3.

1 Introduction to biodiversity

Terms Definition and explanation

Biodiversity The amount of biological or living diversity per unit area. It includes the
concepts of species diversity, habitat diversity and genetic diversity.

The variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems and the
ecological and evolutionary processes that sustain it.

Species The range of species living in a specified area. An area may have a
diversity high density of wildlife, but if they are all from a few different species
then it would have a low species diversity.

The number of species and abundance of each species that live in a

particular location. The number of species that live in a certain location is
called species richness.

Richness A measure of the number of different species in an area; more species

means a richer environment

Evenness The relative abundant of the species takes into account the abundance or
scarcity of each species and eliminates the problems of just analysing

Ways to
measure
biodiversity
Diversity ●​ It can be used to assess whether the impact of human development
indices on ecosystems is sustainable or not.
●​ Provide more information about community rather than species
richness
●​ Take the relative abundance of different species into account
●​ Provide important information about the rarity and commonness of
species in a community

Low diversity = Pollution/Eutrophication/Recent colonization

The number of species present in an area is often indicative of general

patterns of biodiversity.

Simpson’s diversity index (D) is a simple mathematical measure that

characterizes species diversity in a community

Habitat The range of different habitats in an ecosystem. Jungle or forest

diversity ecosystems are likely to have a higher habitat diversity than desert or
tundra ecosystems.

The range of different habitats in an ecosystem or biome

Vegetative The number of different species of vegetation present

diversity
The greater the number of species, the greater the vegetative diversity

Genetic The genetic range that is present in a population of a species. Species

Diversity that have a small genetic diversity are more at risk of being wiped out
by diseases. Selective breeding by humans to domesticate animals or
grow plants with specific traits has reduced the gene pool in many
species.

Each individual species possesses genes which are the source of its own
unique features

Gene pool All the different types of genes found within every individual species

Large gene pool = High genetic diversity

Small gene pool = Low genetic diversity

Species is made up of two or more different populations in different places,

then each population will have a different total genetic makeup
Biodiversity
types

Quantification Conservation efforts so that areas of high biodiversity may be identified,

of biodiversity explored and appropriate conservation put in place where possible

Conservation aims to protect habitats and ecosystems, and hence

species from human-made disturbances, such as deforestation and
pollution.
●​ To slow the rate of extinction caused by the knock-on effects of
unsustainable exploitation of natural resources
●​ To maintain biotic interactions between species

Biodiversity in a given area is dependent on many different parameters and

the interrelationships between these factors:
1.​ Diversity through succession
2.​ Greater habitat diversity leads to greater species and genetic
diversity
3.​ A complex ecosystem, with its variety of nutrient and energy
pathways, provides stability
4.​ Human activities modify succession (Logging, grazing, burning, etc)
5.​ Human activities often simplify ecosystems, rendering them unstable
6.​ An ecosystem’s capacity to survive change may depend on diversity,
resilience and inertia

A complex ecosystem with a variety of nutrient and energy pathways

provides stability. Stability leads to diversity.
Succession increases species diversity as new habitats are formed and
more complex ecosystems are formed.
Measuring
species
diversity

The higher the number, the greater the species diversity

●​ A high value of D suggests a stable and mature site, while a low
might be a pollution or agricultural management

Function of Simpson’s index

●​ Areas of high biodiversity are identified and explored, and
appropriate conservation is put in place where possible.
●​ Can identify areas that should be protected against damaging human
activities

High biodiversity areas = hotspots

-​ Contain large numbers of endemic species (not found anywhere
else)
Biodiversity hotspot is assessed in one of three ways:
1.​ The number of total species (Species richness)
2.​ The number of endemic species
 3.​ The number of species at risk

Disturbance takes ecosystems away from steady-state equilibrium and can

lead to new stable states if certain tipping points are reached.

