitudinal direction and 18581 MPa in the transversal sides.
6 M. I. S. Elmasry et al.
Fig. 3. The geometry and the rebar configuration of set of joints (a) The geometry and the rebars
configuration of set of unstrengthened
7 Materials
The Concrete cubic strength for all concrete specimens was evaluated after 28 day and
reported in Table 1. In order to replicate the GLD buildings, the concrete cubic strength
was assumed 20 MPa to infer the strength quality by the time of construction of such
buildings.
8 Test Set-up
The loading setup is shown in Fig. 6. The bottom and top of the column is considered
constrained in three dimensions X, Y, Z using fixation steel jacket. Incrementally
increasing concentrated loads are assumed to act on the specimen at the two can-
tilevering ends in opposite directions, to induce the resulting moments on the con-
nection. A steel plate as shown in Fig. 7 is added at the expected loading location in
order to avoid stress concentration problems. This provides a more even stress distri-
bution over the loading area. There are ten strain gauges in the beam-column specimens
that are distributed and fixed to the specimens as show in Fig. 8.
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 4. The geometry and the rebars configuration of set of strengthened (a) The rebar in
strengthened specimen (b) FRP fixation in front strengthened specimen (c) The back view of the
strengthened specimen with FRP
8 M. I. S. Elmasry et al.
9 Experimental Result
Crack patterns and failure modes of the unstrengthened specimen are shown in Fig. 9.
Figure 10 shows the crack patterns in the strengthened specimen. The load & dis-
placement curve for the unstrengthened cases shown in Fig. 11. Figure 12 shows the
load & displacement curve for the strengthened specimen.
(a) (b)
(d)
(c)
From the above mentioned figures, it is clear that the cracks were concentrated for
the unstrengthened case that showed the lowest strength, while in unstrengthened
specimen, a lot of cracks appeared, some in the beam, some in the column as well as
cracks in joint. The cracks were concentrated in the joint horizontal cracks in the form
of vertical and diagonal cracks. In the strengthened specimen when using the
strengthening technique by CFRP sheets, the cracks appeared rather in the beam and
the joint. The cracks in the strengthened joint are less than the case as the
unstrengthened joint. In spite of the fact that the cracks propagation in the strengthened
specimen are bigger, yet the ductility was in the unstrengthened specimen less than the
case of the strengthened specimen, which showed higher deflections. It is clear that the
strengthened specimen showed the highest strength. The unstrengthened specimen
Retrofitting Gravity Load Designed R.C Frames Using FRP 9
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6. (a) The schematic Test setup (b) Reis contrast Test setup
10 M. I. S. Elmasry et al.
(a) (b)
Fig. 8. Show the strain gauge in each specimen. (a) The strain gauge in specimen
unstrengthened (b) The strain gauge in specimen strengthened
10000
8000
loads (kg)
6000
4000
2000
0
-0.001 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
displacement (mm)
Fig. 11. The load & displacement curve for the unstrengthened specimen.
12 M. I. S. Elmasry et al.
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008
displacement (mm)
Fig. 12. Show the load & displacement curve for the strengthened specimen
failed when the axial load in both directions was equal to 110 KN (11 TON), and the
strengthened specimen failed when the axial load in both directions was equal to 165
KN (16.5 TON).it is also noticed that the unstrengthened specimen failed in the beam-
column joint, but the strengthened specimen failed rather in the beam. In summary, and
as clear from this experimental study, it can be concluded that the proposed technique
was successful in transferring the cracks from the beam-column joint to the beam
through using diagonal wrapped CFRP sheets, this technique can be easily applied on
older facades without varying or destroying the architecture layout.
10 Conclusions
An experimental study was undergone and shown in this paper to identify a suitable
strengthening technique for the beam-column joints in GLD buildings. The results for
the exterior RC beam-column joints were discussed. Two Specimens were tested, i.e.,
an unstrengthened specimen, and an upgraded specimen characterized by the
strengthening of the beam -column joint. The performed tests have highlighted some
critical aspects related to poor design of GLD structures. The beam-column joint
strengthened with FRP showed only a 50% higher capacity for the joint than that of the
unstrengthened case. The technique of wrapping CFRP sheets in a diagonal setup to be
perpendicular to the expected shear cracks in the beam-column joint zone, proved to
show better ductile response.
