Module 7

Social structure
Social structure refers to the organised pattern of relationships and
institutions that make up society. it encompasses the rules, knobs and
rules that shape, individual behaviour and interactions within a group or
community.

Key features of social structure

1. Organised relationships
 Social structure consist of enduring relationship, relationships
among individuals and groups based on established norms
and roles.
 Example our family, workplace, hierarchy, and political
institutions
2. Pattern of behaviour
 It includes regular and predictable patterns of interaction
between individuals and groups
 Example: teacher student dynamics in education system
3. Endurance and stability
 Social structures persist over time, providing continuity and
stability to society.
 Example: religious organisations maintaining similar roles
across generation
4. Influence on behaviour
 Social structures guide and constraint, individuals actions
through norms laws, and expectations.
 Example: law, deterring, criminal behaviour
5. Levels of analysis
 Social structures operate at various levels from small groups
to large scale institutions.
6. Dynamic nature
 Although those stable social structures can evolve due to
changes and technology, culture or societal values.
 Example: the shift from agriculture to industrial societies
7. Universal presence
 Social structures exist in all societies, though its forms and
manifestations differ.

Theoretical perspective on social structure

 1. Structural functionalism: views, social structure as a system of
interrelated parts working together to maintain stability.
Each institution performs a function to meet societal needs.
Example: the education system prepares individual for the
workforce.
2. conflict theory: social structures reflect power imbalances, and
inequalities.
Dominant groups, design structures to preserve their privilege and
control.
Example: the class system, perpetuates economic disparities
3. Symbolic interactionism: focuses on how individuals interpret
and construct social structure through interactions and symbols
Example: social roles like teacher or doctor gain meaning through
shared interpretations

Principles that set the elements of social structure in

motion
1. Normative system: it presents the society with the ideals and
values. The people attach emotional importance to these norms.
The institutions and associations are interrelated. According to these
norms, the individuals performed their roles in accordance with the
accepted norms of the society.
2. Position system: it refers to the statuses and roles of the
individuals. The desires, aspirations and expectations of the
individuals are multiple and unlimited. So these can be fulfilled only
if the members of the society are assigned different roles according
to their capacities and capabilities, actually, the proper functioning
of social structure depends upon proper assignment of roles and
status.
3. Sanction system: for the proper enforcement of norms, every
society has a sanction system. The integration and coordination of
the different parts of social structure depend upon conformity to the
social norms. The non-conformist are punished by the society
according to the nature of nonconformity.
4. A system of anticipated response: anticipated response system
calls upon the individuals to participate in the social system. The
successful working of social structure depends upon the realisation
of his duties by the individual and his efforts to fulfil these duties.
5. Action system: it is the object or goal to be arrived at by the social
structure. The whole structure revolves around it. The action is the
 root cause which weaves the web of social relationships and sets,
social structure in motion.

Norms
Norm are the very foundation of social structure and therefore it is an
important area of analysis in sociology. Norms are the source of social
order. It is generally known as the standards of group behaviour.

Social norms simply mean a group shared standards of behaviour or

expected modes of behaviour. They are based on social values. It is a
pattern setting limits or individual behaviour. It is generally the blue
parent for behaviour, norms, determined, guide control and predict human
behaviour.

Norms Means the rule we follow in our day-to-day life, norms are closely
related with culture and values.

Characteristics of norms

1. Norms are universal: they are the basis of social order. Even
though the norms vary from society to society, it exists in all
societies. Even in uncivilised and barbaric societies. We find norms
2. Norms are related to factual order: two types of order are found
in society that is normative order and factual order. Normative order
is the order of society on the basis of norms and factual. Order is the
order based on the actual behaviour of people. Certain actual
behaviours are influenced by the norms and the norms are closely
related with factual order.
3. Norms are related to situations and groups: norms vary from
Society to Society. Sometimes within the same society, they differ
from group to group. The norms are wearing from situations and
groups.
4. Norms incorporate value judgements: values provide general
guidelines for behaviour, and it is the measure of goodness or
desirability. Value judgement mean we decide some evaluation is on
the basis of value. Provide a mould for formation of values.
5. Norms are normally internalised by people: an individual born
into society, where the norm is already exist. The norms are by the
individual and they are internalised. They become the part of an
individual lives.
Values
Values are the basic structure of society, and it helps to maintain social
order. Value simply mean the measures of goodness and desirability. It
explains the way with social processes operate in a given society.