Limitations It is impossible to know how many species actually exist for the following
reasons
1.​ We have not explored every part of the biosphere yet
2.​ Most species are less than 1mm long so they are easily overlooked
3.​ Apart from the popular taxonomic groups like birds and mammals,
there are not enough experts to identify the more obscure and
“esoteric” groups
4.​ Species become extinct before they have been discovered

Efforts 1.​ Sustainable practices increases in crop yields

2.​ Trade increases in agricultural goods with reduced trade barriers
3.​ Reducing the of agricultural goods from field to fork by 50%
4.​ Increasing protected area extent to 40% terrestrial coverage,
covering important sites for biodiversity and with improved
management
5.​ Increasing restoration

Case studies

North America

https://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/low-water-levels-in-the-st-lawr
ence-may-cause-headaches-this-summer

•Nearly 3 billion birds lost in the past 50 years

•Possible causes: Habitat loss, chemical pollution (pesticide)
• The water level of the Great Lakes, the biggest freshwater reservoir area in
North America, is at a historically low
•30% of its plant-pollination network has disappeared
Europe and
Central Asia

https://www.redbluffdailynews.com/2022/03/11/the-toll-of-war-on-ukraines-an
imal-population/

•Only 23% of species and 16% of its habitats are in good health
•1,677 out of 15,060 European species are threatened with extinction; the
most endangered are snails, clams and fish
•6 animal, bird and fish species, including the Saiga antelope, the gyrfalcon
and the Persian leopard, are facing the risk of extinction in Russia

Latin America
and Caribbean

https://edition.cnn.com/2021/06/22/weather/brazil-drought-amazon-rainforest
-fires/index.html

•Major negative trends observed in reptiles, amphibians and fish

•A type of chytrid fungus, which originated in Asia, has been causing
declines in 500 amphibian species and driven around 90 of them to
extinction
•2019 record-breaking dry seasons and forest fires lead to a surge in
deforestation, with 30% more than the previous year
Africa

https://www.wired.co.uk/article/grauers-gorillas-bushmeat-conflict-minerals-te
chnology

•Increasing threats of extinction for the species in the Mara River Basin
•The ecosystem provides livelihood for around 1.1 million locals
•76% of endemic freshwater species in Lake Victoria are threatened with
extinction
•Illegal hunting and mining have driven down the Grauer’s gorilla population
in the Congo by 87%.

Asia Pacific

https://earth.org/data_visualization/biodiversity-loss-in-numbers-the-2020-ww
f-report/

•Nearly 3 billion animals were killed or displaced by Australia’s devastating

bushfire season of 2019 and 2020
•In India, 3% of bird species face extinction; 19% of amphibians are
threatened or critically endangered; over 12% of wild mammal species are
threatened with extinction
•More than 80% of East and Southeast Asia’s wetlands are classified as
threatened due to human activity.
3.2 Origins of biodiversity

Terms Definition & Explanation

Evolution A gradual change in the gene pool of a population over time or

cumulative change in the charitable characteristics

The gradual change in the genetic character of populations over many

generations achieved largely through the mechanism of natural selection

Environmental change gives new challenges to species which drives the

evolution of diversity

Adaption An inherited characteristics that increase an organism’s chance of

survival

Genetic An important force in evolution as it allows natural selection to increase or

variation decrease frequency of alleles already in the population

This is advantageous to a population because it enables some individuals

to adapt to the environment while maintaining the survival of the population

●​ Beneficial change to the gene pool of species can lead to

increased chances of survival and the ability to pass on the same
genetic advantage to the next generation
●​ The nature selects individuals possessing what it takes to survive
(Successfull genes are selected and passed on to the next
generation)

Limitations:
-​ Genetic diseases, as it can still be passed down through
generations but offer no adaptive change
-​ Can be distinctively harmful
-​ Individuals with it may die before they can reproduce

However, some variation has no effect on the survival of a species

(neutral)

Natural Mechanism by which individuals that are better to their environment

selection survive and reproduce more successfully. It is the mechanism of
evolution

Gradual evolutionary change that results from genetic variation in each

generation

1.​ Within a population of one species, there is genetic diversity which

is called variation
2.​ Due to natural variation, some individuals will be fitter than others
3.​ Fitter individuals have an advantage and will reproduce more
successfully than individuals who are less fit
4.​ The offspring of the fitter individuals may inherit the genes that give
that advantage

●​ Where the organisms that are more adapted to the environment

have an advantage over those that are less well adapted and they
survive, flourish and reproduce
●​ Species containing more favourable traits (strong defence
mechanism, diverse gene pool, can feed on variety of food
resources) surviving and those less well suited to their
environments not surviving or flourishing