Retrofitting Gravity Load Designed R.C Frames Using FRP 13
References
Elmasry1, M.I.S., Abdelkader, A.M., Elkordy, E.A.: An analytical study of improving beam-
column joints behavior under earthquake, Egypt (2016)
Liyoung, T., Adrian, M., Michael, B.: Seismic rehabilitation of beam column joints using FRP
laminates. J. Earthq. Eng. 5(1), 113–129 (2002)
Naveeena, N., Ranjitham, M.: Numerical study on retrofitting of beam column joint strengthened
with CFRP. Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. (IRJET) 3, 914–920 (2016)
Sasmal, S, Ramanjaneyulu, K., Novak, B., Srinivas, V., Kumar, K.S., Korkowski, C.:
Upgradation of gravity load designed subassemblages subjected to seismic typeloading.
Compos. Struct. 93, 1561–1573 (2011)
Anagnostopoulos, S.A.: Building pounding re-examined: how serious a problem is it ? Greece
(1996)
Wernli, M.: Eismic evaluation of 32 industrial buildings by screening process and analysis,
Canada (2004)
Recommendations for design of beam-column-joints in monolithic reinforced concrete structures.
American Concrete Institute, ACI 352R-02, ACIASCE, Committee 352, Detroit (2002)
Nilanjan, M.: An analytical study of reinforced concrete beam-column joint behavior under
seismic loading. Doctor of Philosophy, University of Washington (2007)
Condition Monitoring of Overhead Line
Equipment (OHLE) Structures Using Ground-
Bourne Vibrations from Train Passages
Abstract. The most modern railway systems have fully adopted clean energy
for train and track operations. Trains or rolling stocks are powered by electricity
through the overhead wire or the third rail on ground. Commonly, the overhead
line equipment (OHLE), which supplies electric power to the trains, is widely
adopted in new railway networks around the world since its system enables
trains to operate smoothly while track inspectors can safely work on tracks.
The OHLE is supported by mast structure, which is located at the lineside along
the track. The mast structure is often made of steel structure built on mat or pile
foundation. Due to the train passages, ground-bourne periodic forces may cause
damage to the OHLE structure especially mast structure, connections and its
foundation, which can lead to operational failure of train electrification. On this
ground, the structural integrity of mast structures must be inspected regularly. In
this study, the modal analysis is used in order to identify the mode shapes and
natural frequencies of the mast structure. A mast structure with varying rota-
tional soil stiffness is used to construct dynamic influential lines for soil-
structure integrity prediction. Finite element model updating technique has been
used to perform modal analysis and modal parameter identification. This paper
presents the integrated numerical of three-dimensional mast structure consid-
ering soil-structure interaction to evaluate the condition of OHLE structures for
maintenance planning. The outcome of this study will help civil and track
engineers to effectively and efficiently inspect OHLE structures using ground
borne vibrations from train passages.
1 Introduction
Nowadays, the extra capacity of passenger train is needed due to the sudden growth of
population and journeys (RailCorp 2011). It was noticed that freight and passenger
journeys have increased by 60% and 100%, respectively. To get the destination faster,
electric train has become the efficient railway systems, which are allowed to run more
frequent and quicker than conventional diesel train. Also, electric train is more envi-
ronmental friendly as it emits less carbon than diesel counterpart. Instead of carrying
the fuel to make the train runs, the power is supplied by the Overhead Line Equipment
(OHLE), which consists of masts, gantries, wires found along electrified railways. The
electric system can be failed and the power supply can be lost. As seen in literature
(Shing and Wong 2008; Robinson and Bryan 2009; Taylor 2013), extreme environ-
mental events such as snow storm, strong wind, earthquake etc., have affected railway
track and OHLE, especially single mast structure (Fig. 1), which is very slender and
flexible (Beagles et al. 2016). Hence, condition monitoring of railway track and its
overhead line components is needed for maintenance planning (Ngamkhanong and
Kaewunruen 2018). Besides, ground bourne vibration from train passage is also one of
the serious concern as it affects property and cause annoyance to people in surrounding
area (Suhairy 2000; Lopes et al. 2016; Connolly et al. 2016).