They are the sources of pattern interaction. It provides general guidelines

for conduct.

Values are the criteria people use in assessing their daily lives and
activities. It also gives guidelines in arranging the activities in accordance
with priorities, measuring their pleasures and pains choosing between
alternative courses of action. It provides goals or ends for members and it
provides stability and uniformity in different interaction.

Values are general standards and may be regarded as higher order norms

Key features of value

1. Abstract nature: values are not tight to specific actions or behaviour,

but represent ideals(example, freedom, equality)
2. Collective agreement: shared by members of society or grouping
cohesion
3. Culturally relative: very across different cultures and
society(individualism in the versus collectivism in the east)
4. Dynamic and evolving: change over time due to factors like
globalisation, technological advances, and social movements
5. Hierarchy of importance: certain values are prioritised over others in
different context or cultures

Types of values

1. Individual value: personal principles that guide on life(honesty,

ambition)
2. Cultural values: shared by members of a society or culture,
influencing traditions and custom(respect for elders)
3. Moral values: related to ethics and judgements about right and
wrong(justice, integrity)
4. Instrumental versus terminal values: instrumental are preferred
methods of behaviour(politeness , hard work)
Terminal values are ultimate goals are desired end states(happiness,
security)
5. universal value: some values such as human rights and dignity
are considered universal across cultures
Sanctions
Sanctions are rewards or punishments used to encourage conformity to
societal norms , and expectations. they help to enforce social order by
motivating individuals to follow established norms and values.

They can be positive or negative, formal or informal, depending on the

context in which they are applied.

Types of sanctions

 Positive sanctions
 Rewards given to individuals for conforming to expectations
and norms.
 Can encourage desired behaviours by recognising and
reinforcing ad appearance to social rules

Examples

Praise: compliments for doing well in school or at work

Promotion: a job promotion for consistent hard work
Awards: receiving a trophy for athletic achievements
Social approval: Jacob definition or social recognition,
such as being elected to a leadership position.
 Negative sanctions
 Punishments or consequences for violating society, norms, or
expectations.
 Aims to discourage behaviours that go against the values of
rules of our society.

Examples

Fines: monetary penalties for breaking laws

Imprisonment: jail time for committing crimes
Social ostracism: exclusion from social groups or
activities due to undesirable behaviour
 Shaming: public accumulation for violating societal
norms
 Formal sanctions
 Sanctions that are officially recognised and enforced by
institutions like legal systems or educational institutions
 These are often qualified in laws, policies, or organisational
rules
 Examples

 criminal penalties: legal consequences for committing

a crime like jail, probation, or fines
 School discipline: detention suspension or expulsions
for breaking School rules
 Employ disciplinary actions: firing or demotion for
violating company policies
4. Informal sanctions
 Unofficial sanctions that occur in every day social interactions,
not enforced by formal institutions, but by society or
community members
 Often arise from social norms and expectations.

Examples

 gossips or rumours: being socially ashamed or

stigmatise for behaviour that deviate from the norm
 Peer pressure: social exclusion or criticism for not
conforming to group behaviour

Functions of sanctions

1. Enforcement of social norms

 Sanction, reinforce social norms and encourage people to
behave in ways that align with societal expectations
 Helps maintain social order and reduce chaos by promoting
predictability behaviour
2. Social control
 Sanctions act as a mechanism of social control, managing
behaviour and ensuring that individuals confirmed to the rules
of society
 Helps prevent deviance and criminal behaviour by providing
clear consequences for violations
3. Behavioural regulation
 sanctions regulate both individual and group behaviour by
providing incentives for conformity and deterrent for Deviance
4. Reaffirmation of collective value
 The use of sanctions highlight and reinforce the values that a
society holds dear (respect for authority, justice, or fairness)
5. Social integration
 Sanctions help integrate individuals into society by
encouraging behaviour that align with shared norms and
values
Folkways and Mores
In sociology, folkways and mores are two important types of norms that
guide social behaviour. Both are informal norms, but they differ in their
importance to society and the consequences of their violation.