Survival of the fittest = best-suited to the niche

-​ Negative changes lead to extinction

-​ Speciation occurs as a result of the isolation (geographical or
reproductive) of populations
-​ Most plant species are able to migrate only 1/10th of the speed
required to keep up with human-induced climate change

Speciation The formation of new species when populations of a species become

isolated and evolve differently from other populations

Depending on:
1.​ Isolation of species the process by which two populations become
separated by
2.​ Change of environmental
3.​ Change of gene pool

Speciation can occur gradually via geographic speciation (allopatric) or

competitive speciation (sympatric) or abruptly through mechanisms such
as polyploidy (sympatric)

Can occur gradually via:

1.​ Geographically isolation: separated by physical barrier, such as
mountain range or large lake
2.​ Reproductive isolation
●​ Temporal isolation (Timing)
Time of breeding not synchronized
 ●​ Behavioral isolation (Behavior)
Different behaviors that are not recognized or preferred by members in
another population. The most common example of behavioral differences
is mating calls.

Extra information

Allopatric When a species separates into two separate groups which are
speciation isolated from one another.

-​ A physical barrier such as mountain range or waterway, makes it

impossible for them to breed with one another.
-​ Each species developes differently based on the demands of their
unique habitat or the genetic characteristics of the group that are
passed onto offspring.

Sympatric When there are no physical barriers preventing any members of a

speciation species from mating with another, and all members are in close
proximity to one another.

-​ A new species (perhaps based on a different food source or

characteristics) seems to develop spontaneously.
-​ The theory is that some individuals become dependent on certain
aspects of an environment (such as shelters or food sources) while
others do not

Parapatric When a species is spread out over a large geographic area.

speciation
-​ Although it is possible for any member of the species to mate with
another member, individuals only mate with those in their own
geographic region
-​ Different habitats influence the development of different species
-​ The species are separated by differences in the same environment

Real World Examples

Example 1
 When Arizona’s Grand Canyon formed, squirrels and other mammals that
has once been part of a single population could no longer contact and
reproduce with each other across this new geographic barriers. They could
no longer interbreed. The squirrel population underwent allopatric
speciation. Today, two separate squirrel species inhabit the north and
south rims of the canyon. On the other hand, birds and other species that
could easily cross this barrier continued to interbreed and were not divided
into separate populations.

Example 2
 The cichlid fish in the lakes of East Africa are on of the largest families of
vertebrates.

Lake Victoria 170 species

Lake Tanganyika 126 species

Lake Malawi 200 species

These populations have probably been isolated for millions of years and
have been exposed to different selection pressures because of there
slightly different environment.

Therefore, the fish have adapted to their specific environments. As long as

the population is large enough, isolated population can thrive. If the
population is too small, they will die out

Isolation Can be caused by environmental changes forming barriers such as

mountain formation, changes in rivers, sea level changes, climatic change
or plate movements. The surface of the Earth is divided into crustal,
tectonic plates that have moved throughout.

Isolation factors are:

1.​ Geographical factors: island formation, loss of lan bridges and
mountain ranges
2.​ Behavioral factors: reproductive displays, songs, daily activity
3.​ Genetic factors: inability to produce fertile offspring due to genetic
different
4.​ Reproductive factors: anatomical different especially in
reproductive organs

Distribution of Convection currents in the mantle (the molten layer under the crust) drag
continents these plates slowly in different directions. In some places, the edges of the
plates crash into each other (destructive and collision boundaries) and in
other places the plates edges moves apart (constructive boundaries)
●​ Mountain ranges form a physical barrier that many species do not
cross, this allows isolation of gene pools and subsequently unique
species of plants and animals living on the same land masses
●​ Plate separation such as African and South American plates
moving apart also allow isolation of gene pools.
●​ The movement of land masses has also meant that many
continents may have travelled through different climate zones (over
millions of years) which has led to species adaptation and evolution
Evolutionary 1.​ Anatomy: Species may share similar physical features because
theory the feature was present in a common ancestor (homologous
structures)
2.​ Molecular biology: DNA and the genetic code reflect the shared
ancestry of life. DNA comparisons can show how related species
are
3.​ Biogeography: The global distribution of organisms and the
unique features of island species reflect evolution and geological
change
4.​ Fossils: Fossils document the existence of now-extinct past
species that are related to present-day species
5.​ Direct observation: We can directly observe small-scale evolution
in organisms with short lifecycles (e.g. pesticide-resistant insect)