Based on previous studies (Kouroussis et al. 2013; Zou et al. 2015; Mouzakis and
Vogiatzis 2016; Zou et al. 2017; Vogiatzis and Mouzakis 2017), it can be seen that the
effect of ground-bourne vibrations from train passages on building have been estab-
lished. However, the responses of mast structures, which are located closer and along
the railway track, have not been fully studied. Modal analysis has been used to study
vibration mode of cantilever mast structure. Crossing phenomena was observed when
support stiffness reduced as this structure has a sensitivity under vibrations
(Ngamkhanong et al. 2017a). It was confirmed by previous studies that soil-structure
interaction affected the overall response of the structure (Prum and Jiravacharadet
2012; NEHRP 2012).
Due to the increase of train speed, ground-bourne periodic forces may cause
damage to the OHLE structure especially mast structure, connections and its founda-
tion, which can lead to operational failure of train electrification. This study aims to
present the integrated numerical study of three-dimensional cantilever mast structure
considering soil-structure interaction to evaluate the condition of OHLE structures for
maintenance planning. To monitor the OHLE condition, adaptation technique is used
by monitoring the condition of single mast structure, which its response affects the
overhead wire movement. At this stage, the movements of overhead contact wire are
measured based on finite element modelling. It is noted that only finite element
modelling is employedusing finite element package STRAND7 (G+D Computing
16 C. Ngamkhanong et al.
2001). Ground borne vibrations are computed by the classical formulation based on the
semi-empirical model for predicting low frequency vibration on soft ground condition
(Kurzeil 1979; Madshus et al. 1996). The frequencies of ground borne vibration
between 0 Hz and 100 Hz are considered to cover all possible frequencies of ground
vibration and the first-eight fundamental mode of mast vibration (Kouroussis et al.
2014; Kouroussis et al. 2015; Ngamkhanong and Kaewunruen 2018). This study
presents the maintenance index which can be used for maintenance planning and
inspection of support condition of mast and OHLE structures. Moreover, it should be
noted that on-site measurement will be further conducted in the next step. The outcome
of this study will help civil and track engineers to effectively and efficiently inspect
OHLE structures using ground borne vibrations from train passages.
2 Methodology
2.1 Modelling
In this study, it is assumed that mast structure is placed 3.5 m far from railway track in
perpendicular. Three-dimensional modelling of single mast structure is constructed
using finite element package STRAND7 (G+D Computing 2001). The parametric study
of the soil stiffness and train speed is conducted. It is assumed that translational stiffness
(kx, ky) of support is fixed in all directions, while the rotational stiffness (kzz) is varied
from 1000 to 1000000 kNm/rad (fully fixed support condition). It is noted that the
rotational stiffness is affected by the soil-structure interaction condition and the quality
of support connection. The support stiffness can be decrease due to the connection
failure such as broken bolt, yielding weld, improper design and construction etc. and soil
erosion and degradation. The 2-D schematic load to structure with support stiffness is
shown in Fig. 2. The typical H-section steel (Section area: 2.219 10−2 m2,
Izz: 5.08 10−4 m4, Ixx: 1.84 10−4 m4) is used and connected to the cantilever which
made of round steel to support the overhead contact wire. It should be noted that the
interesting point is at the end of cantilever which is the location overhead contact wire.
The steel used has the young modulus of 2 105 MPa, density of 7850 kg/m3 and
Poisson’s ratio of 0.25.
this study only demonstrates the finite element modelling instead of on site monitoring.
It is recommended to monitor the OHLE condition on real site to compare with
numerical results.
V ¼ VT FS FD FR FB ð1Þ
structure. Thus, the track quality factor (FR) and building amplification factor (FB) are
1.3 and 1.3.
This study considers the velocities generated by train at the different locations of
running train on track. The ground vibration velocities are applied as harmonic exci-
tations in both longitudinal and transverse directions. The vibration creation regions are
formed on the track at the different angles which make the different vibration velocities.
It is noted that the critical angle is 90° since this can generate the highest vibration
velocities in transverse direction, as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Single mast structure modelling and ground vibration velocities from train passages
Fig. 4. Maximum displacements at the position of overhead contact wire on cantilever mast
with support stiffness of (a) 1000000 kNm/rad (Fully fixed) (b) 1000 kNm/rad
Du moment qu'on s'est mis cette idée dans la tête, il n'est pas
surprenant que l'œuvre de l'homme puisse devenir Dieu, comme la
statue de Pygmalion s'anima et se changea en femme. De là cette
conséquence:
Peinture, la rivale et l'égale de Dieu.