Folkways
Folkways are informal norms or everyday customs that govern mundane
activities and social interactions. They are not strictly enforced and
typically carry mild social consequences if violated.

Characteristics of Folkways:
Informal Nature: Folkways are unwritten and are part of a culture's
everyday practices.

Customary Behaviour: They dictate socially acceptable behaviour in

routine situations.

Regional and Cultural Variability: Folkways differ across societies and

even within subcultures.

Mild Consequences for Violation: Breaking a folkway usually results in

minor disapproval, embarrassment, or ridicule rather than legal penalties.

Social Learning: Folkways are learned through interaction and

socialisation rather than formal education.

Examples of Folkways:
Shaking hands when meeting someone in Western cultures.

Saying "thank you" or "please."

Dressing appropriately for specific occasions, such as wearing black to a

funeral.

Waiting in line (queueing) in public spaces.

Using cutlery in Western cultures versus eating with hands in others.

Functions of Folkways:
Facilitating Social Interaction: They provide guidelines for proper
behaviour, making interactions predictable.
Promoting Social Harmony: Following folkways helps maintain order
and avoid conflict.

Cultural Identity: Folkways reflect a community's values, traditions, and

cultural heritage.

Mores

Mores are strongly held norms that reflect the moral and ethical standards
of a society. They are considered essential for maintaining societal order
and stability.

Characteristics of Mores:

1. Moral Significance: Mores are tied to a society's core values and

beliefs.
2. Stronger Enforcement: They are more strictly enforced than
folkways, and violations often lead to severe consequences,
including legal sanctions or social ostracism.
3. Universal within a Society: While folkways can vary greatly, mores
are usually consistent within a culture because they are tied to
fundamental societal values.
4. Sacred or Ethical Basis: Mores often have religious, ethical, or
cultural underpinnings.

Examples of Mores:

 Prohibitions against theft, murder, and fraud.

 Religious commandments, such as those against adultery or
blasphemy.
 Taboos like incest or cannibalism.
 Respecting the national flag or anthem.

Functions of Mores:

 Preserving Social Order: Mores ensure that key societal values are
upheld.
 Defining Morality: They help distinguish between right and wrong
within a society.
 Providing Social Control: Enforcement of mores deters deviant
behaviour

Comparison: Folkways vs. Mores

 Aspect Folkways Mores
Importance Govern everyday behaviour. Reflect moral and ethical standards.
Consequences of Mild disapproval or Severe disapproval, punishment, or
Violation embarrassment. legal consequences.
Morality and fundamental societal
Basis Customs, traditions, and habits.
values.
Informally enforced through Enforced formally or informally,
Enforcement
social pressure. sometimes by law.
Not saying "thank you"; Committing theft; violating religious
Examples
chewing loudly. norms.

Relationship Between Folkways, Mores, and Other Norms

1. Norms:
o Norms are the general guidelines for behaviour in a society.
o Folkways and mores are subsets of norms, differentiated by their importance
and consequences.
2. Taboos:
o Taboos are extreme forms of mores. Their violation is considered utterly
unacceptable and often met with disgust or severe punishment (e.g., incest,
cannibalism).
3. Laws:
o Laws are formal norms that are codified and enforced by governmental
institutions. While some laws are based on mores (e.g., laws against murder),
others regulate less morally significant behaviour (e.g., traffic rules).