Mass A period in which at least 75% of the total number of species on the
extinctions Earth at the time are wiped out

Factors of such extinctions can be caused by various factors;

1.​ Tectonic plate movements
2.​ Super-volcanic eruption
3.​ Climatic changes (including drought and ice ages)
4.​ Meteorite impact
All results in new directions and therefore increased biodiversity

●​ Extinction is a natural process, eventually all species become

extinct
●​ The rates at which extinctions occur are not constant and depend
on the background extinction rate as well as mass extinctions

Background Natural extinction rate of all species

extinction rate
The current mass extinction has a biotic cause, which is humans and we
are direct cause of ecosystems stress
●​ Transform the environment: with roads, cities, and agriculture
●​ Overexploit other species: fishing, hunting, harvesting
●​ Introduce alien species: which may not have natural predators and
therefore make the environment unstable
●​ Pollute the environment: which may kill species directly or indirectly
3.3 Threats to biodiversity

Terms Definition & Explanation

Estimates of the total number of species on the planet vary considerably. They are based on
mathematical models, which are influenced by classification issues and lack of finance for
scientific research, so many habitats and groups are significantly under-recorded.
Causes of Rate of loss of biodiversity may vary from country to country,
species loss depending on
1.​ Protection policies and monitoring
2.​ Environmental viewpoints
3.​ Stage of economic developments

Natural causes
-​ Volcanoes
-​ Drought
-​ Ice ages and glaciers
-​ Meteor impact
-​ Competition and predation

Human causes
A - Agricultural practices
D - Disease spread
H - Habitat destruction and fragmentation
I - Introduced species
P - Pollution
P - Population growth
O - Overexploitation

Agricultural
Agricultural practices have led to the destruction of native habitats and
replaced them with monocultures.
Pesticides: Often lethal to many non-pest species
Herbicides: Lethal to species other than the weeds

Disease spread
Diseases are usually species-specific but if they mutate they can infect
across the species barrier
-​ Swine flu (2020)
-​ Bird flu (since 2003)
-​ HFMD (2001)
We need to remember that diseases can decrease biodiversity

Habitat loss and fragmentation

Degradation: reducing the quality of available habitat (logging, agricultural,
sewage, mining)
Loss: Disappearing of an entire habitat (paving natural area for building
sites, converting prairies to farmland or residential subdivisions)
Fragmentation: Large areas divided up into smaller areas
-​ Fragments separated by roads, power lines, fields, etc
-​ Acts as ‘green’ islands surrounded usually by urbanization
-​ Diseases can be passed between domestic and wild species

Introduction of invasive species

Species that are introduced to areas and compete with endemic (native)
species (can lead to extinction)

Sometimes it works, sometimes it is a disaster

Example:
Potatoes brought from Americas to Europe
Rubber treas from Amazon to South East Asia
Rhododendrons from Nepal to Europe, outcompeting native plants and
toxic to toads, rabbits, foxes, camels, blackberry, etc
 Pollution
Including chemicals, litter, nets, plastic bags, oil spills, etc
Run off of fertilizers into waterways, environmental pollution such as
emissions and climate change

-​ Damages habitats and kills animals and plants

-​ Leading to loss of life
-​ Reduction in species’ population numbers

Overexploitation (overharvesting and hunting)

Animals are hunted for food, medicines, souvenirs, fashion and to supply
the exotic pet trade.
-​ Technology has allowed humans becoming better at catching,
hunting and harvesting
Usage of chainsaws, sonar and trawling nets

Maintaining 1.​ The more complex the food web, the more resilient it is to the loss
biodiversity of one species or reduction in its population size
2.​ Species diversity increases with time until a climax community is
reached when the species composition is stable
3.​ If the abiotic factors required for life are available in abundance
(water, light, heat, nutrients), the system is more likely to manage if
one is reduced
4.​ Inertia is the property of an ecosystem to resist change when
subjected to a disruptive force along with resilience and stability