Même quand le plaisir n'a pas été complet et que l'amour ne peut
inspirer qu'une Élégie, c'est un ange qui figure. A plus forte raison ce
sera un ange qui, dans un sonnet, fera des colonnes torses du petit
lit rouge d'un taudis un paradis bleu:
Un ange chez moi parfois vient le soir
Dans un domino d'Hilcampt ou Palmire,
Robe en moire antique avec cachemire,
Voilette et chapeau faisant masque noir.
Tout le chœur des anges finit par passer à l'Opéra. Ce sera leur
nuit du fameux 4 août de la première Assemblée constituante.
Autant de filles, autant d'anges à marchander et à acheter au poids
de l'or. Elles restent des anges après comme avant ce trafic; les
hommes seuls sont des démons de corruption.
Sur ce sujet, Gautier reste le premier. Ainsi dès 1823, Alfred de
Vigny avait pris le mot hébreu Eloa qui signifie Dieu, pour faire dans
un mystère, Eloa ou la sœur des anges, un Dieu des deux sexes, un
Dieu hermaphrodite pour quiconque s'en tient au genre du
dictionnaire. Reniant sa gloire de poète catholique, Lamartine se
rapprocha de la nouvelle école sacrilège et lui offrit en 1838, la
Chute d'un ange; plus tard il proclama Charlotte Corday l'ange de
l'assassinat. On raconte que M. de Lamartine réunit un jour tous les
membres de sa famille pour leur offrir un banquet; il resta triste et
taciturne pendant toute la durée du repas; on crut que le dessert lui
donnerait de la gaieté. On lui demanda donc la raison d'un silence si
prolongé. Alors il déplia une serviette et en retira un livre; puis il dit
en pleurant: «Mon fils Alphonse était l'orgueil de la famille; il vient
de la déshonorer.» Il jeta le livre au feu; ce livre c'était la Chute d'un
ange. Le poète resta si confondu qu'il ne fit plus de poème du même
genre.
Les saints ne sont pas plus épargnés que les anges, comme
l'annonce Albertus.
Un ange, un saint du ciel, pour être à cette place
Eussent vendu leur stalle au paradis de Dieu.
On croirait cet amour éternel; mais il est trop violent pour durer
longtemps. Aussi ne veut-on passer avec lui qu'un bail de trois ou six
ou neuf années, ainsi qu'il est stipulé dans cette Elégie quatrième;
Puis un amour âgé de trois ans importune;
C'est presque un mariage; un jour avec l'ennui
Vient la réflexion; l'amour s'en va...
Donc les saints désespérés qui ont renié leur Dieu. Donc saint
athéisme. Et d'un.
Pour ceux qui ont la foi, l'espérance et la charité, Gautier dit, et sa
parole créa, à la minute, des dieux à l'infini, des cieux nouveaux, qui
ne tenaient rien de l'Olympe. Il mit au divin la nature et ses parfums,
tous les membres du corps et toutes les facultés de l'âme, le pinceau
du peintre et la lyre du poète, les poètes sans exception; Eschyle,
Sophocle, Euripide comme Pétrarque, leur chant et leurs larmes, et
jusqu'à la courtisane de Madeleine, pour ses fautes, il est vrai, et
non pour son repentir: tout était dieu, excepté Dieu même, suivant
le célèbre mot de Tertullien, décoré par Bossuet. La dévotion avait
de quoi se rassasier. Donc panthéisme. Et de deux.
A tant de dieux il fallait des adorateurs pour occuper leur solitude.
