T ELEOPERATED S OFT V INE G ROWING ROBOT

A Project Report
Submitted by

AMAL KRISHNA JEC21MC006

GRACE MARIA GEORGE JEC21MC011
SUDHEESH DEVADAS LJEC21MC028
to
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech)
in
M ECHATRONICS E NGINEERING

Under the guidance of

M R . JAIN VARGHESE

D EPARTMENT OF M ECHATRONICS E NGINEERING

April 2025
 DECLARATION

We the undersigned hereby declare that the project report ”Teleoperated Soft Vine Growing
Robot ”, submitted for partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
Bachelor of Technology of the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, Kerala is a
bonafide work done by us under the supervision of Mr. Jain Varghese. This submission
represents our ideas in our own words and where ideas or words of others have been included,
we have adequately and accurately cited and referenced the original sources. We also declare
that we have adhered to ethics of academic honesty and integrity and have not misrepresented
or fabricated any data or idea or fact or source in this submission. We understand that
any violation of the above will be a cause for disciplinary action by the institute and/or
the University and can also evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been
properly cited or from whom proper permission has not been obtained. This report has not
been previously used by anybody as a basis for the award of any degree, diploma or similar
title of any other University.

Name of Students Signature

AMAL KRISHNA (JEC21MC006)
GRACE MARIA GEORGE (JEC21MC011)
SUDHEESH DEVADAS (LJEC21MC028)

Place:
Date:
 D EPARTMENT OF M ECHATRONICS E NGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the report entitled “ TELEOPERATED SOFT VINE

GROWING ROBOT ” submitted by AMAL KRISHNA(JEC21MC006), GRACE
MARIA GEORGE(JEC21MC011), SUDHEESH DEVADAS(LJEC21MC028) to the
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the award of the Degree in Bachelor of Technology in Mechatronics Engineering is
a bonafide record of the project work carried out by them under my/our guidance and
supervision. This report in any form has not been submitted to any other University or
Institute for any purpose.

Mr. Jain Varghese Dr. Anoopa Jose Chittilappilly

Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Internal Supervisor Head of the Department
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to thank everyone who helped us profusely, for the successful
completion of our project work. With prayers, we thank God Almighty for his grace and
blessings, for without his unseen guidance, this project would have remained only in our
dreams.

We thank the Management of Jyothi Engineering College and our Principal, Dr. Jose P.
Therattil for providing all the facilities to carry out this project work. We are grateful to the
Head of the Department Dr. Anoopa Jose Chittilappilly for her valuable suggestions and
encouragement to carry out this project work.

We would like to express my whole hearted gratitude to the project guide Mr. Jain
Varghese for his encouragement, support and guidance in the right direction during the entire
project work.

We thank our Project Coordinators Mr. Jinesh K J , & Mr. Ashik M S for their constant
encouragement during the entire project work. We extend my gratefulness to all teaching and
non teaching staff members who directly or indirectly involved in the successful completion
of this project work.

Finally, We take this opportunity to express our gratitude to the parents for their love, care
and support and also to our friends who have been constant sources of support and inspiration
for completing this project work.

ii
 VISION OF THE INSTITUTE
Creating eminent and ethical leaders through quality professional education with
emphasis on holistic excellence.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

• To emerge as an institution par excellence of global standards by imparting quality
Engineering and other professional programmes with state-of-the-art facilities.

• To equip the students with appropriate skills for a meaningful career in the global
scenario.

• To inculcate ethical values among students and ignite their passion for holistic
excellence through social initiatives.

• To participate in the development of society through technology incubation,

entrepreneurship and industry interaction.

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

Create eminent and ethical leaders committed to profession and society in the field of
Mechatronics through quality profesional education to excel in industrial automation and
innovation

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To impart an orientation to meet the challenges of the modern industry and provide
motivation for research
To provide quality education to create graduates with professional and social commitment.

iii
 PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PEO 1: Graduates shall possess fundamental and advanced knowledge in electronics,

electrical and mechanical along with fundamental knowledge in mathematics,
basic sciences and computer programming to analyze and solve the challenges
related to automation.

PEO 2: Graduates shall have ability to design and create novel solutions with modern
tool usage which lead to a lifelong learning or higher qualification, making
them experts in their profession.

PEO 3: Graduates shall have the ability to work in a multidisciplinary environment

with good professional and ethical commitment.

iv
 PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

Graduate possess -
PSO 1: Professional skills: Associate the concepts related to electrical, electronics,
Mechanical, Robotics, Control and Instrumentation to solve the challenges of
modern industries.

PSO 2: Problem solving ability: Analyze and design systems with modern tools for
the benefit of the society.

v
 PROGRAMME OUTCOMES

Engineering graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

vi
 COURSE OUTCOMES

COs Description
Model and solve real world problems by applying knowledge across
CO1
domains.
Develop products, processes or technologies for sustainable and socially
CO2
relevant applications.
Function effectively of an individual and as a leader in diverse terms and to
CO3
comprehend and execute designated tasks.
Plan and execute tasks utilizing available resources within timelines,
CO4
following ethical and professional norms.
CO5 Identify technology/research gaps and process innovate/creative solutions.
Organize and communicate technical and scientific findings effectively in
CO6
written and oral forms.

CO MAPPING TO POs
POs
COs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2
CO2 2 2 2 1 3 3 1 1 1 1
CO3 3 2 2 1
CO4 2 3 2 2 3 2
CO5 2 3 3 1 2 1
CO6 2 2 2 3 1 1
Average 1 1.16 1.16 0.33 1.5 0.83 1.16 1.5 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33

vii
CO MAPPING TO PSOs
PSOs
COs PSO1 PSO2
CO1 3
CO2 3 3
CO3
CO4 3 3
CO5 3 3
CO6
Average 1.5 2

viii
 ABSTRACT

Disaster search and rescue operations are critical for locating and aiding victims in the
aftermath of catastrophic events, particularly those induced by earthquakes. Current detection
techniques, such as wheeled robots, drone surveillance, dog sniffing, and patrolling excavation,
have proven to be inefficient, inaccurate, time-consuming, and potentially destructive. This
calls for the development of new strategies that can effectively navigate and explore disaster
areas while improving sensing capabilities. One promising solution is the introduction of a
soft growing vine robot equipped with simultaneous localization and mapping technology for
disaster search and rescue operations. This emerging field of robotics offers unique advantages,
as the soft vine robot can navigate through complex, confined spaces and reach areas that
traditional robots may struggle to access. Extensive research has been conducted to compare
various active steering mechanisms, including pneumatic artificial muscles, latches, magnetic
actuators, and pull cable actuators, to determine the most suitable approach for the soft vine
robot. These studies have provided valuable insights into the design and implementation of
such a system, paving the way for a more effective and efficient disaster search and rescue
solution.

ix
 CONTENTS

List of Figures xii

List of Abbrevations xiii
1 Introduction 1
1.0.1 Biomimicry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.0.2 Soft Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.0.3 SLAM-based Victim Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Literature Survey 3
2.1 APAM: Antagonistic Pneumatic Artificial Muscle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Vine Robots: Design, Teleoperation, and Deployment for Navigation and
Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 RoBoa: Construction and Evaluation of a Steerable Vine Robot for Search
and Rescue Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 Hybrid Vine Robot With Internal Steering-Reeling Mechanism Enhances
System-Level Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Pneumatic Reel Actuator: Design, Modeling, and Implementation . . . . . 9
2.6 Present and future of SLAM in extreme environments: The DARPA SubT
Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3 Methodology 13
3.1 Properties of Vine Robots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2.1 Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.2 Steering Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.3 Types of Pneumatic Artificial Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.1 Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.1.1 Soft Body Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.1.2 Base Station Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3.2 Material Selection & Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

x
 3.3.3 Base Equations and Parameter Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.4 Obstacle Interaction Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.4.1 Frictional Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.4.2 Axial Buckling Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.4.3 Transverse Buckling Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.5 Motor Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3.6 Block Diagram and Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3.7 Operational Workflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3.8 Circuit Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4.1 Air Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.2 Solenoid Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4.3 Pneumatic FRL Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.4 10 RPM Gear Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.5 L298N Motor Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4.6 4-Channel Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4.7 Joystick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4 Results & Discussion 32
4.1 Development of the soft vine robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.1.1 Base Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.1.2 Roller Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.1.3 Airflow Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2 Buckling Force Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.3 Frictional Force vs. Internal Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4 Pressure vs Path Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.4.0.1 Possible Reasons for the Discrepancy: . . . . . . . . . 37
5 Conclusion & Future Scope 39
5.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.2 Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References 41

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.