IUCN IUCN stands for International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

Publishes data in the ‘Red List of Threatened Species’

-​ The conservation status of a species is an indicator of how likely it

is to remain alive at present or in the near future

Factors determining conservation status:

●​ Population size
●​ Trophic level
●​ Reduction in population size
●​ Numbers of mature individuals
●​ Geographic range and degree of fragmentation
●​ Quality of habitat
●​ Degree of specialization
●​ Distribution
●​ Reproductive potential and behavior
●​ Area of occupancy and probability of extinction

Population size Smaller population are more likely to go extinct and have low genetic
diversity, an inability to adapt changing conditions because there is less
variation, so less resilient to change

Trophic level Top predators are sensitive to any disturbance in food chain and reduction
in lower trophic level (10% energy loss through chain)
Reduction in Reduction in population size indicates the population is under threat
population size

Degree of If their specific diet or habitat requirement is under threat, they are also
specialization under threat

Geographic Species that occupy a restricted habitat are likely to be wiped out because
range there is no other places for them to grow

Distribution Same as endemic species

Species that live in small areas under threat from extinction than those are
distributed more widely

Loss of the area = loss of the species

Reproductive Animals with long gestation times will have low rates of reproduction
potential
behavior Gestation = the period of pregnancy

●​ Vulnerable to extinction

Degree of Species in fragmented habitats may not be able to maintain large enough
fragmentation population size
-​ Fragmentation of the forest through deforestation and conversion
to plantation forest that led to reduction in habitat
Quality of Poor quality of habitat causes animals to less likely to survive than in ones
habitat with better quality

Probability of Many species are likely to go extinct with areas that need special
extinction conservation

Image of Puya Raimondii

This remarkable flower only seeds once in 80 years and takes 80 years to
grow. Sow the seeds immediately after receiving them to ensure extinction
does not occur.

About tropical Tropical biomes contain some of the most globally biodiverse areas and
rainforests their unsustainable exploitation results in massive losses in biodiversity
and their ability to perform globally important ecological services.
●​ Contain 50% of Earth’s known species
●​ Very complex structure with high diversity
●​ Have many economic value
●​ Most species have specialized niche
●​ Humans disrupt environment for logging
●​ Changing one part of ecosystem, alters the entire web of
relationships
●​ Breakdown of rainforest likely lead to extinction of 10% worlds
species in 25 years
●​ Regeneration rate is slow due to poor soil quality (rapid year round
nutrient cycling depletes soil)

Most tropical biomes occur in LEDCs and there is more conflict

 between exploitation, sustainable development and conservation
-​ MEDCs are able to preserve their remaining natural ecosystems as
they do not rely on the ecosystems to provide income
-​ MEDCs cleared the majority of the natural ecosystems in the past
for agriculture and timber
-​ LEDCs need to be balanced between conservation of tropical
biomes and using the land to provide income

Impact of Factors leading to loss of diversity include:

human 1.​ Natural hazard events (volcanoes, drought, ice age, meteor
activities on impact)
tropical biomes 2.​ Habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss
3.​ Agricultural practices (monoculture, use of pesticides, use of GMO)
4.​ Introduction and/or escape of non-native species, pollution,
hunting, collecting and harvesting

The rate of loss of biodiversity may vary from country to country depending
on:
1.​ The ecosystem present
2.​ Protection policies and monitoring
3.​ Environmental viewpoints
4.​ Stage of economic development

●​ Tropical rainforests cover a massive amount of the world’s tree

surface, each year over 90,000 miles of the forests are harvested
for human use
●​ This deforestation has worried environmentalists because of the
release of carbon from the machinery and the vegetation
●​ It is believed that deforestation may accelerate the effects of global
warming and transform the rainforest climate
●​ Located within many developed countries, meaning that it would
face more human disturbance

Consequences 1.​ Loss of an aesthetically attractive organism;