Gautier dit, et sa parole crée, pour remplacer les mauvais anges et
augmenter le chœur des bons anges, une multitude d'anges
nouveaux, des anges pour tous les besoins et toutes les allégories. Il
mêle, à ces anges masculins ou neutres, une grande variété d'anges
femelles; il fait des anges de toutes les femmes, surtout des
adultères et des fornicatrices; il s'abat, une nuit de bal, à l'Opéra;
toutes les filles encore à vendre ou déjà vendues sont
métamorphosées en anges, pendant qu'elles chantent ou dansent;
elles n'échappent point au sort des maîtresses qui fument dans leur
boudoir avec l'amant de cœur: de cette sorte, tout ce qui avait été
oublié au divin fut transporté à l'ange. Il n'y avait eu qu'une
courtisane de divinisée; mais à cette deuxième époque de la genèse,
toutes les catégories de la prostitution, les filles qui se donnent
comme les filles qui se vendent, les adultères désintéressées ou
vénales, furent élevées à la dignité d'anges. Anges mâles et femelles
ont bien fumé, chanté, dansé; ils doivent avoir faim et soif. Qu'ils
boivent et mangent, suivant leur goût; Sainte-Beuve, qui a bâclé le
Cénacle, a donné l'exemple de faire gras le Vendredi-Saint. Entre
anges tout est licite. Gautier, qui est le fils de quelqu'un et le père de
filles et de garçon, semble supprimer la paternité et n'admet d'autre
amour que celui de la mère. Pour que l'amour ne devienne point une
passion creuse et vide, il convient de le débarrasser de tout
engagement, puisque toute union ne dure pas plus de six mois.
Donc que tous ces anges Vénusets et Vénusettes suivent leurs
caprices et ne se refusent rien. Donc promiscuité. Et de trois.
La sainteté de l'art, lavé dans les saints flots du baptême, veut
s'élever à la peinture sainte comme les autels. Pour avoir des
modèles divins il faut donc que les anges se dépouillent de tout et
marchent, comme Adam et Ève, dans l'Éden. Qu'ils ne rougissent
pas, car où il y aurait de la gêne, il n'y aurait plus de plaisir. Plus de
pudeur, puisque le vice est supprimé. D'ailleurs Gautier a fait de Dieu
un bon compagnon d'atelier, qui n'est, après tout, que le rival ou au
plus l'égal de la peinture. Donc que les anges mâles et femelles
reviennent à l'état de nature, au berceau de l'innocence, car Gautier
demande à voir la sainte nudité des antiques Vénus. Donc cynisme.
Et de quatre.
Si l'on peut tout faire, à plus forte raison doit-on tout dire, afin que
le vers soit libre enfin. Qui s'y opposerait? Gautier n'a-t-il pas fait de
Dieu le camarade de Dante, de Shakspeare qui étaient si peu
précieux, si peu bégueules? La sainte poésie réclame, dans ses
saints transports, dans ses extases saintes, et avec de saintes
larmes, la sainte nudité du vers. Sois réhabilité, Piron! tu as trop
pleuré la verve de quelques heures de ta jeunesse, qui t'a fermé les
portes de l'Académie. Tu es le précurseur de la liberté de penser; la
sainte nudité pourra désormais passer dans les mandements des
évêques après les sermons de saint Bernard sur le Cantique des
cantiques et les Méditations de Bossuet sur les transports de l'amour.
Lamartine n'a-t-il pas donné la vision de l'obscénité sainte comme du
saint amour et de la faculté sainte de la reproduction dans la Chute
d'un Ange qui vit dans le panthéisme et finit par le blasphème et le
suicide, comme Werther et tous les héros des légendes, poèmes et
romans de l'école romantique? Donc obscénité. Et de cinq.
Décidément tartufier et versifier, c'est une rime très riche.
Total de la révolution des mots ou de la niaiserie des barbarismes:
escamotage du sacerdoce, sacrilèges, saint athéisme, promiscuité,
cynisme, obscénité, et pour fin: enterrement civil, désiré par Gautier,
stipulé par le testament de Sainte-Beuve et journellement consacré
par Hugo pour les saints désespérés, qui ont renié leur Dieu.
Voilà ce que les romantiques ont dit. Les communards ont-ils
répété autre chose dans leurs placards et leurs sermons? Le soir, les
églises n'étaient-elles pas devenues le temple de la prostitution
comme de l'athéisme? Les femmes et les maîtresses des
romantiques étaient trop vieilles pour étaler leur sainte nudité des
antiques Vénus. Autrefois il y avait des femmes romantiques qui ne
se faisaient aucun scrupule de se mettre dans la sainte nudité des
antiques Vénus. La vile prose des communards aurait reculé devant
les exigences de la sainte poésie des romantiques. Les Vénusettes
de la Commune laissèrent la sainte nudité des antiques Vénus à tous
les romantiques, et préférèrent ne paraître, dans les églises
profanées, que plus ou moins bien vêtues, avec la décence de la
Raison des régicides, sur le grand autel de Notre-Dame.