1.1 Biomimicry [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Example of soft robot [2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 SLAM-based Victim Detection [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.1 Overview of working of vine robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Process flow of vine robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 sPAM attatched to soft vine robot [4] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.4 Block Diagram of working of vine robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 Flowchart of control flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6 Circuit diagram of motor control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.7 Air Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.8 Solenoid Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.9 Pneumatic FRL Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.10 Gear Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.11 L298N Motor Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.12 4-Channel Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.13 Joystick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1 Soft Vine Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 Base Station for Soft Vine Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.3 Buckling Force vs Path Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.4 Frictional Force vs. Internal Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.5 Pressure vs Path Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

xii
 LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

JECC Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy

MRE Mechatronics Engineering
sPAM Series Pouch Actuating Muscles
SMA Shape Memory Alloy
POCAM Pneumatic Operated Contractile Artificial Muscle
PHA Pneumatic Hybrid Actuators
APAM Antagonastic Pneumatic Artificial Muscles
SLAM Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
SubT Subterranean
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
M3RM Multi-Modal Multi-Robot Mapping
LAMP Large-scale Autonomous Mapping and Positioning
IMU Inertial Measurement Unit
UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
SDF Signed Distance Function
GICP Generalized Iterative Closest Point
ICP Iterative Closest Point
LIO-SAM Lidar Inertial Odometry via Smoothing and Mapping
ROS Robot Operating System
PCL Point Cloud Library
LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging

xiii
Chapter 1. Introduction 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, advancements in robotics have enabled significant innovations in search

and rescue operations, particularly in environments affected by natural disasters, where
accessibility and safety are paramount. Traditional rigid robots often face limitations when
navigating through debris-filled spaces. In contrast, soft robots, inspired by nature, offer
adaptable and resilient solutions. The development of an autonomous soft vine robot with
SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) technology aims to address these challenges
by creating a system capable of maneuvering through complex environments, detecting
victims, and providing real-time situational awareness [5].

1.0.1 Biomimicry
Biomimicry has played a fundamental role in the design of the soft vine robot, which
mimics the growth mechanism of vine plants and the flexibility of soft-bodied organisms. By
emulating the principles of nature, the robot can extend its body to reach inaccessible areas
and navigate tight spaces. This nature-inspired approach allows for greater adaptability and
resilience, making the robot suitable for unpredictable disaster environments [6].

Figure 1.1: Biomimicry [1]

1.0.2 Soft Robotics

Soft robotics is a rapidly growing field that emphasizes the use of flexible and deformable
materials to allow smooth and compliant movements. Unlike traditional robots, which rely on
rigid structures, soft robots are better suited to interact safely with unpredictable surroundings
and delicate structures. The soft vine robot utilizes a novel material design and a pneumatic

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 1. Introduction 2

actuation system, which enables it to ”grow” into challenging spaces, reducing the risk of
further damage to collapsed structures during rescue operations [7].

Figure 1.2: Example of soft robot [2]

1.0.3 SLAM-based Victim Detection

SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) technology enables the robot to map its
surroundings in real-time, even in GPS-denied environments, making it highly effective in
disaster-stricken areas. Equipped with advanced sensors, the SLAM-based system can detect
victims based on various cues, such as thermal signatures or gas emissions. This capability
allows for precise localization and mapping, which is crucial in guiding rescuers to trapped
individuals with minimal delay [8].

Figure 1.3: SLAM-based Victim Detection [3]

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 3

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 APAM: Antagonistic Pneumatic Artificial Muscle

Pneumatic Artificial Muscles (PAMs) have gained popularity in robotics due to their
ability to store energy in compressed air, resulting in movement with high force-to-weight
ratios and speeds. Despite these advantages, traditional PAMs like the McKibben actuator
have limitations such as low extension ratios and the inability to apply pushing forces. The
Antagonistic Pneumatic Artificial Muscle (APAM) addresses these limitations by offering
high extension ratios, the ability to apply both pushing and pulling forces, and independent
control of length and stiffness [9].

Working Principle
The APAM operates using two concentric tubes made from flexible but inextensible
material. These tubes form inner and outer chambers, which can be independently pressurized.
Positive pressure in the inner chamber extends the actuator, while negative pressure (vacuum)
retracts it. The outer chamber can exert either an extending or retracting force depending on
the actuator’s length relative to a critical length. This antagonistic action allows for precise
control of the actuator’s length and stiffness independently.

Design
The APAM is designed with two nested tubes and rings or disks placed along the length to
constrain the diameter of the inner tube. This configuration creates an inner chamber within
the inner tube and an outer chamber between the inner and outer tubes [10]. The use of
thin-walled, minimally extensible material ensures the actuator can achieve high deformation
with low hysteresis. The design enables the actuator to completely collapse when shortened,
contributing to its high extension ratio.

Modeling
The theoretical model of the APAM is based on the principle of virtual work, which
relates the pressures and volumes of the inner and outer chambers to the actuator’s force and
displacement. By assuming the membranes form a circular arc shape, the model calculates
the changes in chamber volumes and their contributions to the actuator’s length and stiffness
[11]. This model has been validated with experimental data, showing accurate predictions of
force-displacement characteristics.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 4

Fabrication
Various materials and fabrication methods have been used to construct the APAM. These
include low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and silicone-impregnated reinforced nylon. The
assembly involves inserting laser-cut acrylic disks or superelastic Nitinol wire loops inside
the inner membrane to maintain its shape. The outer membrane is secured with strings, and
air supply tubes are inserted to pressurize the chambers. This construction allows for high
flexibility and robustness in the actuator design.

Experimental Results
Experiments conducted on the APAM demonstrated its capabilities and validated the
theoretical model. Load displacement curves showed that the actuator could exert large forces
and maintain a high extension ratio. The ability to independently control length and stiffness
was also confirmed, with experimental data showing various length-stiffness combinations.
A maximum strain of 1400% was achieved, highlighting the actuator’s significant extension
capabilities [12].
The APAM provides a unique set of characteristics, including high elongation, the ability
to apply both pushing and pulling forces, and independent control of length and stiffness.
These features make it suitable for advanced robotic applications such as compliant truss
robots. Future work aims to improve material durability, analyze bending and buckling
stiffness, and integrate APAMs into mobile compliant robots.

2.2 Vine Robots: Design, Teleoperation, and Deployment for Navigation

and Exploration
The vine robot presented by Margaret et al. (2020) is designed with specific features
to address challenges in teleoperated navigation, adaptability in unstructured environments,
and portability for field deployment. The robot’s unique capabilities stem from its modular
design, which includes a pneumatically driven main body for growth, series pouch actuators
for steering, and a flexible joystick interface for intuitive human control.

1. Design Overview
The robot’s design is composed of three primary subsystems:

• Main Body and Actuators: The body consists of a central tube responsible for growth
through air pressure and three surrounding pouch actuators. These actuators, formed
by heat-sealing sections along the main tube, allow the robot to bend in the desired
direction by selectively inflating each pouch. This arrangement provides a compliant
structure capable of adjusting its shape to navigate through constrained paths.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 5

• Base Station: Contains the air compressor, pressure regulators, motorized spool, and
control circuitry. The motorized spool controls growth and retraction, while pressure
regulators manage the inflation of both the main body and steering pouches.

• Joystick Interface: A flexible joystick mimics the robot’s form factor and is equipped
with an IMU to capture orientation data, which translates into corresponding commands
for robot steering and growth.

2. Block Diagram
The system can be represented in a block diagram with three major components:

1. Human Interface: Joystick → IMU sensor → Arduino controller.

2. Base Station: Motorized spool, air compressor, pressure regulators.

3. Robot Body: Main tube for growth, actuators for steering, camera at the tip for
feedback.

3. Working Principle
The working principle of the vine robot involves coordinated control of growth and
steering based on human inputs:

• Growth Control: Pressurizing the main body tube results in outward growth via
eversion, where the stored tubular material unrolls from a spool. The speed of growth
is controlled by balancing the main tube pressure with motor speed [13].

• Steering Mechanism: The IMU in the joystick detects the desired curvature and
bending direction. This data is processed to control the pressure in each pouch motor,
allowing the robot to bend along two degrees of freedom and achieve smooth, adaptive
movement in real-time.

• Teleoperation and Feedback: Real-time visual feedback from the camera at the robot’s
tip enables the operator to adjust movements based on the environment, facilitating
navigation in spaces that lack a direct line of sight.

4. Specifications
• Body Material: The main body is constructed from low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) for the competition variant (10 m length, 5 cm diameter) and thermoplastic
polyurethane-coated nylon for archaeological applications (7.5 m length, 7.5 cm
diameter).

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 6

• Growth Mechanism: Eversion-based with pneumatic pressure, allowing the robot to

extend at up to 10 cm/s, with a maximum pressure of 14-21 kPa depending on the
deployment environment.

• Steering Actuators: Three pouch motors around the main body provide 2 degrees of
freedom in curvature control, with a steering pressure of up to 21 kPa.

• Control and Interface: Arduino-based control system with joystick, IMU sensors,
motor driver, and pressure regulators.

• Camera: A wide-angle camera with LED lighting mounted at the tip for real-time video
feedback in occluded environments, allowing the operator to visualize surroundings
during exploration.

This system enables the vine robot to navigate complex, confined environments effectively,
making it suitable for applications in search and rescue, archaeological exploration, and other
fields that demand flexible, non-destructive access.