2.​ Loss of ethically significant life
3.​ Loss of biodiversity
4.​ Increase in organisms upon which the species fed or competed
with
5.​ Decline in other organisms due to loss of food source;
6.​ If keystone species have cascade effects on food chains and
ecosystem
7.​ Economic costs from loss of ecosystem services provided by the
species
8.​ Economic costs from loss of tourism opportunities
9.​ Social impacts on local culture as important/significant cultural loss.
3.4 Conservation of Biodiversity

Terms Definitions and explanation

Habitat conservation for wild species is one of the most important issues facing the
environment today both in the ocean and on land.
As human populations increase, land use increases and wild species have smaller
spaces for them to live.
Species cannot survive outside of their natural habitat without human intervention such as the
habitats found in a zoo or aquarium.

Ecological ●​ Life-support service value

●​ Keystone species that is removed from the ecosystem can lead to
many other species become extinct

Economic ●​ Species and habitat are direct natural capital

●​ Unknown value in the potential of the species for agriculture,
medicine, genetic diversity and biotechnology

Aesthetic Nature can provide inspiration for all kinds of artworks

Ethical ●​ The idea of good stewardship (looking after the environment) and
sustainable development for the good of future generations
●​ Intrinsic value of the environment or right of individuals or species
to exist

Values

Direct Can be easily calculated

●​ Goods harvested & destroyed for consumption (eating) or sale in
a market
●​ Generally physical commodities of some sort
●​ Private good where value benefits to the owner of the resource

Example 1.​ Food sources (heirloom varieties of many crops)

 2.​ Natural products (medicines, textiles, fertilizers, pesticides, etc)

Indirect More difficult to calculate

●​ Stabilize ecosystem (negative feedback cycle)
●​ Provide benefits buy are not generally harvested/destroyed/sold
●​ Usually services or processes which benefit everyone
●​ Public goods where value benefits to society instead of
individuals

Example 1.​ Ecosystem productivity

-​ Soil aeration, pollination, fertilization, carbon sequestration,
oxygen production, climate regulation
-​ Scientific or educational value
-​ Biological control (negative feedback)
-​ Gene sources
-​ Environmental monitors
-​ Recreation and ecotourism
-​ Human health (future medical applications)
-​ Rights of indigenous peoples
-​ Intrinsic (ethical) value - biorights

Organizations International, governmental, and non-governmental organizations

involved in (NGOs) work to conserve and restore ecosystems and biodiversity.
conservation
Their effectiveness varies due to:
●​ Use of media
●​ Speed of response
●​ Diplomatic constraints
●​ Financial resources
●​ Political influence

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

Intergovernmental organization
-​ Set up Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
-​ Led the Montreal Protocol (phasing out ozone-depleting
substances)
-​ Works within diplomatic and political structures

WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

Non-governmental organization
-​ Global impact in conservation efforts
-​ Uses media and public campaigns to raise awareness
-​ Less restricted by diplomatic constraints compared to UNEP

Others ASEAN, EU, African Union, OPEC (focused on environmental protection)

NGOs like Greenpeace and WWF (have a larger global impact)

Major World Conservation Strategy (WCS) 1980

Conservation Published by IUCN, UNEP and WWF
Strategies and
Conventions Aiming to:
●​ Maintain ecological processes and life-support systems
●​ Preserve genetic diversity
●​ Encouraged international, national and regional conservation
strategies

UN World Charter for Nature 1982

Key principles
●​ Nature must be respected
●​ Genetic viability must not be compromised
●​ These principles apply to all areas on Earth
●​ Ecosystems should be managed sustainably
●​ Nature should be protected from warfare and hostile activities

Rio Earth Summit 1992 (Agenda 21)

179 heads of government signed

Agenda 21 - guide for sustainable development

Four main principles:

1.​ Social and economic dimensions (poverty, population,
development)
2.​ Conservation and management of resources (land, agriculture,
toxic chemicals, etc)
3.​ Strengthening the role of major groups (women, children,
indigenous people, NGOs)
4.​ Meand of implementation (finance, technology, legal measures)

Follow-up Johannesburg Summit (2002)

Summits and Little action resulted from deliberations
Goals
UN Milennium Summit (2000)
Largest world leader gathering
-​ Established Millenium Development Goals