Que reste-t-il d'impeccable dans la fabrique de vers de Théophile
Gautier?
XIII
Comme la littérature est l'expression de la société, suivant
l'observation de Bonald qui remonte à 1805, il est indispensable de
demander à l'Histoire le commentaire des principes romantiques qui
ont passé sous les yeux du lecteur.
C'est un fait assez connu et souvent rappelé depuis, qu'au château
d'un comte, après un souper fort gai où tous les convives avaient
gagé à qui dirait ou ferait le plus de folies, M. Thiers, si peu
rabelaisien, trouva plaisant de se rendre au balcon et d'agir sans
façon comme il l'eût fait sur les bords du Titicaca; là il mit bas son
pantalon, et, entre deux chandelles, il montra sa mappemonde du
duc de Vendôme, puis il laissa dans le vase d'usage la preuve qu'il
avait bien bu, bien mangé et bien digéré, aux applaudissements de
la galerie et à l'éternel désespoir des gens comme Sainte-Beuve, qui
ont trouvé ou jugeront de mauvais goût la publication de la fameuse
lettre de la princesse Palatine sur un sujet analogue.
C'est un fait aussi connu qu'aux Vendanges de Bourgogne, le
restaurant le plus vaste et le plus fameux sous le règne de Louis-
Philippe, et situé près du canal au Faubourg du Temple, il s'est
maintes fois donné des banquets où tous les convives restaient
entièrement nus, depuis le commencement jusqu'à la fin du repas;
sans doute, on ne se gêne pas entre hommes; il est certain que ces
sauvages de la civilisation ne se réunissaient point pour bougironner.
On nomme un individu qui crut s'illustrer en faisant servir
habituellement, dans le même restaurant, à ses commensaux
également tout nus, un immense plateau sur lequel une superbe
femme était étalée toute nue sur un amas de persil. On nomme un
autre amphitryon qui brûla d'éclipser ces deux espèces de banquets
de Suétone; il organisa des soupers de garçons avec des femmes
libres; chacun devait avoir sa chacune; l'étiquette voulait que chaque
sexe quittât tous ses vêtements avant de se mettre à table, et ne les
reprît que pour partir.
La vie privée ne laisse rien à imaginer sur l'oubli des convenances.
Un des romanciers les plus célèbres accoutuma sa fille à se baigner
avec lui; depuis, elle eut un mari et probablement quelques caprices,
mais elle ne cessa d'aimer l'auteur de ses jours comme un père, de
le chérir comme un homme de la race d'Hercule, et de l'adorer
comme un écrivain de génie, à ce point qu'elle tenait une lampe
perpétuellement allumée devant son buste.
Un autre romancier se mettait à sa fenêtre dans un costume d'une
si grande indécence que, sur la plainte des locataires de la maison et
des passants, le commissaire de police du quartier fut obligé de le
menacer, s'il ne respectait pas plus les convenances, de l'envoyer en
police correctionnelle pour outrages aux mœurs et à la morale
publique. Dès que la saison le permettait, il restait tout nu sur son
canapé, et c'est dans cette position qu'il recevait les visiteurs, le
cigare à la bouche. Il aimait à prendre ses bains avec ses filles; on
s'est souvent demandé s'il a froidement perpétré le crime que Loth
ne commit que dans l'ivresse la plus profonde.
Les employés du Ministère de l'Instruction publique et des Cultes
ont été plusieurs fois curieux de savoir ce qui se passait dans le
cabinet d'un grand-maître de l'Université; à travers le trou de la
serrure, ils apercevaient Cousin contemplant la Philosophie sans
voile dans la personne d'une belle blanchisseuse du quartier de la
Sorbonne.
Une fois je parlais avec Préault d'une matrone dont le mari a été
pair de France; il me dit: «Un jour, j'allai voir un de mes confrères; je
frappai à la porte et j'ouvris immédiatement, suivant mon habitude,
puisque la clef était dans la serrure. Là je rencontrai cette dame qui
était toute nue; elle ne rougit nullement et ne parut pas plus
embarrassée que les poseuses de profession qu'on payait à cette
époque, quatre francs la séance; elle ne fut préoccupée que du désir
de savoir comment je la trouvais, suivant mon idéal d'artiste.» Ainsi
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