2.3 RoBoa: Construction and Evaluation of a Steerable Vine Robot for

Search and Rescue Applications
The RoBoa robot is developed to address the critical need for efficient and safe search and
rescue (SaR) operations in environments affected by natural disasters such as earthquakes and
landslides. Traditional methods involving rescue dogs and rudimentary tools often fall short,
particularly in locating unconscious victims under unstable debris. RoBoa aims to improve the
speed, safety, and reliability of these operations by leveraging vine robot principles, enabling
it to navigate narrow and cluttered environments where other robotic systems might fail [14].

Related Work
SaR robots have seen various implementations, each with unique advantages and
limitations:

• Drones can map areas and detect people on the surface but cannot penetrate debris.

• Track-based robots can traverse rough terrain but struggle with deeper debris due to
the need for cables or unreliable wireless connections.

• Wheel-based and legged robots face similar connectivity and mobility issues within
debris [15].

Vine robots offer a solution to these challenges by employing a growing mechanism that
minimizes friction against the environment. Traditional vine robots, like those described by
Hawkes et al., use an everting tube mechanism. However, existing vine robots that employ

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 7

body-steered designs with series pouch motors are difficult to manufacture and extend due to
the complexity of controlling the shape of the entire tube [16].

Design
RoBoa introduces several innovations to enhance the functionality of vine robots in SaR
operations:

• Everting Tube: The propulsion mechanism uses a furled tube made from ripstop nylon.
The tube everts by pressurizing it with air, reducing friction with the environment.
Challenges include managing internal friction and maintaining sensor and head stability
at the everting tip [17].

• Supply Box: The supply box houses the rolled-up tube, power systems, and
computation units, and provides pressurized air. It is designed to remain outside
the debris, with a weight manageable by two adults [18].

• Length and Steerability: RoBoa can extend up to 17 meters, a 70% increase over
previous designs, while maintaining steerability. The steering mechanism is independent
of the robot’s length. Utilizing pneumatic actuators placed at the front of the robot
for precise control, allowing the robot to steer by changing its shape locally rather
than along its entire length. This design significantly reduces the bending radius
and simplifies manufacturing. Controlled by 3D-printed pneumatic actuators at the
robot’s front, lateral movement is achieved through precise control of air pressure in
the actuators. A decentralized control scheme minimizes the number of required cables
and simplifies system management [19].

• Pressure Supply: The robot includes a moving valve terminal for pressure supply,
ensuring that only one pressure tube is needed, which simplifies the system’s operation
and reduces potential failure points.

• Sensors and Control: The robot’s head contains essential sensors, including a camera
and IMU, and is mounted with an interlocking mechanism to maintain stability. The
control system uses a PID controller to manage actuator pressures based on feedback
from draw-wire sensors.

Real-world Evaluation
RoBoa was tested in a realistic debris environment, successfully navigating a 10-meter path
with obstacles and turns to locate a hidden person, demonstrating its operational capability in
SaR scenarios [18].

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 8

Characterization of Capabilities
The robot can move forward at a speed of up to 6 meters per minute and can bend up to
120laterally. However, backward movement is currently not supported. The head’s diameter
is 101mm, fitting within the constraints of typical SaR entry points [20].

2.4 Hybrid Vine Robot With Internal Steering-Reeling Mechanism

Enhances System-Level Capabilities
Continuum robots possess high degrees of freedom and the ability to move safely in
constrained environments. A particular type of soft continuum robot is the “vine” robot, which
extends from its tip by unfurling new material driven by internal body pressure. Traditional
vine robots store this material in a reel at their base, passing it through the robot’s core to
the tip, and steer by selectively lengthening or shortening one side of the body. However,
this method has three main limitations: (i) internal friction of the material passing through
the core limits the robot’s length in tortuous paths, (ii) body buckling when the material is
re-spooled at the base can prevent retraction, and (iii) constant curvature steering restricts
the robot’s poses and object approach angles in a given workspace. This study presents a
hybrid soft-rigid robotic system that combines a soft vine robot body with a rigid, mobile,
internal steering-reeling mechanism (SRM). The SRM is equipped with a reel for material
storage, a bending actuator for steering, and is capable of actuating the robot at any point
along its length. This configuration increases reach along tortuous paths, allows retraction,
and expands the workspace. The paper describes the motivation for this device, develops
mathematical models, presents operational methods, and verifies the models and performance
improvements through experiments.

Concept
The proposed hybrid vine robot consists of a soft vine robot body and a rigid, mobile
internal steering-reeling mechanism (SRM). The SRM fits inside the vine robot body with
sufficient radial clearance to allow for sliding and inflation. It comprises two segments
connected by a revolute joint, enabling the SRM to control the vine robot body’s length by
spooling in or out material and steering by rotating the segments relative to each other. The
steering motor can bend and hold the robot at 120 degrees in both directions from the nominal
straight state, allowing for point deflections and creating two arbitrary length segments. The
SRM operation involves adjusting internal pressure and the spool to either extend the robot
body or move the SRM forward to navigate around obstacles and retract the robot when
needed [21].

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 9

Modeling
The mathematical modeling of the hybrid vine robot is divided into three sections: length
limitations, retraction, and workspace analysis. Traditional vine robots, which store body
material on a reel at their base, experience exponentially increasing friction with the total
path angle, limiting their length in tortuous paths. The presented concept circumvents this
by spooling body material at the tip, with the length limited by the material capacity on
the SRM reel. Retraction forces are modeled to account for internal pressure, friction, and
material-dependent constants, ensuring the SRM can retract the robot without buckling.
Workspace analysis utilizes PRP (Prismatic-Revolute-Prismatic) kinematics to describe the
robot’s reachable space, both obstacle-free and with multiple obstacles, highlighting the
enhanced workspace and approach angles provided by the SRM design.

Results
Experiments were conducted to compare the performance of the hybrid vine robot with
traditional base-reeling vine robots. Results showed that the pressure required to grow the
SRM-equipped robot remained constant in tortuous paths, unlike the exponential increase
observed in traditional designs. The spool geometry model was validated, showing accurate
predictions of robot length based on spool radius. The SRM movement was tested to determine
the pressure thresholds for movement and retraction, confirming the expected behavior. The
workspace experiments demonstrated the enhanced reachable space and tip orientations of the
hybrid vine robot, particularly when interacting with obstacles, aligning with the theoretical
models.

2.5 Pneumatic Reel Actuator: Design, Modeling, and Implementation

The paper, by Zachary M. Hammond et al., presents the Pneumatic Reel Actuator (PRA),
a novel pneumatic actuator characterized by its extensibility, lightweight nature, capability
to operate in both compression and tension, compliance, and cost-effectiveness. The PRA
can reach extension ratios greater than 16:1, has a force-to-weight ratio over 28:1, can reach
speeds of 0.87 meters per second, and can be constructed with parts costing less than $4
USD. This actuator is particularly suitable for self-deformable modular robotic systems, with
potential applications in areas like space exploration and search-and-rescue operations.
The design of the PRA emphasizes ease of fabrication and cost-effectiveness. The actuator
is made primarily using 3D printing technology. Two versions of the PRA were created: one
using a Makerbot printer for a simple and inexpensive build, and another with ball bearings to
reduce friction using a Projet printer [22].

Materials and Components

• Reel: Spools flat tubing, houses ball bearings, and torsion springs.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 10

• Back Plate: Prevents tubing from unraveling and guides it on and off the reel.

• Arbor: Transfers rotational motion to the torsion springs.

• Cap: Restricts motion of the torsion springs and prevents debris entry.

The PRA works by retracting tubing onto a reel with torsion springs when unpressurized,
and extending the tubing to form a stiff cylindrical beam when pressurized. A plastic insert
increases rigidity when the tubing is inflated.

Modeling
The modeling of the PRA is based on an analytical framework that considers energy
balance, spring force as a function of actuator length, and beam stiffness. Key equations used
in the modeling include:

Experimental Results
Several experiments were conducted to validate the PRA model:

• Set Mass of Air: Measured external force at various lengths for different air masses.
The actuator’s force behavior in both tensile and compressive states was analyzed.

• Set Length: Recorded force output at fixed lengths with varying pressures, relevant for
controlling robotic systems.

• Set Force: Measured actuator length under different loads and pressures, relevant for
moving constant loads to various positions.

• Actuation Speed Demonstrated the PRA’s speed, reaching an extension rate of 0.87
meters per second.

• Beam Stiffness: Evaluated the failure loads for beams under axial and transverse
loading, showing that the experimental data matched theoretical predictions.