Government ●​ Part of branch of a national, state, department, or local

organizations government
(GO’s) ●​ Ultimately responsible to the voter
●​ Have the authority to prosecute violations with their jurisdiction

Intergovernmental ●​ General a part of multi-national organizations, especially United

Organizations Nations
(IGOs) ●​ Most agreements are not legally binding under international law
but each signatory country is responsible for legislating and
regulating conservation efforts within their own territory
●​ The UN and other IGOs

Non-governmental ●​ Work independently from governments to protect threatened

organizations species and areas
(NGOs) ●​ Frequently form partnerships with GOs and IGOs to more
 effectively reach their targeted goals

Convention on Inspired by the global commitment to sustainable development

Biological
Diversity A major step in:
●​ Conserving biological diversity
●​ Sustainable use of biodiversity components
●​ Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources

Examples:
-​ Multilateral treaty (Biodiversity Convention)
-​ Opened for signature at the Earth SUmmit (Rio de Janeiro, 5
June 1992)
-​ Entered into force on 29 December 1993

Implementation on Actions occur at national, regional and international levels.

Biodiversity
Conventions Different approaches to achieve conservation and sustainable use:
●​ Site-based (protected areas, reserves).
●​ Species-based (endangered species protection).
●​ Genetic resources (access and benefit-sharing).
●​ Ecosystem-based (restoration and sustainable management).

Operational tools used:

●​ Work programmes.
●​ Trade permits and certificates.
●​ Multilateral systems for resource access.
●​ Regional agreements.
●​ Protected site listings.
●​ Conservation funding.

Conservation 1.​ Habitat - protecting ecosystems and natural environments

approaches 2.​ Species-based - focused on protecting individual species
3.​ Mixed approach - combines both habitat and species
conservation

Habitat based Ex-situ

Improve the probability of survival of the species by taking them out of
their habitat and breeding them in captivity with the intention of
re-introducing them back into the wild in the future
-​ Captive breeding in zoos
-​ Botanical gardens and seed banks

Species based In-situ

Focuses on conserving the species in their natural habitat
-​ CITI (Conservation on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora)
-​ Flagship species
-​ Keystone species
Mixed approach Combining both in situ (protected areas) and ex situ (zoos) methods can
be the best

Criteria to design ●​ size - larger space allows for larger populations and gene pools,
protected areas and a wider variety of species
●​ shape - round is better than all other shapes because it reduces
the edge effect
●​ edge effects - less edge is better; edge creates differences in the
structure of an ecosystem, called an ecotone (an area where 2
habitats meet), which influences what may successfully live there.
●​ corridors - provide safe passage between protected areas
●​ proximity - if protected areas are close to other protected areas,
they are more effective than isolated islands

Alternative ways to design protected areas

CITES CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement
between governments set up to protect the many species which
were becoming endangered because of international trade.
●​ To ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals
and plants does not threaten their survival
●​ Sp ecies are group according to how threatened they are by
international trade

1.​ Species cannot be traded internationally as they are threatened

by extinction
2.​ Species can be traded international but within strict regulations
3.​ Species Included at the request of a country which then needs
the cooperation of other countries to help prevent the illegal
exploitation

Captive breeding Captive breeding prevents species from going extinct

and reintroduction Not all species can be kept in captivity

Limitation
●​ expensive and difficult
●​ sometimes habitat is destroyed and makes the reintroduction
impossible
Criticism
●​ waste of money, unnecessary, poorly run, unethical
Benefits
●​ best chance for species survival
●​ creates employment
●​ promotes education

Zoos Criticized for keeping animals in small cages and sometimes

treating them with cruelty.

Benefits
 ●​ Provide jobs and income for research.
●​ Support species protection.
●​ Educate the public to promote biodiversity conservation.

Aesthetic bv Ecological value

●​ Protecting areas of natural beauty.
Supports ecotourism and benefits future generations.

●​ Every species has a role (niche) in the environment.

Species-based approach: Focuses on individual species rather than
whole ecosystems.
Intrinsic value: Species have worth beyond human benefits.

Flagship species Charismatic species used to raise awareness and funds.