Importance of Studying Folkways and Mores

1. Understanding Social Behaviour: They provide insight into why people behave the
way they do in specific cultural contexts.
2. Cross-Cultural Analysis: Studying folkways and mores highlights cultural diversity
and helps reduce ethnocentrism.
3. Policy Development: Knowledge of mores can inform laws and policies that align
with societal values.
4. Predicting Social Change: As societies evolve, changes in folkways and mores can
signal broader cultural transformations.

Status
Social status is the position occupied by a person, family, or kinship group in a social system,
relative to others. This determines rights, duties, and other behaviours, including the nature
and extent of the relationships with persons of other statuses.

Social status has a hierarchy distribution in which a few persons occupy the highest position.
Social status is determined by education, income positions and the social evaluation of
occupation and of other activities in society. The process of status determination operates
through the invidious comparison of the style of life, determined by the factors given above.

Social status refers to the position occupied by a person, family or kinship group in a social
system, relative to others behaviours, including the nature and extent of the relationships with
persons of other statuses.

Nature of the status

1. External symbols to identify the status: do not always certain external

symbols help identification of one status in society. The style of dress is one
such indicator soldiers, and army officers, nurses, doctors, advocate
policeman, please wear different dresses. Their statuses could be understood
by means of their dresses.
2. Every status has its own rights, duties, and obligation: the nature of these
rights and duties is decided by the normative system of society. Right is a
legitimate expectation that one can entertain as an occupant of a status in
relation to the behaviour of a person in another position.
3. Social statuses are governed by norms: these norms, very with person,
situations and statuses, even though they are believed to be common at all.
Example-the norms like be honest, be truthful, are believed to be common to
all. But practice, we know that a doctor cannot always tell the truth to the
patient regarding the state of his disease. Thus, norms are always related to
situations which norms apply in a given case depends upon the relations
between the status of the interacting person and the situation in which they
interact.
4. One individual may have several statuses: since society can be understood
as the network of ves it is quite natural that in every society, we find a large
number of groups which have many statuses. Example: a college student is a
student, a customer a deposit to his bank, a passenger to a bus driver as sun to
his father and mother and so on.

Elements of status:
1. The status is determined by the cultural situation of the particular
society.
2. The status is determined only in relevance to the other members of
the society.
3. Every individual has to play certain role in accordance with the
status.
4. Status is only a part of the whole of the society of the society as a
whole.
5. As a result of society is divided into various types
6. Every status carries with some prestige
7. According to status, people may be divided into various categories
Types of status
Ascribed status: it is that which is inherited such as sex, race, or
ethnicity, and is crucial in defining the basic patterns of people’s life. At
the beginning stages of socialisation itself, the newborn individual derives
ascribed statuses.

It is assigned to a person by society without regard for the persons,

unique talent and characteristics. Generally, this assignment takes place
at birth. Thus, a person’s ratio, background, gender, and age are all
considered ascribed statuses. These characteristics are biological in origin,
but significant mainly because of the social meanings that they have in
our culture.

Achieved status: it is acquired through personal effort or change,

possibly from occupational or educational attainment. The person has
some choice about this type of status, however, much or little. Also,
societies have some achieved statuses and no society depends
completely on ascribed one. Hence, it is attended by a person largely
through his or her own efforts

A social position which is secured through an individual’s choice and

competition is known as achieved status

Distinction between the ascribed and achieved status

Ascribed status Achieved status

It is the gift from the society to the it is the result of the efforts which
individual member. he acquires through his personal
capacity, efficiency and ability.
there are no pre-conditions for For an achieved status, certain
getting the Ascribed Status. preconditions are attached,
namely, ability, efficiency,
economic status.
It is generally based on age, sex, It is based on characteristic
race, caste, kinship. capabilities and abilities.
It is more stable and rigid . Its It has an unstable basis and it is
basis do not changes easily . self changeable .
It occupies a place of respect in In open and modern societies, it is
our traditional society. the achieved status which is given
importance.
The ascribed Status has a vital Achieve status is the result of
relationship with the internal one’s personal accomplishments .
aspects of the personality. It
provides satisfaction to sentiments
emotions .
It has greater relationships with it is the result of the personal
the custom tradition, traditions, accomplishment and has no
and other existing factors of the relation with customs and
society. traditions.
in regard to the Ascribed State as In regard to achieve status, the
the role of the authority and role or the action is more or less
actions that flow From them are predictable because it is based on
unpredictable . reasons .