2.6 Present and future of SLAM in extreme environments: The DARPA

SubT Challenge
The DARPA Subterranean (SubT) Challenge has significantly advanced autonomous
SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) technologies designed for underground
exploration [23]. Each competing team developed unique SLAM architectures to address
the extreme conditions of subterranean environments. This literature survey provides an
overview of the approaches taken by various teams, the rationale behind their methods, and
their respective advantages and limitations. The following are the various teams that have
competed in the challenge:

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 11

Team CERBERUS
Team CERBERUS adopted a multi-sensor fusion approach, employing the CompSLAM
system, which integrates data from visual, thermal, inertial, and LIDAR sensors for odometry
and mapping [5]. Their system is highly robust in visually degraded environments (e.g.,
low-light, smoke-filled areas), achieved by a hierarchical fusion of sensor inputs. CERBERUS
also utilized the M3RM server for centralized multirobot mapping, ensuring synchronized
updates across all robots. This architecture, with its redundancy, mitigates single-sensor
failures and is well-suited to challenging environments. However, the reliance on centralized
map updates could potentially limit scalability in communication-constrained settings.

Team CoSTAR
CoSTAR’s SLAM system, called LAMP (Large-scale Autonomous Mapping and
Positioning), employs a decentralized approach. Each robot generates its own map and
shares it with a base station [10]. The single-robot front-end integrates multiple sensors,
such as LIDAR and IMU, while the multirobot back-end uses loop closures and pose graph
optimization to maintain global consistency. By decentralizing the initial mapping, CoSTAR
reduces dependency on the base station for real-time operations, balancing local autonomy
with centralized optimization. However, this system requires stable connectivity to maximize
the effectiveness of loop closures across larger areas.

Team CSIRO
CSIRO developed the Wildcat SLAM system, a decentralized architecture that uses
dense LIDAR-based surfel mapping combined with IMU data [5]. This approach allows
high robustness in confined and complex spaces while supporting real-time performance.
Wildcat’s decentralized design is supported by Mule, a peer-to-peer communication system
for synchronizing maps, making it particularly resilient in environments with limited
connectivity. The surfel-based mapping provides detailed environmental data, though it
increases computational requirements, which can impact real-time performance in larger
areas.

Team CTU-CRAS-Norlab
Team CTU-CRAS-Norlab employed distinct SLAM architectures for ground and aerial
vehicles. The ground vehicles used Norlab ICP Mapper for LIDAR-based mapping, which is
optimized for drift reduction, while the aerial vehicles relied on an adapted version of LOAM
(LIDAR Odometry and Mapping) for UAVs [5]. This tailored approach emphasizes precision
by optimizing separately for each vehicle type, allowing greater adaptability to their specific
operational requirements. However, the lack of loop closure detection could result in drift
over long distances, potentially impacting map accuracy in extended tunnels.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 2. Literature Survey 12

Team Explorer
Explorer’s SLAM system is built around Super Odometry (SO), a factor graph-based
odometry method combining multiple odometry sources, including thermal and visual fusion
[9]. This method was selected for its ability to achieve high accuracy with minimal drift
over long distances. The system includes a loop-closing back-end to address cumulative
drift, crucial for extended missions. Explorer’s approach is effective for maintaining accuracy
across long traversals, though it requires periodic recalibration and reliable loop closure
detection to ensure mapping consistency over time.

Team MARBLE
Team MARBLE implemented a tightly-coupled SLAM system using LIO-SAM, which
fuses IMU data with LOAM-based LIDAR features. LIO-SAM outputs individual robot
poses, while a custom voxel-based Octomap system supports decentralized map merging
[5]. This design facilitates efficient, decentralized operation with lightweight data sharing
through compressed map updates. However, the voxel-based maps may limit the level of
detail, making it less suitable for applications requiring extremely precise mapping.
The APAM and the hybrid vine robot with an internal steering-reeling mechanism
present groundbreaking advancements in robotic design, offering unique features such as
high elongation, independent control of length and stiffness, and the ability to navigate
complex environments. The APAM’s potential for integration into compliant truss robots
and mobile compliant robots highlights its versatility and future applicability in advanced
robotics. Similarly, the hybrid vine robot overcomes significant limitations of previous
designs, enhancing its suitability for intricate applications such as archaeology, aircraft
interiors, nuclear facilities, and medical procedures.
The PRA (Pneumatic Robotic Actuator) provides a balance of extensibility, lightweight
design, cost-effectiveness, and compliance, making it ideal for modular robotics and larger
self-deformable robotic systems. The exploration of variations in geometry and materials for
different scales further underscores its adaptability for various applications.
The advancements in SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) specifically
tailored for subterranean environments, as detailed in this report, underscore the importance of
addressing the unique challenges posed by underground settings. The comprehensive review
of algorithms, architectures, and systems from the DARPA Subterranean Challenge, with a
focus on LIDAR-based SLAM, multi-robot operations, and practical constraints, provides
valuable insights and identifies areas for enhancement and ongoing research.
Integrating these technologies into a unified system holds the potential to significantly
enhance the capabilities and applications of autonomous soft vine robots for disaster search
and rescue.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 13

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Teleoperated Soft Vine Growing Robot presents the design and development of a
vine-inspired robot that utilizes flexible materials and pneumatic actuation for both movement
and steering. The robot’s main body is constructed from LDPE (Low-Density Polyethylene)
sheets, chosen for their lightweight and flexible properties, allowing the body to extend and
retract in a manner similar to a growing vine. The base frame is made from 4kg/cm² PVC
pipes, providing structural stability, with a 10rpm gear motor driving a spool mechanism.
The spool is connected to the motor via a coupler, and when air pressure is supplied to the
base frame, the main body extends. In addition to this, the robot employs two pneumatic
actuators ”sPAM”. These actuators are heat-sealed into pouches, allowing air to flow through
and create muscle-like contractions. Each spam is half the size of the main body and attached
to the robot to provide steering control. By varying air pressure in either spam, the robot can
steer in the opposite direction, offering dynamic movement and responsive steering. This
design integrates soft robotics principles, utilizing flexible materials and pneumatic systems
to create an adaptable robot with the potential for applications in navigation, exploration, and
environments where flexible movement is necessary.

3.1 Properties of Vine Robots

Vine robots are characterized by their unique mode of locomotion and structural properties,
making them suitable for navigating confined and cluttered environments. Key properties
include:

• Eversion-based Locomotion: Movement by everting a tubular structure from the

inside out, reducing external friction.

• Flexibility and Adaptability: Ability to navigate through narrow passages and around
obstacles due to their soft and deformable nature.

• Scalability: Capable of extending their length significantly, making them suitable for
reaching victims in large debris fields.

• Minimal Environmental Impact: Low impact on surrounding structures, reducing the

risk of further collapse or disturbance.

3.2 Implementation
The implementation of the autonomous soft vine robot includes detailed considerations of
its working mechanism, steering capabilities, and system integration. In a disaster scenario,

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 14

Figure 3.1: Overview of working of vine robot

the vine robot demonstrates exceptional capabilities by navigating through complex and
hazardous environments to reach its destination. The robot’s unique design, featuring a soft
vine body combined with a rigid internal steering-reeling mechanism (SRM), allows it to
adapt to various challenging conditions typically encountered in disaster sites.
When deployed, the robot begins by extending its body from a compact form, unfurling
new material from its tip. This process enables the robot to lengthen and maneuver through
narrow and constrained spaces without displacing debris or causing additional damage to the
surroundings. The SRM, housed within the vine robot body, plays a crucial role in controlling
the robot’s movement. By adjusting the internal pressure and manipulating the spool, the
SRM extends or retracts the vine body as needed.
As the robot encounters obstacles, such as collapsed structures or dense rubble, it utilizes
its bending actuator to steer around or over these impediments. The robot’s ability to create
sharp bends and hold the robot at specific angles allows for precise navigation through tight
passages and around corners. This flexibility is particularly beneficial in environments where
traditional rigid robots would struggle to operate.
The robot’s capability to reduce its profile and squeeze through gaps further enhances
its effectiveness in disaster scenarios. By decreasing the internal pressure, the vine robot

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 15

can compress its body and move through spaces as small as its own diameter. Once past the
obstacle, the robot can re-inflate and continue its mission.

3.2.1 Working
The working principle of the vine robot involves the eversion of a flexible tube to propel
itself forward. This is achieved by pressurizing the tube, causing it to unfurl from a coiled
state within a supply box. It consists of three series-connected pouch motors. Each motor is
connected to a tube, and proportional pressure is applied to each tube, enabling directional
control of the robot. Changes in pressure allow the robot to maneuver through obstacles. A
SLAM sensor module at the tip maps the area while actively searching for deceased humans.

Figure 3.2: Process flow of vine robot

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 16

3.2.2 Steering Mechanism

The steering mechanism relies on series pouch pneumatic actuators located at the length
of the robot. These actuators bend the tube by inflating different sides, enabling the robot to
turn and maneuver around obstacles. The steering is controlled by a decentralized system that
minimizes the number of cables required, enhancing the robot’s flexibility and range [1].