Examples
●​ Giant panda
●​ Meerkats
●​ Gorillas

Disadvantages
●​ Take priority over other species.
●​ Risk of extinction if conservation fails.
●​ May conflict with indigenous communities

Keystone species Vital for ecosystem function

Their loss can cause collapse.
●​ Impact is greater than their population size.

Examples
●​ Sea otters (Control sea urchins, protecting kelp forests)
●​ Beavers (Build dams that shape ecosystems)
●​ Elephants (Remove trees that allow grasslands to thrive)

Challenge
Difficult to identify keystone species

Umbrella species Large species needing big habitats.

Protecting them helps many other species.

Example
●​ The Giant panda is both an umbrella and flagship species

Community-Based Conserving biodiversity while benefiting local communities

Conservation
●​ Resource use agreements: Locals have regulated access to
resources
●​ Financial support: Funds provided for infrastructure development
●​ Revenue sharing: Locals receive a percentage of tourism income
Protected Status Granting protected status alone is not enough
of Species &
Ecosystems ●​ Community support for effective enforcement.
●​ Adequate funding for conservation efforts.
●​ Proper research to understand species' needs and threats.

Legislation for Species Protection

Protects wild plants, birds, and animals from harm

Protection levels
Partial protection
●​ Trade restrictions.
●​ Closed seasons to allow population recovery.
Full protection
●​ Disturbing, injuring, or killing even one individual is illegal.
●​ Breeding and sheltering places are also protected.

Review Process
●​ The list of protected species is reviewed every five years.
●​ Species can be added or removed based on updated research
and population status

Criteria for Many protected areas were originally placed on undesirable land (poor
Designing and for farming, far from human settlements, or degraded).
Managing
Protected Areas UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) (1970) created a
network of international reserves in 100+ countries.

Key Criteria for Designing Protected Areas

1.​ Size
Must be large enough to support key species and maintain biodiversity.

2.​ Numbers
How many individuals of an endangered species must be protected to
ensure survival

3.​ Fragmentation
One large reserve
Supports wide-ranging species
Reduces edge effects (fewer boundaries where habitats change)
Provides diverse habitats
Several smaller reserves
Better placement may support more rare species

4.​ Edge Effects

●​ Edge effects occur where two habitats meet (ecotones).
●​ More species at edges → increased predation & competition.
●​ Circular reserves are better (less edge effect) than long, thin ones

5.​ Shape
 ●​ Determined by natural features (mountains, rivers, etc.).
●​ Compact shapes are better to minimize edge effects.

6.​ Proximity
●​ Close reserves allow species movement & genetic diversity.
●​ Too close to humans → risk of conflict & habitat disturbance

7.​ Corridors (Connecting protected areas)

Advantages
●​ Allow gene flow between populations
●​ Support seasonal migration
Disadvantages
●​ Spread of disease
●​ Increased risk of hunting/poaching (harder to monitor)

Buffer Zones
Areas surrounding the core reserve with limited human activity.
●​ Core area: Strictly protected, undisturbed.
●​ Buffer zone: Allows controlled farming, logging, and resource use.

Case Study

Sichuan giant 900,000 hectares of national reserves (World Heritage Site).

panda sanctuary
Home to:
~1,600 giant pandas.
Red pandas, snow leopards, clouded leopards.
~6,000 plant species.
Threat
Habitat loss due to deforestation (bamboo forests being felled)
History
1960s: Early conservation mistakes – Pandas were caged for captive
breeding, but breeding failed.
Now: Improved captive breeding in larger enclosures has increased
success rates.
Evaluation on CITES
Different Strength
Biodiversity It is an international agreement with widespread adoption (183 countries)
Conservation that makes it effective in controlling wildlife trade
Approaches
Weakness
Enforcement is inconsistent with the availability of black markets that
makes bans difficult to enforce

Captive breeding and reintroduction programs

Strength
It can prevent species extinction and restore populations when done
effectively

Weakness
Captive-bred animals may struggle to adapt when reintroducedmthat
makes conservation efforts less successful

Zoos and Aesthetic vs. Ecological Value

Strength
Public education and funding help conservation efforts beyond just
keeping animals in enclosures

Weakness
Some species suffer in captivity which raise ethical concerns and
questioning actual conservation benefits