Status set: it is a social position which is occupied by individual. As a

single person we can have multiple of status. It can also be defined as a
social class which depends upon the social evaluation where by the
community regarding certain attributes status is may be of different types
such as occupational status, family status, general status, achieved status
and ascribed status.

An individual can perform multiple member of statuses. Various stages

that an individual can perform together are called status set. Every status
has role set.

Role
Role is a key concept in sociological theory. It highlight the social
expectations attached to particular statuses or social positions and
analyses the working of such expectations.

The structural account of roles locate a status in society, such as that of a

teacher and then tries to describe the standard bundles of rights and
duties associated with an ideal type of this position. These expectations
which are socially based constitute the role.

When people occupy social positions, their behaviour is determined

mainly by what is expected of their position rather than by their own
individual characteristics. Roles are bundles of socially defined attributes
and expectations associated with social positions.

A person’s role in any situation is defined by one set of expectations for

his behaviour held by others, and by the person himself. Rules is the
manner in which a person actually carries out the requirements of his
position.
Characteristics of the role
1. Action aspect of status: the role is in fact, the action aspect of
status. It involves various types of actions that a person has to
perform in accordance with the expectations of the society. The role
is as already stated is the sum of the pattern of actions that are
performed for the fulfilment of the expectations of other members of
the society. These actions are dependent not on the individual will,
but on the social sanctions.
2. Changing concept of role: social roles, as already stated are in
accordance with the social values, ideals patterns etc. These ideals,
values and objects change and so the concept of the roles also
change the roles which is justified at a particular time may not be
justified at some other time.
3. Limited field of operation: every role has a limited area of
operation and the role has to be confined within that. For example,
an officer has a role to play in the office, but when he reaches his
family that role ceases.
4. Rules are not performed 100% for the fulfilment of the
expectations: it is not possible for anyone to perform his role fully
in accordance with the expectations of the society. There is bound to
be some distinction.
5. Difference in the importance of role: from the social cultural
point of view, all the roles are not equally important. Some of the
roles are more important while the others are less. The roles that
are most important are called key roles while the roles that are of
general importance are called general roles.

Inter-relation between role and status:

1. Action aspect of status: a state is simply a position in society and
role is the behavioural aspect of status. Statuses are occupied and
roles are played. A role is the manner in which a given individual
fulfils the obligations of a status and enjoys the privileges and
prerogatives.A position, or status is simply the means of identifying
a particular social role. The two terms are used interchangeably Eg:
the position of advocate identify a particular body of expected
behaviour or the role of advocate.
2. Role is a relational term: an individual plays a role vis-à-vis
another person’s role, which is attached to a counter position. Eg:
an advocate place role as advocate in relation to clients role. Role
concept is relevant at the level of individual when he is in
interaction.
3. Role and status in a way point out the divergent interest of
the two sciences, social psychology and sociology: status is a
sociological concept, but role is a concept and phenomena of social
psychology. Individual differences in personality, ability, talents and
behaviour can alone explain as to why different individuals play
different roles in the same status.Eg: though the status of PM has
been the same for Pandit, Nehru Lal Bahadur Shastri, they have
played different roles in that status.
4. Both are dynamic and constantly changing: hence role
changes with new incumbent in a status. The status changes as a
norms attached to it are altered. It is quite likely that in course of
time new obligations are new responsibility may be added to our
status or old may be removed.
5. Those statuses and roles are correlative phenomenon. It is
possible to have one without the other: the status without a
role simply denote an unfulfilled position in an association.Eg: when
the voice chancellor of a university, reliance, it may take some time
to find a suitable successor for the post. during this time gap, the
duties of chancellor may be looked into by some office assistant.