Figure 3.3: sPAM attatched to soft vine robot [4]

3.2.3 Types of Pneumatic Artificial Muscles

1. McKibben Artificial Muscle A flexible rubber tube encased in a braided mesh.
Inflation causes expansion, with the mesh limiting radial expansion, leading to contraction
along the length [24].
2. Helical or Twist Artificial Muscle: A rubber tube twisted into a helical shape. Inflation
causes the tube to untwist, generating expansion and contraction.
3. Spherical Artificial Muscle: A spherical structure that expands uniformly in all
directions when inflated.
4. Pneumatic Bellow Muscle: Pleated bellows expand and contract when air is pumped
in or out [2].
5. Soft Composite Pneumatic Muscle: Composed of elastomers or silicone composites,
expanding and contracting in response to pneumatic pressure.
6. Fiber-Reinforced Pneumatic Artificial Muscle: A fiber-reinforced bladder inflated
by pneumatic pressure to control expansion and contraction.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 17

7. Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)-Enhanced Pneumatic Muscle: Combines pneumatic

inflation with SMA, which changes shape in response to temperature or stress [22].
8. Antagonistic Pneumatic Artificial Muscles: Pairs of PAMs working in opposition,
mimicking antagonistic muscle pairs (e.g., biceps and triceps) [25].
9. Series Pouch Pneumatic Artificial Muscle (SPAM): A flexible pouch structure
inflates to expand, deforming in multiple directions.
10. Pneumatic Operated Contractile Artificial Muscle (POCAM): A linear actuator
that generates contractile force by inflating a flexible chamber [26].
11. Pneumatic Hybrid Actuators (PHA): Combines pneumatic muscles with other
actuators like electric motors or SMAs.

3.3 Design
3.3.1 Constraints
3.3.1.1 Soft Body Specifications

The soft-bodied robot must meet the following constraints:

• Diameter: 12.7 cm (0.127 m)

• Length: 2.5 m

• Tube velocity: 1 cm/s (0.01 m/s)

• Material: Thin LDPE tube

• Thickness: 0.0004 m (400 microns)

• Density: 0.93 – 0.97 g/cm³

• Yield pressure: 0.20 MPa ≈ 30 psi (from Barlow’s equation)

• Yield strength: 28 MPa

3.3.1.2 Base Station Material

• PVC material (rated at 4 kg/cm² pressure)

3.3.2 Material Selection & Justification

Soft Body Material: LDPE (High-Density Polyethylene)

• Lightweight: Low density (0.93 – 0.97 g/cm³) ensures minimal weight for mobility.

• High Flexibility: Allows eversion through curves and obstacles.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 18

• High Yield Pressure: 30 psi (determined using Barlow’s equation) ensures it can
withstand high internal pressures without rupture.

• Thin-Walled Design: 400-micron thickness minimizes material resistance while

maintaining structural integrity.

Base Station Material: PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)

• Rated Pressure: 4 kg/cm² (≈ 400 kPa) allows safe operation within expected pressure
ranges.

• Cost-Effective & Durable: Offers good strength-to-weight ratio while keeping system
costs low.

3.3.3 Base Equations and Parameter Definitions

The base equation for eversion pressure is:
X µc Li α/Ri
Pe A = YA + Ce e (3.1)
Ri
i

where:

• Pe = Eversion pressure

• A = Cross-sectional area of the tube

• Y = Material yield stress

• Ce = Curvature coefficient (0.1)

• µc = Friction coefficient

• L = Length of the curved segment

• R = Radius of curvature

• e = Euler’s number ≈ 2.718

• α = scaling factor

Since soft tube has a diameter of 12.7 cm, area can be calculated:
 2
D  0.127 2
A=π =π = 0.01267 m2 (3.2)
2 2

The eversion pressure (Pe ) is determined based on two cases:

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 19

1. Straight line motion:

P µc Li α/Ri
For a straight tube with no sharp curves, the curvature term i C e Ri e is
negligible, so:
Pe A ≈ YA

Pe = Y

For context, stress required to permenantly deform a solid LDPE block is about 10MPa.
By using Barlow’s formula we can find the yield pressure (Y) of thin LDPE tube:

2×t×S 2 × 0.0004 × 25 × 106

Pe = Y = = = 157480.31 Pa ≈ 22 psi (3.3)
D 0.127

Given:

• t = 0.0004 m,
• S = 25000000 Pa (typically around 25 MPa),
• D = 0.127 m.

2. Curved path motion:

For sharp turns, we add curvature effects:

X µc Li α/Ri
Pe A = YA + Ce e (3.4)
Ri
i

Assume:

• Ri (Curvature radius) = 0.15 m (tight turn)

• Li (Curved length) = 0.5 m

• Ce = 1 (empirical fit constant for LDPE soft bodies)

• µc = 0.1 (LDPE friction coefficient)

• Y = 157480.31 Pa ≈ 22 psi

• A = 0.01267m²

• e = Euler’s number ≈ 2.718

• α = scaling factor

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 Chapter 3. Methodology 20

X
1
µc Li eα/Ri 0.1 × 0.5 × 2.718 0.15
Ce = 1× = 261.74
Ri 0.15
i

Pe A = (157480.31 × 0.01267) + 261.74 = 2257.01

Pe = 175138.24 Pa ≈ 25 psi

3.3.4 Obstacle Interaction Modelling

3.3.4.1 Frictional Force

The friction force Ff between the inner tube and itself is:

Ff = µs · w · L (3.5)

where:

• µs = 0.1 (static friction coefficient for LDPE),

• w = P·A,
• L = 2.5 m.

Calculation:

w = 175128.24 × 0.01267 = 2218.87 N/m (3.6)

Ff = 0.1 × 2218.87 × 2.5 (3.7)

Ff = 554.71 N (3.8)

Friction force: 554.71 N

3.3.4.2 Axial Buckling Force

The critical axial buckling pressure is:

EIπ2
L2 (P + GπRt)
Fcr = EIπ2
L2 + P + GπRt
where:

• E = 1 × 109 Pa (Young’s modulus for LDPE),

πd3 t
• I= 8 ,

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 Chapter 3. Methodology 21

• L = 2.5 m,
• P = 175138.24 Pa,
• G = 3 × 108 Pa (shear modulus for LDPE),
• t = 0.0004 m (wall thickness),
• R = 0.05 m (tube radius),
• d = 2R ≡ 0.1 m.

Moment of Inertia:

π(0.12)3 (0.0004)
I= (3.9)
8

I ≡ 2.7 × 10−7 m4 (3.10)

Euler’s term:

π2 EI
(3.11)
(L)2
π2 EI π2 (1 × 109 )(2.7 × 10−7 )
=
L2 (2.5)2

2.665 × 103
= ≈ 426.4 N
6.25
P + GπRT Term:
 
8
P + G · π · R · t = 175138.24 + 3 × 10 · π · 0.05 · 0.0004 = 193987.7 (3.12)

To solve the given equation for the critical force Fcr :

EIπ2
L2 (P + GπRt)
Fcr = EIπ2
(3.13)
L2 + P + GπRt
Substituting into Fcr :

426.46 × 193987.7
Fcr = (3.14)
426.46 + 193987.7

Fcr = 425.52 N (3.15)

Approximating the buckling force, the result:

Axial buckling force: 425.52 N

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 Chapter 3. Methodology 22

3.3.4.3 Transverse Buckling Condition

Transverse buckling occurs if the external force Ft exceeds the internal moment resistance:

Mint = PR3 = Ft L (3.16)

Solving for Ft :

PR3
Ft = (3.17)
L
Where:

• P = 175138.24 Pa,
• R = 0.05 m,
• L = 2.5 m.

Calculation:

175138.24 × 0.053
Ft = (3.18)
2.5

25.9
Ft = = 8.75 N (3.19)
2.5
Transverse buckling force: 8.75 N
External force above 10 N may cause buckling.
The total force required to overcome obstacles:

PA = Fenv + Ff + Fa + Ft (3.20)

Where:

• PA = 175138.24 × 0.01267 = 2219 N

• Fenv = 200 N (assumed environmental resistance)
• Ff = 555 N (friction force)
• Fa = 426 N (axial buckling resistance)
• Ft = 10 N (transverse buckling resistance)

Calculation:

2, 219 > 200 + 555 + 426 + 10 (3.21)

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 Chapter 3. Methodology 23

Calculation Result (N)

Fenv (Environmental Force) 200
Ff (Friction Force) 555
Fa (Axial Buckling Force) 426
Ft (Transverse Buckling Force) 10
Required Force vs. Available Force 2620 > 1191

3.3.5 Motor Selection

Roller Mechanism: The roller mechanism is responsible for everting the soft robot by rolling
and unrolling the material. It needs to overcome:

• Friction forces (from the material sliding over itself)

• Buckling resistance (if it provides forward motion)
• Environmental resistance (pushing against obstacles)
• Inertia of the material being deployed

Torque Calculation

We approximate the required torque by considering:

T orque(T ) = Force × radius (3.22)

We already calculated friction force, buckling force, and obstacle interaction force. Now, let’s
estimate: Force acting on the roller:

Ftotal = 1191 N (3.23)

Assuming the roller radius is 0.001 m:

T = 1191 × 0.001 (3.24)

T = 1.191 N · m (3.25)

Converting to kg-cm:

T = 1.191 × 10.2 (3.26)

T = 12.14 kg-cm (3.27)

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 Chapter 3. Methodology 24

A motor with 15 kg-cm torque is suitable.

3.3.6 Block Diagram and Explanation

The system architecture of the vine robot is illustrated in the block diagram in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Block Diagram of working of vine robot

Control Inputs

• Joystick 1: Controls the forward (X+) and backward (X-) motion of the reel mechanism,
enabling extension and retraction of the soft body.
• Joystick 2: Controls the lateral motion (Y+ for right, Y- for left) by adjusting airflow to the
sPAM actuators.
• Push Buttons:

– One push button functions as an emergency stop (EMG) to shut down the entire system.

– Another button can be used for specific operational functions.

• Toggle Switch: Acts as a master power switch for turning the system ON or OFF.

Arduino-Based Control Unit

• The Arduino microcontroller processes input signals from joysticks and push buttons to
generate appropriate control commands.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 Chapter 3. Methodology 25

• It sends signals to:

– Motor Driver: Controls the motorized reel system that extends or retracts the soft body.

– Solenoid Valves (24V): Regulates airflow to the sPAM actuators, enabling bending
motions.

– Relays: Controls high-power components like solenoids and compressors.

Actuation & Execution

• Motor & Reel System: Drives the soft body forward and backward as controlled by the motor
driver.
• sPAMs (Series Pouch Actuating Muscles): Bend the soft body in different directions when
activated by air pressure.
• Compressor & Pressure Regulator: Maintains appropriate air pressure for the sPAMs.
• Camera Module: Positioned at the end of the soft body to provide real-time visual feedback.

3.3.7 Operational Workflow

Figure 3.5: Flowchart of control flow

1. Joystick 1 Controls Reel Motion:

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 Chapter 3. Methodology 26

• Moves the reel forward (X+) to extend the soft body.

• Moves the reel backward (X-) to retract the soft body.

2. Joystick 2 Controls Lateral Motion:
• Activates sPAM 1 and sPAM 2 to move left (Y-) or right (Y+).
3. Push Button (EMG) for Emergency Shutdown:
• If pressed, the entire system is immediately deactivated.
4. Toggle Switch for System Power:
• Turns the Arduino and all connected components ON/OFF.
3.3.8 Circuit Diagram

Figure 3.6: Circuit diagram of motor control

Input Section (User Controls)

The system receives user input from various control components:

• Toggle Switch (D7): Used to activate or deactivate the system.
• Push Buttons (D4, D2): Used for discrete actions like engaging actuators or switching modes.
• Joysticks (A1, A2, A3, A4): Provide analog input for directional control of the soft robot or
camera.
These input signals are fed into the Arduino, which processes them and generates
appropriate output signals. The given circuit diagram represents a motor control system
that consists of an Arduino Uno, a joystick module, an L298N motor driver, a 12V battery,
and a DC motor. This setup allows the motor’s movement to be controlled using a joystick
[3].

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 27

Power Supply

The 12V battery serves as the main power source for the circuit. The positive terminal
of the battery is connected to the 12V input of the L298N motor driver, while the ground
terminal is connected to the ground of both the L298N module and the Arduino Uno. This
ensures proper power distribution to all components.

Arduino Uno as the Central Controller

The Arduino Uno acts as the central controller, processing input from the joystick and
generating control signals for the motor driver. It is powered either through an external power
source or via a connection from the motor driver.

Joystick Module

The joystick module is used as an input device to control the movement of the motor. It
has multiple pins connected to the Arduino, including two analog pins for the X-axis and
Y-axis movement. Additionally, the ground and voltage pins of the joystick are connected to
the Arduino’s GND and 5V, respectively.

Motor Driver (L298N)

The L298N motor driver is responsible for controlling the direction and speed of the DC
motor. It receives signals from the Arduino and regulates the power delivered to the motor.
The enable and input pins of the motor driver are connected to the Arduino’s digital output
pins. The motor driver is powered by the 12V battery and can also supply 5V output, which
can optionally be used to power the Arduino.

DC Motor Control

The DC motor is connected to the output terminals of the L298N motor driver. Based on
the signals received from the Arduino, the motor driver adjusts the speed and direction of the
motor. The joystick provides user input, and depending on its movement, the Arduino sends
the appropriate control signals to the motor driver. This allows the motor to move forward,
backward, left, or right.

3.4 Components
The primary components of the autonomous soft vine robot include:

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 28

3.4.1 Air Compressor

An air compressor is a device that converts power into potential energy stored in
compressed air. It works by drawing in ambient air, compressing it to a higher pressure, and
storing it in a tank for controlled release. The compressed air can then be used for various
applications, including pneumatic actuation.

Figure 3.7: Air Compressor

3.4.2 Solenoid Valve

A solenoid valve is an electromechanically operated valve used to control the flow of
fluids or gases. It consists of a coil, plunger, and valve body. When an electric current passes
through the coil, it generates a magnetic field that moves the plunger, opening or closing the
valve to regulate fluid or air flow.
In this circuit, the solenoid valve is used to control the air supply to the Series Pouch
Actuating Muscles (sPAMs). By regulating the airflow, the solenoid valve enables precise
actuation of the soft vine robot, allowing it to bend and move in desired directions.

Figure 3.8: Solenoid Valve

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 29

3.4.3 Pneumatic FRL Unit

A Pneumatic FRL (Filter, Regulator, Lubricator) unit is an essential component in
pneumatic systems. It ensures the proper functioning of air-powered equipment by
conditioning the compressed air. The filter removes dirt, moisture, and contaminants,
preventing damage to sensitive components. The regulator controls air pressure, ensuring it
stays within a set range for optimal system performance. The lubricator adds a small amount
of oil to the compressed air to lubricate moving parts, reducing wear and tear.

Figure 3.9: Pneumatic FRL Unit

3.4.4 10 RPM Gear Motor

A 10 RPM gear motor is a type of electric motor that produces a rotational speed of 10
revolutions per minute (RPM). It is often used in applications requiring slow and precise
movement, such as robotics and automation. The motor works by reducing the speed of a
high-speed motor through a set of gears, allowing for increased torque at lower speeds.

Figure 3.10: Gear Motor

3.4.5 L298N Motor Driver

The L298N is a dual H-bridge motor driver that enables control of two DC motors or a
stepper motor. It supports bi-directional movement and variable speed control. With built-in

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 30

protection and compatibility with microcontrollers like Arduino, it ensures reliable motor
control.

Figure 3.11: L298N Motor Driver

3.4.6 4-Channel Relay

A 4-channel relay module is a versatile and essential component in electronics that allows
users to control four separate electrical circuits independently. Each relay acts as a switch,
operated by a low-voltage input signal, typically from a microcontroller like an Arduino.
These modules are particularly useful in projects where higher voltage or current devices,
such as lights, motors, or appliances, need to be managed safely and efficiently. With a typical
capacity to handle up to 250VAC or 30VDC at 10A, they can control powerful devices while
protecting the control circuit through features like optocoupler isolation. Equipped with LED
indicators to show the relay status, the module provides visual feedback, making debugging
and monitoring simpler. Compact and easy to wire, the 4-channel relay module is widely
used in home automation, robotics, and industrial applications, offering reliable and efficient
control over multiple systems.

Figure 3.12: 4-Channel Relay

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 3. Methodology 31

3.4.7 Joystick
A joystick enables precise and intuitive motor control by converting its movement into
commands for the robot. Pushing the joystick forward causes the motor to rotate clockwise,
while pulling it back triggers anti-clockwise rotation. This design makes controlling the robot
straightforward and responsive, as the joystick essentially mirrors the desired motion.
Additionally, the degree to which the joystick is tilted determines the speed of the motor.
A slight push corresponds to slow movement, allowing for careful maneuvers, while a full
tilt initiates faster motion, making it suitable for applications requiring both precision and
agility. This combination of directional and speed control enhances versatility and efficiency
in robotic systems. Whether navigating tight spaces or moving quickly over open ground, the
joystick ensures an effective balance of simplicity and functionality for motorized control.

Figure 3.13: Joystick

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 4. Results & Discussion 32

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

4.1 Development of the soft vine robot

Figure 4.1: Soft Vine Robot

Working mechanism of the vine robot is primarily based on pneumatically everting, flexible,
tubular body. The process involved using internal air pressure to push the material of the
robot through its center and turn it inside out at the tip, allowing for significant length changes
without relative movement between the robot and the environment. This unique method of
extension enabled the robot to navigate through cluttered spaces effectively.

Steering Control of the vine robot is achieved through a combination of solenoid and
joystick control. The joystick’s orientation is translated into desired curvature and direction
of curvature for the robot’s movement. The control system sets the pressures of two pressure
regulators that supply air to the robot’s soft pneumatic actuators, allowing for precise control
of the robot’s tip position. The steering mechanism is designed to operate in an open-loop
fashion, where the desired position is calculated based on the joystick’s orientation. This

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 4. Results & Discussion 33

Figure 4.2: Base Station for Soft Vine Robot

allows the operator to guide the robot effectively through complex environments, ensuring
that it can navigate around obstacles and through narrow passages.

4.1.1 Base Station

The base station, constructed using PVC pipes with a T-junction as the main structure,
provided a stable and lightweight foundation for the vine robot. The use of roller bearings
ensured smooth motion of the soft body material during eversion and retraction. The motor,
mounted on a raised platform and connected via flanged coupling, allowed controlled actuation.
The effectiveness of this setup was assessed by measuring roller friction, rotation speed, and
consistency in material feeding, revealing minimal slippage and stable rotation at different
motor speeds.

4.1.2 Roller Mechanism

The steel tube roller, heightened with an additional pipe and supported by fixed roller
bearings, played a crucial role in guiding the soft body material. The attachment method
(masking tape and string) ensured secure winding while allowing flexibility. Testing showed
that the roller effectively minimized material bunching and misalignment, contributing to
smoother eversion. However, higher rotation speeds occasionally led to material stretching,
indicating a need for optimized tension control.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 4. Results & Discussion 34

4.1.3 Airflow Regulation

The introduction of an air hole parallel to the T-pipe opening facilitated consistent
pressurization of the vine robot’s body. The external pneumatic tubing system, combined
with the flow control valve, provided fine-tuned pressure adjustments. Experimental trials
demonstrated that regulated airflow significantly improved extension accuracy and reduced
uncontrolled inflation effects. However, varying flow rates influenced eversion pressure, as
predicted by the governing equation, suggesting the need for real-time feedback control.
The side pouches, externally pressurized through pneumatic tubes, contributed to
directional control. By adjusting individual pressures, the robot achieved smoother turns and
better path-following accuracy. Experimental results indicated that asymmetric pressurization
led to predictable bending angles, supporting the theoretical model. However, excessive
pressure occasionally caused bulging, affecting movement precision, highlighting the
importance of calibrated pressure input.

4.2 Buckling Force Analysis

Figure 4.3: Buckling Force vs Path Type

The graph (Fig: 4.3) compares the axial and transverse buckling forces for the soft vine
robot following a straight and curved path. The data indicates that the axial buckling force
remains higher than the transverse buckling force in both cases. However, for the curved path,
both buckling forces increase compared to the straight path. This suggests that the bending in
a curved path adds structural resistance, requiring more force to induce buckling.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 4. Results & Discussion 35

The axial buckling force is governed by the equation:

EIπ2
L2 (P + GπRt)
Fcr = EIπ2
(4.1)
L2 + P + GπRt

Where E is the Young’s modulus of the material, I is the moment of inertia, L is the
effective length, P represents the applied load, G is the shear modulus, R is the radius, and t
is the wall thickness of the soft material. This equation highlights that the critical buckling
force depends on both the stiffness of the structure and the external forces acting on it.
The increase in axial buckling force for the curved path can be attributed to the additional
stress distribution caused by bending moments and increased surface interactions along the
deformation. Similarly, the transverse buckling force is given by:

PR3
Ft = (4.2)
L

Where P is the applied pressure, R is the radius of curvature, and L is the length of the
segment under analysis. This equation suggests that as the curvature increases (larger R),
the transverse buckling force also increases, leading to greater resistance against lateral
deformation. The higher transverse buckling force in the curved path is likely due to the
additional lateral stresses exerted by the surrounding environment and the internal pressure
variations caused by curvature constraints.
From the experimental data, we observe that both axial and transverse buckling forces
exhibit a dependency on the path type, with increased values for a curved trajectory. This
behavior aligns with theoretical expectations, as the curvature introduces additional bending
moments that alter the stress distribution. Moreover, the experimental results suggest that the
choice of material properties, internal pressurization, and structural reinforcement strategies
play a critical role in managing buckling forces for enhanced stability and maneuverability in
constrained environments.

4.3 Frictional Force vs. Internal Pressure

The graph (Fig: 4.4) illustrates the relationship between frictional force and internal pressure.
The trend shows a linear increase in frictional force with rising internal pressure, indicating
that higher pressure results in greater surface contact and interaction forces between the soft
robot and its surroundings. The frictional force is given by:

Ff = µs · w · L (4.3)

where µs is the coefficient of static friction between the soft robot and the surface, w is
the normal force acting on the robot due to internal pressurization, and L is the length of the

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 4. Results & Discussion 36

Figure 4.4: Frictional Force vs. Internal Pressure

contact area. This equation suggests that an increase in either the normal force or the contact
length results in a proportional rise in frictional force, which directly impacts the movement
of the robot.
As internal pressure increases, the soft body of the robot expands, leading to greater
surface contact with the surrounding environment. This increased contact enhances stability
but also raises the frictional force, which may restrict smooth motion. In low-pressure
conditions, reduced friction allows for easier movement, but insufficient contact could lead to
instability and uncontrolled behavior. Conversely, excessive internal pressure may cause the
robot to adhere too strongly to surfaces, making movement inefficient and energy-consuming.
Additionally, the nature of the surface on which the soft vine robot operates significantly
affects frictional interactions. Rough surfaces can lead to higher friction coefficients (µs ),
further amplifying resistance to motion. Experimental data suggest that an optimal pressure
range must be maintained to balance stability and maneuverability. By fine-tuning internal
pressure through a flow control valve, the robot can achieve a trade-off between reducing
excessive friction and maintaining sufficient grip for controlled navigation.

4.4 Pressure vs Path Type

The graph Fig: 4.5 presents a comparison between calculated and experimentally measured
eversion pressures for both a straight-line path and a curved path. The goal of this analysis is to
understand how the theoretical pressure required for eversion differs from the actual observed
pressure in experiments. The results reveal that the experimental values are consistently
higher than the calculated ones.For the straight-line path, the experimental pressure (28 psi)
exceeds the calculated pressure (22 psi) by approximately 27%.
For the curved path, the experimental pressure (30 psi) is about 20% higher than the
calculated value (25 psi). This increase is attributed to additional bending resistance and
frictional forces acting against the motion of the soft robot.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 Chapter 4. Results & Discussion 37

Figure 4.5: Pressure vs Path Type

The relationship between internal pressure and path type is analyzed using the governing
equation:

X µc Li α/Ri
Pe A = YA + Ce e (4.4)
Ri
i

The curved path introduces structural deformations that require a higher internal pressure
to overcome resistance and maintain forward movement. The term µRc Li i eα/Ri in the equation
highlights the role of curvature (Ri ) in influencing the pressure requirement, as a lower radius
of curvature results in an exponential increase in resistive forces.
Additionally, the observed differences between calculated and experimental pressures may
be influenced by surface irregularities and variations in material elasticity. The experimental
results suggest that higher internal pressure is necessary to counteract these real-world effects,
ensuring adequate force generation to maintain locomotion. This finding underscores the
importance of optimizing pressure regulation strategies to balance energy efficiency and
motion stability in soft vine robots navigating complex terrains.

4.4.0.1 Possible Reasons for the Discrepancy:

• Unaccounted friction: The theoretical model may not fully consider the frictional losses
between the soft robot and the surface.
• Material deformation: The material of the vine robot might deform more than expected,
requiring extra force for eversion.
• Air leakage or inefficiencies: In real conditions, some air leakage or pressure loss may occur,
leading to a higher actual pressure than predicted.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 Chapter 4. Results & Discussion 38

• Manufacturing variations: The robot’s flexibility and thickness may slightly differ from
theoretical assumptions, impacting pressure requirements.

The slightly higher pressure requirement in the curved path highlights the additional
resistance encountered due to bending stresses. The higher-than-expected experimental
pressure indicates a need for refining the theoretical model to incorporate frictional effects,
material properties, and deformation analysis.

Path Type Calculated Pressure (psi) Experimental Pressure (psi)

Straight Line 22 28
Curved Path 25 30

The experimental results provide insights into the behavior of the teleoperated soft vine
robot under different conditions, specifically in terms of buckling force, frictional force, and
eversion pressure. The findings demonstrate the influence of path type and internal pressure
on the robot’s structural and operational performance.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 5. Conclusion & Future Scope 39

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE

5.1 Conclusion
The teleoperated soft vine robot presented in this study demonstrates the feasibility and
effectiveness of a pneumatic-driven soft robotic system for confined space navigation. The
robot was designed with a base station constructed from PVC, ensuring a lightweight yet
durable structure to support the entire system. The primary soft body of the robot was
fabricated using LDPE sheets, which provided flexibility and allowed controlled eversion
through internal pressurization. By integrating Series Pouch Actuating Muscles (sPAMs) and
a motorized reel mechanism, we successfully achieved precise locomotion control.
Experimental results confirmed the robot’s ability to extend, retract, and navigate through
constrained environments efficiently. The buckling force analysis revealed that the robot
maintains stability under both axial and transverse loads, with improved performance in
curved paths. The frictional force results demonstrated a direct relationship between internal
pressure and the robot’s grip, validating the effectiveness of pneumatic actuation. Furthermore,
the comparison between calculated and experimental eversion pressures highlighted minor
deviations, suggesting room for further optimization in pressure regulation.
This research and development effort successfully showcased the feasibility of using soft
robotics principles for a vine-like robot capable of teleoperated navigation. Overall, this
study confirms that a soft vine robot with controlled pneumatic actuation and teleoperation
capabilities can be a viable solution for applications such as search and rescue, pipeline
inspection, and exploration in hazardous environments. The combination of a PVC base
station and LDPE sheets enabled a cost-effective and adaptable design, making it an accessible
technology for various industries.

5.2 Future Scope

The development of teleoperated soft vine robots has immense potential for a wide range
of applications, and future work can explore several key areas to enhance their functionality
and performance. One major direction for improvement is refining the theoretical models
used to predict eversion pressure and buckling forces. By integrating more accurate frictional
and deformation models, future studies can develop predictive frameworks that better align
with experimental observations.
Another promising area is optimizing material properties and structural design to reduce
energy losses. Advanced materials with lower friction coefficients and improved elasticity can
be explored to minimize resistance while maintaining the required flexibility for navigation.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

Chapter 5. Conclusion & Future Scope 40

Additionally, the inclusion of embedded sensors for real-time force and pressure monitoring
can provide adaptive control mechanisms, allowing the robot to self-adjust parameters based
on environmental conditions. Incorporating advanced sensory feedback mechanisms, such as
pressure sensors, LiDAR, or cameras with image processing capabilities, could significantly
improve the robot’s interaction with its surroundings. Real-time feedback would enable better
maneuverability in complex environments, making it more effective for applications like
disaster response or pipeline inspection.
Enhancing the control algorithms used in teleoperation is another important aspect
of future development. Implementing machine learning and artificial intelligence-based
models can enable autonomous decision-making, reducing reliance on manual control while
improving navigation efficiency. These advancements can be particularly beneficial for
applications in search and rescue, medical procedures, and industrial inspections, where
precise and adaptive movement is essential.
Furthermore, expanding the operational environments of soft vine robots can increase
their practical utility. Investigating their performance in underwater, space, or extreme terrain
conditions can lead to broader applications in scientific exploration, hazardous material
handling, and disaster response. By developing robust designs capable of operating in diverse
settings, the potential impact of soft robotics can be significantly extended.
Finally, integrating energy-efficient pneumatic systems and exploring alternative actuation
methods, such as hybrid pneumatic-electric drives, can improve the robot’s sustainability
and operational longevity. Future research can focus on developing lightweight and compact
actuation mechanisms that maintain the robot’s flexibility while increasing its efficiency and
reliability.
By addressing these future challenges and opportunities, soft vine robots can be further
developed into versatile, intelligent, and highly adaptable systems capable of revolutionizing
various fields, from healthcare to space exploration.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 41

REFERENCES

[1] L. Behnke, B. H. Do, S. Eristoff, and R. Kramer-Bottiglio, “Interaction behaviors of

a vine robot in a pipe t-junction,” in 2024 IEEE 7th International Conference on Soft
Robotics (RoboSoft). IEEE, 2024, pp. 498–503.
[2] W. E. Heap et al., “Large-scale vine robots for industrial inspection: Developing a new
framework to overcome limitations with existing inspection methods,” IEEE Robotics &
Automation Magazine, 2024.
[3] P. E. Glick et al., “Branching vine robots for unmapped environments,” Frontiers in
Robotics and AI, vol. 9, p. 838913, 2022.
[4] F. Stella and J. Hughes, “The science of soft robot design: A review of motivations,
methods and enabling technologies,” Frontiers in Robotics and AI, vol. 9, p. 1059026,
2023.
[5] Z. M. Hammond, N. S. Usevitch, E. W. Hawkes, and S. Follmer, “Pneumatic
reel actuator: Design, modeling, and implementation,” in 2017 IEEE International
Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA). IEEE, 2017, pp. 626–633.
[6] S.-G. Jeong, M. M. Coad, L. H. Blumenschein, M. Luo, U. Mehmood, J. H. Kim, A. M.
Okamura, and J.-H. Ryu, “A tip mount for transporting sensors and tools using soft
growing robots,” in 2020 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and
Systems (IROS). IEEE, 2020, pp. 8781–8788.
[7] M. M. Coad, Design, modeling, and control of vine robots for exploration of unknown
environments. Stanford University, 2021.
[8] L. H. Blumenschein, M. M. Coad, D. A. Haggerty, A. M. Okamura, and E. W. Hawkes,
“Design, modeling, control, and application of everting vine robots,” Frontiers in Robotics
and AI, vol. 7, p. 548266, 2020.
[9] P. A. der Maur, B. Djambazi, Y. Haberthür, P. Hörmann, A. Kübler, M. Lustenberger,
S. Sigrist, O. Vigen, J. Förster, F. Achermann et al., “Roboa: Construction and
evaluation of a steerable vine robot for search and rescue applications,” in 2021 IEEE
4th International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft). IEEE, 2021, pp. 15–20.
[10] Y. Yamauchi, Y. Ambe, H. Nagano, M. Konyo, Y. Bando, E. Ito, S. Arnold, K. Yamazaki,
K. Itoyama, T. Okatani et al., “Development of a continuum robot enhanced with
distributed sensors for search and rescue,” Robomech Journal, vol. 9, no. 1, p. 8, 2022.
[11] N. S. Usevitch, A. M. Okamura, and E. W. Hawkes, “Apam: Antagonistic pneumatic
artificial muscle,” in 2018 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation
(ICRA). IEEE, 2018, pp. 1539–1546.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 42

[12] M. M. Coad, R. P. Thomasson, L. H. Blumenschein, N. S. Usevitch, E. W. Hawkes, and

A. M. Okamura, “Retraction of soft growing robots without buckling,” IEEE Robotics
and Automation Letters, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 2115–2122, 2020.
[13] M. M. Coad, L. H. Blumenschein, S. Cutler, J. A. R. Zepeda, N. D. Naclerio,
H. El-Hussieny, U. Mehmood, J.-H. Ryu, E. W. Hawkes, and A. M. Okamura, “Vine
robots,” IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 120–132, 2019.
[14] F. Stroppa, M. Luo, K. Yoshida, M. M. Coad, L. H. Blumenschein, and A. M. Okamura,
“Human interface for teleoperated object manipulation with a soft growing robot,” in
2020 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA). IEEE, 2020,
pp. 726–732.
[15] W. E. Heap, N. D. Naclerio, M. M. Coad, S.-G. Jeong, and E. W. Hawkes, “Soft
retraction device and internal camera mount for everting vine robots,” in 2021 IEEE/RSJ
International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS). IEEE, 2021, pp.
4982–4988.
[16] R. Niiyama, X. Sun, C. Sung, B. An, D. Rus, and S. Kim, “Pouch motors: Printable soft
actuators integrated with computational design,” Soft Robotics, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 59–70,
2015.
[17] J. Davy, N. Greenidge, S. Kim, L. J. Tinsley, P. Lloyd, J. H. Chandler, R. A. Harris, T. K.
Morimoto, and P. Valdastri, “Vine robots with magnetic skin for surgical navigations,”
IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters, 2024.
[18] J. Till, V. Aloi, and C. Rucker, “Real-time dynamics of soft and continuum robots based
on cosserat rod models,” The International Journal of Robotics Research, vol. 38, no. 6,
pp. 723–746, 2019.
[19] J. Luong, P. Glick, A. Ong, M. S. DeVries, S. Sandin, E. W. Hawkes, and M. T. Tolley,
“Eversion and retraction of a soft robot towards the exploration of coral reefs,” in 2019
2nd IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft). IEEE, 2019, pp.
801–807.
[20] H. El-Hussieny, I. A. Hameed, and A. B. Zaky, “Plant-inspired soft growing robots:
A control approach using nonlinear model predictive techniques,” Applied Sciences,
vol. 13, no. 4, p. 2601, 2023.
[21] N. G. Kim et al., “External steering of vine robots via magnetic actuation,” Soft Robotics,
2024.
[22] C. McFarland et al., “Field insights for portable vine robots in urban search and rescue,”
in 2024 IEEE International Symposium on Safety Security Rescue Robotics (SSRR).
IEEE, 2024.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025

 43

[23] G. Andrikopoulos, G. Nikolakopoulos, and S. Manesis, “A survey on applications of

pneumatic artificial muscles,” in 2011 19th Mediterranean Conference on Control &
Automation (MED). IEEE, 2011, pp. 1439–1446.
[24] K. Suzumori, K. Fukuda, R. Niiyama, and K. Nakajima, The Science of Soft Robots:
Design, Materials and Information Processing. Springer Nature, 2023.
[25] P. Li et al., “A bioinspired soft robot combining the growth adaptability of vine plants
with a coordinated control system,” Research, 2021.
[26] M. J. Mendoza, N. D. Naclerio, and E. W. Hawkes, “High-curvature, high-force,
vine robot for inspection,” in 2024 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and
Automation (ICRA). IEEE, 2024.

Jyothi Engineering College, Cheruthuruthy Dept. of MRE, April 2025